The Past, Present, and Future of Pesticide Use and Bans

Ecotoxicology and Climate Edited by P. Bourdeau, J. A. Haines, W. Klein and C. R. Krishna Murti @ 1989 SCOPE. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

5.7

Fate and Undesirable Effects of Pesticides in Egypt

A. H. EL-SEBAE

5.7.1

INTRODUCTION

An overview of the status of the pesticides used in Egypt is presented in a case study. The fate, distribution, and adverse effects of the widely used pesticides are discussed. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides and structurally related derivatives are found to be highly persistent and biomagnified in the environment. However, the OP insecticide Leptophos was shown to be quite persistent and liable to be stored in lipoid tissues. In addition, the hazards resulting from acute, semi-chronic toxicity of the insecticides used are reported. 5.7.2 ECOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN EGYPT

Egypt is a semi-arid country where the six million acres (2.4 million hectares) of arable land lie in the Nile River delta and narrow valley. This irrigated land is only 5-711/0 the total area of the country, while the rest is a mere desert. of Additional agricultural activities in the vast deserts are limited to some oases depending on underground water sources, and the only rain helpful for agriculture is confined to the northwestern coast along the Mediterranean, where only about 100000 acres (40000 hectares) are cultivated. The annual River Nile input is 60 billion cubic metres. It is estimated that above one-third of that total flows to the Mediterranean Sea. Another third is used for irrigation, and the rest is lost in vaporization, runoff, and leaching down to the water table. The Nile water originates from the African plateau and crosses the following eight countries before reaching Egyptian territory: Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi. While flowing through these countries, the Nile River is loaded with various types of pesticides and many other contaminants. Thus it arrives in Egypt after already being polluted with different pollutants, including the persistent chlorinated pesticides.

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The majorityof the 50 millioninhabitantsf Egyptlivein crowded ities o c and villages along the narrow green strip of land beside the River Nile and its north delta around the capital, Cairo. The Nile watercourse is thus used for irrigation and transportation, as well as for industrial and recreational activities. The river is also partially used for disposal of some agricultural waste water, and some industrial wastes. In this densely populated and limited area, more than 30000 metric tonnes of formulated pesticides are imported and used annually. More than 70070 these pesticides are insecticides of used to control cotton insect pests, especially the leaf and bollworms. This programme is important to protect cotton, which is the main Egyptian cash crop. To control these insect pests, aerial spraying is used to apply more than 75% of the pesticides, a method which is particularly hazardous to the inhabitants and non-target organisms. Such congestion makes it difficult to implement an evacuation or re-entry programme. Moreover, herbicides, fungicides, fertilizers, molluscicides, food additives, and synthetic dyes and other chemical pollutants are present in the Egyptian environment. The recent agricultural development plans adopt the horizontal and vertical intensified condensed agriculture, which might require the use of more pesticides and other agrochemicals and which thus might magnify the spectrum and magnitude of environmental pollution and hazards of such chemical agents. 5.7.3 STATUS OF PESTICIDES USED IN EGYPT

In Table 5.7.1, the area of field crops treated with pesticides during the period 1951-1981 is indicated. The area treated to control cotton bollworms was higher than expected because it shows 3-4 sprays per season in the area of cotton
Table 5.7.1 Area of field crops treated with pesticides during the period 1951-1981 in Egypt. Source: Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture Records. Reproduced with permission Area (x lQ2 acres) (1 acre =0.4 hectare) Crop Pests Cotton leafworm Cotton bollworm Cotton thrips Cotton spidermite Corn borers 1951 200 2 1 1961 1100 1400 104 111 1971 1400 3980 420 171 1981 300 4500 200 16

Rice pests Vegetablepests Fruit-tree pests Household insects (in tons)

-

300

-

1

100 10

437 200 50 100 20

36 500 250 200 50

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Table 5.7.2 Total active ingredient (a.i.) insecticides used in Egyptian agriculture during the 30 year period 1955-1985. Source: Ministry of Agriculture records. Reproduced with permission Compound Toxaphene Endrin DDT Lindane Carbaryl Trichlorfos Monocrotophos Leptophos Chlorpyriphos Phosfolan Mephosfolan Methamidophos/ Azinphos-Me Triazophos Profenofos Methomyl Fenvalerate Cypermethrin Deltamethrin Total a.i. (metric tonnes) 54,000 10,500 13,500 11,300 21,000 6,500 8,300 5,500 13,500 5,500 7,000 4,500 5,500 6,000 6,500 6,500 4,300 3,400 Years of consumption 1955-1961 1961-1981 1952-1971 1952-1978 1961-1978 1961-1970 1967-1978 1968-1978 1969-1985 1968-1983 1968-1983 1970-1979 1977-1985 1977-1985 1975-1985 1976-1985 1976-1985 1976-1985

