The Classical Greek Period: 480-323 BCE

The Classical Greek Period (480-323 BCE) was a time of significant progress, particularly in the city-state of Athens. It was marked by major political change, and progressive developments in science and culture. In addition, the unique architecture of this period can be seen today in the ancient temple ruins that stand reminiscent of its extraordinary history (Harrison 2000). At the same time, the classical Greek period also marked the beginning of the second Persian invasion which consisted of three major battles: the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis in 480 BCE, followed by the battle of Platea in 479. The significance of Cleisthenes’ democratic reforms and Themistocles’ military naval project in the liberation of Greece from Persia will
be examined, as well as the transformation of the Delian League to create the Athenian Empire.
A sequence of important events in 508/7 BCE led to a revolution, ending tyranny and bringing democracy to Athens (Ostwald 1988; Harrison 2000). The circumstances leading to the people’s uprising involved an aristocrat named Cleisthenes who belonged to the powerful and wealthy Alcmaeonids family, exiled by the ruling tyrant, Pisistratid. After several failed attempts to overthrow the tyranny, the Alcmaeonids negotiated the support of King Cleomenes of Sparta. Cleisthenes and the Alcmaenids returned to Athens with Cleomenes in 510 BCE, this time successfully removing Pisistratid as ruler (Ostwald 1988, p. 305; Stahl & Walter 2009, p. 152; Strauss 2013 p. 29). Following the fall of Pisistratidae, an aristocrat named Isagoras was elected to the role of Archon, and was challenged by Cleisthenes. Promising a series of reforms that would radically change the political landscape, Cleisthenes successfully gained the support of the lower class.
In their desire to end Tyranny in Athens, the common people turned to Cleisthenes and became influential actors in political change (Ostwald 1988, p. 306; Harrison 2000; Stahl & Walter 2009, p. 153). In a bid to secure the Archonship, Isagoras turned to King Cleomenes like Cleisthenes family had done during their exile. He requested Sparta’s assistance to have Cleisthenes’s along with several hundred other aristocrats exiled from the Athens (Harrison 2000; Ober 2007, p. 84; Stahl & Walter 2009, p. 154). However, when Isagoras and Cleomenes arrived in Athens to disband the government and take hold of the city, the council resisted and refused Cleomenes order. Cleomenes, Isagoras and his supporters seized control of the Acropolis but soon found themselves surrounded and trapped by the masses who wanted end to tyranny rule. After a two-day standoff, Isagoras and Cleomenes accepted defeat and left the city (Ostwald, 1988, p. 307; Harrison 2000; Stahl & Walter 2009, p. 154). Athenian democracy changed the political and territorial landscape of the Attica region, and established Athens as the largest State in Greece.
One of the most significant developments of the reforms involved reorganising the communities in Athens and the surrounding Attica region, by dividing the entire region into individual districts called demes (Ostwald 1988, p. 313; Stahl & Walter 2009, p. 156). Another significant change involved equality and self-government, although females and slaves were excluded from political participation. Regardless of wealth or social standing, all male citizens could attend political assemblies and be involved in various areas of public office including, the democratic council of 500, the board of ten generals, and serve as one of the 6,000 jurors selected each year (Raaflaub, Ober & Wallace 2007, p. 4; Strauss 2013, p.25; Thomas 2014, p. 60). Ostracism was also introduced as part of the reforms to protect the new democratically designed system from anyone who threatened it (Harrison 2000; Strauss 2013, p.
29).
While Athens began emerging as a larger and more powerful city-state in Greece, there was a great concern as to whether she was equipped for another attack by Persia (Harrison 2000, Raaflaub, Ober and Wallace 2007, pp. 16, 17). Themistocles, a politician and a general who fought in Marathon, was convinced that a future attack by Persia would be concentrated at sea. He developed a proposal to increase the Athenian fleet that would significantly strengthen the navy’s power (Harrison 2000). The bill for the new ships was passed in 483/2 BCE, which coincided with a new discovery of a large vein of silver in the Laurium mine. Themistocles persuaded the Athenians, who were planning to divide the riches amongst themselves, to instead use the funds to purchase a large number of warships (Harrison 2000; Ostwald 1988, p. 343; Strauss 2013, p. 30; Jeffrey 1988, p. 367). Athens would need to negotiate sponsorship from other Greek city states and increase local taxes in order to sustain their expanding navy. Strengthening the Athenian navy proved to be an important defence strategy that would protect Athens in future battle.
