The Influence Of Cognitive Maps

The idea of cognitive maps has been around since Edward Tolman first developed the idea in 1948 while he was doing research on small animals, such as rats, navigating through mazes; and, although confusion efforts by way of obstacles, the rats still managed to find their way to the reward (Bridgmon, 2015). The theory was that this memory created a map in the rat’s mind, called cognitive maps; and even if distracted or interrupted by outside stimuli, the map would still be encoded allowing the rats to find their way. Essentially, cognitive maps are “the mental process of structuring, storing, and visualizing images of an external environment” and is formally described as “a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which
an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday spatial environment” (Bridgmon, para. 1, 2015). A few facets of daily life where this concept is applied are: giving directions or plotting distance.
Creating these maps for a person’s surroundings relies on their capability to create ongoing mental imagery. However, it is increasingly difficult to for a brain to conceptualize more abstract idea; consequently, this skill can be enhanced via practice. Actively using one’s cognitive maps is called, “mental scanning” (Bridgmon, para. 4, 2015). For example, trying to remember where an object is placed in a room, if brain storage was proficient, then the object could be found; yet, if there was interference or lost attention, the object may not be found.
Cognitive maps are essential in the storage, organization, and retrieval process of the brain. In addition, it is now believed that cognitive maps are located in the hippocampus area of the brain based on research done with research participants suffering from hippocampal damage (Bridgmon, 2015).
It is theorized that memories are filed in special parts of the brain in different neural areas; perhaps, “corresponding to those areas responsible for specific forms of information processing” (O’Keef & Nydel, pg. 374, 1978). Because of this supposition, it can be assumed that there is no such thing as one exact the memory area; rather, multiple areas, each accountable for diverse forms of information storage. For instance, behavior which is based on place hypotheses should require hippocampal participation during initial learning as well as during subsequent retention, while behavior which does not utilize place hypotheses can be learned in the absence of the hippocampus, and it should not be surprising to find that experiments involving the removal of the hippocampus after such learning fail to interfere with retention (O’Keef & Nydel, pg. 374, 1978).
The hippocampus, for example, is responsible for both creating and storing many cognitive maps and is crucial in the forming of “new autobiographical and fact memories” (Memory Loss, n.d.) by acting as a memory gate that everything must cross before being permanently stored, while some memories such as new skills and habits can occasionally be formed without a functioning hippocampus. If damage to the hippocampal area happens, memory loss can occur; specifically anterograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is when there is a loss in the ability to form new memories, but the ability to recall previously stored memories is still intact; thus, “someone who sustains an injury to the hippocampus may have good memory of his childhood and the years before the injury, but relatively little memory for anything that happened since” (Memory Loss, para. 1, n.d.). Juxtaposed, retrograde amnesia is a loss of memories prior to the event resulting in injury (Cognitive Impairments, 2015).
Both of these types of amnesia pertain to memory loss in the long term memory storage; however, it is quite common for short term memory to be affected and can often be more significantly affected at times.
Short term memory loss impacts can be seen in issues such as forgetting names, losing train of thought, forgetting past conversations, misplacing objects, difficulty learning new skills, and getting lost. Short term memory loss due to brain injury relates back to cognitive mapping, especially when considering that losing one’s way is a major symptom; meaning that a cognitive map has been affected. Another factor that can interfere with creating and recalling a cognitive map due to brain injury is difficulty with attention and concentration. Once affected by a brain injury, a person can become easily distracted, suffer from information overload, and have difficulty in areas of multitasking. This can stifle not only the creation of cognitive maps, but later create trouble when attempting to recall said cognitive map (Cognitive Impairments,
2015).
However, hope is not lost for those suffering from a brain injury in regards to memory. There are many coping strategies that can called upon to aid in the storage and retrieval of information, such as: “performing an activity one at a time, reducing distractions, use daily planner and write thing down in order they need to be done, and practice organizational skills early in the morning” (Cognitive Impairments, para. 6, 2015). The last two of these coping skills are the most important. Writing things down in order of importance or need for completion does is not only important to aid in remembering what needs to be done and when, but also because aids in decision making skills, which often have a damper put on them when brain injury occurs (Cognitive Impairments, 2015). As well, attempting to complete difficult organizational tasks earlier in the day is imperative because fatigue affects one’s ability to organize and store memories (Cognitive Impairments, 2015).
Referencing back to Tolman and his research study with rats, this was important to the study of memory aside from just the creation of the cognitive map theory.
To refresh, cognitive mapping is the term used to describe “internal representations of our physical environment, particularly focusing on spatial relationships” and “offer internal representations that simulate particular spatial features of our external environment” (Sternberg & Sternberg, pg. 308, 2012). It is known that humans use cognitive mapping to visualize and remember parts of their surroundings and environments. This study allowed us to understand how humans navigate their own environments and life. However, these studies were also done with animals. Cognitive mapping studies involving rats, bees, and pigeons teach us that animals utilize the same form of visualization to find their way. The same as human studies, these animals navigate their life using landmarks on a map and trial and error (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). What these studies have shown us is that cognitive maps and memories of how to navigate our environment are created piece by piece “solely on our physical interactions with, and navigations through, our physical environment” and this rings true even while we do not get the whole picture like we would from a bird’s eye view or a map (Sternberg & Sternberg, para. 308, 2012). This gives us a peek into how memories and cognitive maps develop since it is not possible to peer into someone’s
mind and physically see what is processing.
Cognitive maps are “the mental process of structuring, storing, and visualizing images of an external environment” and is formally described as “a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday spatial environment” (Bridgmon, para. 1, 2015). While, cognitive mapping is not an entirely new theory, but there is still much left to be understood about it. However, studies with humans and animals are allowing researchers to understand how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information and memories to allow us to navigate our environment.