cultivation, which is on average 1.2-1.5 million acres (0.4-0.6 million hectares) per year. In Table 5.7.2, the types and amounts of insecticides used on cotton during the last 30 years are shown. Toxaphene, which had been used extensively since 1955, was stopped in 1961 after its failure due to the build-up of resistance in the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis, leading to an outbreak of this insect which resulted in 50070loss of the cotton yield in that season. Carbaryl and trichlorfos were introduced to replace toxaphene; however they also lost their effectiveness after 4-5 years due to the problem of resistance. DDT lendrin, DDT Ilindane and methyl parathion combinations were attempted but were soon found to be ineffective. From 1967, monocrotophos was widely used in cotton in four sprays per season, but this has suffered since 1973, due to resistance. This opened the way for the introduction of compounds which were not yet registered in the producing countries. Leptophos, the OP phosphothionate ester, was shown to cause the adverse effect of delayed neuropathy in humans and livestock. The 1971 water buffalo episode is quite famous. Then chlorpyrifos, triazophos, profenofos, methomyl, and synthetic pyrethroids were recently introduced. In Table 5.7.3, the generally used types of pesticides in Egyptian agriculture are listed.

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Table 5.7.3 Types of pesticides imported into Egypt in 1985. Source: Ministry of Agriculture Records. Reproduced with permission
Item Organophosphorus insecticides Carbamate insecticides Synthetic pyrethroids insecticides Chlordane Agricultural spray oils Photoxin Acaricide (Kelthane) Rodenticides Sulphur Fungicides Herbicides Amount in tonnes of formulated materials 1000 550 800 50 5000 100 500 9000 20 000 4500 3500

Table 5.7.4 Concentration (ppb) of organochlorine insecticides in soil samples at ElMinia, EI-Behera, and Dakahlieh Provinces, August, 1979 Samples/ location EI-Minia I EI-Minia 2 EI-Behera I EI-Behera 2 Dakahlieh I Dakahlieh 2 Lindane 0.15 0.24 0.70 0.50 1.20 1.25 Endrin 0.16 0.19 0.30 0.48 1.00 1.50 DDT 1.40 1.30 0.38 0.40 1.54 1.70 DDD 1.20 1.10 0.56 0.84 1.34 1.50 DDE n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Chlordane 0.25 0.30 n.d. n.d. 0.20 0.24

5.7.4

DATA DEALING WITH FATE AND DEGRADATION OF PESTICIDES IN THE EGYPTIAN ENVIRONMENT

The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were shown to be highly persistent in the soil, sediments, and food-chain organisms. They are also stored in human adipose tissues. The concentration of organochlorine insecticides was determined in soil samples from the three Egyptian Governorates: EI-Minia (middle of Egypt); EI-Behera (northwest of the delta); and Dakahlieh (northeast), during 1979 by Aly and Badawy (1981). The data are shown in Tables 5.7.4 and 5.7.5. Generally, the levels of chlorinated insecticides were higher in the Dakahlieh followed by EI-Behera and then EI-Minia. This order is parallel to the actual frequencies of utilization of the insecticides. The relatively high levels of chlorinated insecticides in soil years after cessation of application reflect the high persistence and the long half-life of such compounds in the soil. The chlorinated insecticides were monitored by EI-Sebae and Abo-Elamayem (1978) in municipal water in Alexandria City (Table 5.7.6). Data indicated that classical water treatment might reduce the organochlorine insecticide levels, but

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Table 5.7.5 Concentration (ppb) of organochlorine insecticides in soil samples at El-Minia, El-Behera, and Dakahlieh Provinces, October, 1979 Samples location El-Minia 1 El-Minia 2 El-Behera 1 El-Behera 2 Dakahlieh 1 Dakahlieh 2 Table 5.7.6 Lindane 0.15 0.20 0.52 0.55 1.15 1.20 Endrin 0.15 0.22 0.25 0.40 1.10 1.30 DDT 1.30 1.35 0.40 0.45 1.60 1.40 DDD 1.32 1.25 0.60 0.90 1.50 1.38 DDE n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Chlordane 0.30 0.42 n.d.

n.d.
0.22 0.34

Chlorinated pesticides in different water sources in Alexandria City Concentration (ppb)

Pesticide detected BHC* Lindane Heptachlor p,p /-DDT O,p /-DDT

Raw water Mahmoudia 0.39 0.34 0.70 0.65 0.95

Treated water El-Soyef plant N.D.t 0.19 0.10 0.47 N.D.