The expanding navy created employment opportunities for the poorest people in Athens as the demand for workers increased. This improved social and political cohesion between the classes, enhancing the democratic process of equality and creating solidarity between men of all standing. Each Trireme was three levels high and required the rowing power of 170 trained oarsmen (Harrison 2000; Raaflaub 2007, p. 118; Strauss 2013, p. 30). The demand for such a large workforce meant the navy was required to look beyond citizenship for workers. As a result, the navy hired metes, who were foreigners, and slaves who would be paid for their labour. But the majority of men hired to become oarsmen were from the poorest social class known as thetes. Social consciousness developed through navy service, as the men recognised the importance of their role to the navy’s military power, to the freedom of their State, and to their fellowman (Ober 2007, p. 100; Strauss 2014, p. 30).
Following King Darius’s death in 486 BCE, his son Xerxes became his successor and vowed to avenge his father by burning Athens to the ground (Padrusch 2007). The Persian Empire was the largest in the ancient world, spreading from Egypt, through to the east in India and to the west in parts of Greece (Harrison 2000; Wiesehofer 2009, p. 162). Xerxes assembled an army using troops from his vast Empire, setting off for Athens in 481 BCE (Harrison 2000; Hammond 1988, p. 542; Roberts & Westad 2014, p. 180). Once Athens received word that Persia was on its way, a call was sent to the Greek states to form a resistance, but it was largely ignored. During ancient times, Greece was not a unified nation, but rather a collection of individual city states who more often than not, were involved in conflict with each other. As a consequence of the lack of support from other states, Athens was forced to reach out to one of its major rivals, Sparta (Padrusch 2007). For the first time in Ancient Greek history, two great rivals, Athens and Sparta would fight on the same side against a common enemy (Pudrusch 2007). Sparta agreed to fight the Persians with Athens and arranged to meet with her allies to plan their resistance. Based on trust and recognition of Sparta’s military strength, the allies elected Sparta to lead the coalition in the impending battle (Hammond 1988, p. 542). Despite their large military force, the council elected to send 300 hoplites and a more significant number of helots who were trained soldiers. This force would come under the command of King Leonides (Hammond 1988, p. 549; Thomas 2014, p. 47). The reason the council opted to keep most of its military in the region was to protect the allied states in case the Persians entered the Peloponnese (Roberts & Westad 2014, pp. 179, 180). It is claimed that Leonides purposely selected only middle aged hoplites with at least one son to continue their legacy. Only the finest warriors out of the several thousand soldiers that were available, were picked to fight with the Athenians (Padrusch 2007).
A force of several hundred Greek soldiers face tens of thousands of Persians at the passage of Thermopylae. An Athenian spy, was able to get word to the Greek coalition to inform them of anticipated Persian approach. Using this information, the Greeks were able to prepare their defence strategy which involved two lines of attack. One was at the Isthmus of Corinth, to defend the city-states on the Peloponnese, and the other was at the the narrow passage of Thermopylae to trap the Persians (Pudrusch 2007). The use of the narrow pass was a very important strategic defence by the Greeks as it would restrict the number of enemy soldiers that could enter at any given time. This effectively made man to man combat against the Persians more manageable for the outnumbered Greeks (Pudrusch 2007).
When the Persian army arrived at the narrow passage of Thermopylae, they found the Spartans and the allies waiting and ready.
The Greek army held the Persians at the passage for three days’ despite being greatly outnumbered, with some sources suggesting there were 50 Persian soldiers to one Greek (Pudrusch 2007). However, a traitor informed Xerxes of a secret route that would lead the Persians to an area behind the Greeks. The Persians followed the path and trapped the Greek army (Hammond 1988, p. 555; Thomas 2014, p. 50). At this point, Leonides discharged most of the other Greek soldiers apart from the 300 Spartans and continued the attack on the Persians (Hammond 1988, p. 556; Pudrusch 2007; Thomas 2014, p. 51). Subsequently, Leonides and his 300 men were overcome during the last stages of the battle and were killed by Persian archers (Hammond 1988, p. 557, 558; Pudrusch 2007). It is important to note that under the instructions of Themistocles, the people abandoned Athens before the Persians arrived. Having finally succeeded at overpowering the Greeks at Thermopylae, Xerxes and his envoy set off through the pass towards Athens to destroy the state (Harrison 2000; Thomas 2014 p.
50).