Tap water 0.10 0.29 0.12 0.47 0.95

Waste water of slaughter-house 0.19 0.63 0.19 0.95 0.25

'Calculated as lindane tNot detected

Table 5.7.7 Alexandria

Chlorinated pesticides in water and sediment samples at Lake Mariut, Mean concentrations (Ppb) Lindane p,p/-DDT Water 3.85 2.54 2.79 2.80 5.35 4.31 6.39 4.86 Sediment 982 512 715 920 796 910 972 318

Lake stations I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Water 2.06 2.10 1.93 1.65 1.75 1.75 1.79 2.76

Sediment 142.8 74.7 61.6 120.3 92.2 52.8 54.3 114.5

that there is still an appreciable level of these pollutants in the tap drinking water. The chlorinated insecticides were also detected in sediments of the northern brackish lakes, such as Lake Mariut near Alexandria, as shown in Table 5.7.7 S reported Askar(1980) by in (Abo-Elamayem al., 1979). imilar datawere et

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Brullus Lake in the northern part of the Delta. Storage and bioaccumulation of these chlorinated insecticides were shown by levels more than lOO-foldhigher in sediments and fish than in water. Due to the known long half-lives of these insecticides, they are expected to last for several years to come and to continue to be one of the environmental stresses. Recently, Ernst et al. (1983) reported that organochlorine compounds were monitored in some marine aquatic organisms from the Alexandria area. DOT and its degradation products, gamma-BHC, alpha-BHC, dieldrin, and PCBs, were the major detected compounds. The results indicated that the western coast of Alexandria is polluted with organochlorine compounds. Moving towards the east at Rosetta, the levels of PCBs decrease because of the absence of industrial discharges. Generally, the recorded levels are in the range of the tolerated maximum residue limits. However, these low levels still represent a potential hazard as sources for continuous bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain. Similar data in fish samples were reported by Macklad et al. (1984a), concerning Lake Maryout and Alexandria Hydrodrome. Macklad et al. (1984b) detected the chlorinated compounds in different fish samples from two sampling sites at Edku Lake and Abu Quir Bay. BHC, DOE, ODD, endrin, DOT, and polychlorinated biphenyls were the major ones recorded. DOE was the major detected DOT metabolite in fish samples. The ratio of alpha to gamma-BHC isomers in different fish species from Edku Lake was higher than Abu Quir fish samples, suggesting older residues in Edku Lake. The level of chlorinated pesticides in Tilapia fish was positively correlated with fat tissue content. PCBs, such as Arochlor 1260, were higher in Abu Quir samples, where most industrial wastes are discharged. Organophosphorus, carbamate, and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides replaced the organochlorine insecticides. Othman et al. (1984) estimated the half-life of residues of a number of these recently introduced insecticides on tomato. These
Table 5.7.8 Insecticide Flucythrinate Cypermethrin Dimethoate Residue half-lives of certain insecticides on cabbage and tomato Plant part Cabbage leaves Tomato leaves Tomato fruits Cabbage leaves Tomato leaves Tomato fruits Cabbage leaves Tomato leaves Tomato fruits Cabbage leaves Tomato leaves Tomato fruits Half-life in days 4.0 5.9 3.3 13.1 7.3 11.6 2.95 3.40 2.40 1.40 1.30 0.52

Methomyl

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365

values are shown in Table 5.7.8. Methomyl, the oxime carbamate insecticide, had the shortest half-life, followed by dimethoate, flucythrinate, and cypermethrin. The type of soil affects the adsorption, leaching, or translocation rate of pesticides. EI-Sebae et al. (1969) demonstrated the variation in the characteristics of three Egyptian soil types as shown in Table 5.7.9. They also showed that the initial adsorption of the herbicide Dalapon on the three soil types differs widely, being higher on the sandy than the silty type, while the muck clay type retained the lowest level of the herbicide (Table 5.7.10). However, the dissipation rate was higher in the sandy soil due to the high loss through evaporation and leaching. The higher organic matter content and compactness in heavy soil types account for the greater ability of these two types to hold the residues of Dalapon for longer intervals. Riskallah et al. (1979) studied the stability of Leptophos in water samples from different sources in the Egyptian environment. Leptophos proved to be a rather stable compound. After four months a considerable amount of this compound still remained unchanged in different water samples. The same trend was reproduced in samples from the River Nile irrigation and drainage water samples. This high stability was also shown on sprayed plant foliage even under direct sunlight. Thus Leptophos can be considered one of the most persistent OP insecticides in the environment. EI-Zorgani (1980) recorded the DDT content of samples of seven fish species taken at Wadi Haifa on Lake Nubia at the border between Sudan and Egypt. The results are shown in Table 5.7.11. p,p ' -DDE found in all ten samples analysed was at relatively high levels, confirming contamination of fish samples with levels of DDT significantly higher than the maximum permissible levels. Such high pollution with DDT was attributed to the continued use of DDT on cotton fields in the Gezera project in central Sudan. DDT was banned in Sudan in 1981.
Table 5.7.9 Characteristics of three soil types Water saturation (070) 18.9 38.8 60.7 Number of bacteria per gm 50 000 112 000 211 000 Organic matter (070 ) 0.09 0.70 0.75

Soil Type Sandy Silty Clay Table 5.7.10

pH 7.8 7.1 8.0

Persistence of Dalapon in three soil types ppm after shortage for 0 days 29.95 27.30 24.85 7 days 17.5 20.5 23.0 14 days 3.5 15.5 17.5 21 days 0.5 8.0 12.0

Soil type Sandy Silty Clay

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5.7.5 ECOTOXICOLOGICALFACTORSAFFECTING PERSISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION PESTICIDES OF
Plant foliage differs widely in its wettability according to variations in plant species, age, plant part, and upper or lower surface of plant leaves. Data in Table 5.7.12 demonstrate such differentiation between four plant species: maize, broad bean, cotton, and squash (EI-Sebae et al., 1982). Such variation was found to affect the deposit toxicity of the two imecticides fenvalerate and tetrachlorvinphos in E.C. formulations against the cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis) larvae (Table 5.7.13). Squash, which was shown in Table 5.7.12 to be readily wetted and to have the least thick cuticle, was the most susceptible at the same rate of application due to the higher initial deposit. Temperature is one of the main extrinsic factors which has a continuous impact on chemical and biological processes in the environment. Increased temperature in tropical and semi-tropical areas is expected to increase the evaporation of the pesticide residues under humid conditions. Table 5.7.14 presents the physico-chemical properties of some widely used insecticides, including the partition coefficient, the hydrolytic half-life, water solubility and vapour pressure. Such vapours can be transported by wind movement and then reprecipitated with rain to areas which might never have
Table 5.7.11 Residues of organochlorine insecticides in some fishes from Lake Nubia Residue content (ppb) jlg/kg Type Barbus bynni (Forsk.) I-Muscle 2-Muscle 3-Muscle Hydrocynus forskalii (Cuv.) I-Muscle 2-Muscle Labeo coubie (Rupp.) I-Muscle Labeo niloticus (Forsk.) 1- Liver 2- Liver 3-Liver Lates niloticus (Linn.) I-Muscle p,p ' -DDE p,p '-DDT Total as p,p ' -DDT*

1.0 107.0 39.0 3.0 153.0 21.0 4.0 2.0 12.0 6.0

5.0

6.0 119.0 43.0 8.0 184.0 23.0 4.0 2.0 13.0 7.0

5.0 14.0

* DDE content was multiplied by 1.11

Fate and Undesirable Effects of Pesticides in Egypt Table 5.7.12

367

Plant species variation in wettability at different leaf development stages 070 leaf area wetted

Plant species Maize Broad bean Cotton Squash

1st-stage leaves Upper Lower 8 12 71 72 9 27 78 76

4th-stage leaves Upper Lower 28 38 36 83 47 69 39 84

Thickness of cuticular layer (J,tm) Maize Broad bean Cotton Squash 12.6 8.9 4.7 2.1 10.4 5.6 2.8 1.2 9.3 5.3 2.5 0.7 6.2 3.8 1.8 0.3

Table 5.7.13 Plant species variation in deposit toxicity of fenvalerate and Tetrachlorvinphos to cotton leafworm (by dipping technique) LC50 (ppm) Plant species Maize Broad bean Cotton Squash Phenvalerate 21 19 13.5 11.0 Tetrachlorvinphos 920 850 730 600

Table 5.7.14

Physico-chemical properties of some widely used insecticides Partition coefficient (log P) octanol/water 6.19 6.31 4.95 5.08 4.31 3.82 2.97 3.38 5.81 5.16 -1.71 4.68 Water Vapour pressure (mm Hg at solubility (ppm at 25°C) 15°C) 0.0012 0.0047 1.08 2.00 4.00 11.9 55.00 30.00 2.00 40.00 25,000.0 insoluble

Pesticide p,p ' -DDT Leptophos Ronnel Chlorpyriphos Chlorpyriphos-methyl Parathion Methyl parathion Fenitrothion Bromophos Me bromophos Dimethoate EPN

Half-life* (hours)

22.8 6.7 21.3

-

1.9 x 10-7

-

37.3 6.9

36.6 7.1 10.4 40.9

8 x 10-4 1.87 x 10-5 4.22 X 10-5 3.78xlO-5 9.7 x 10-6 5.4 X 10-5 4.6 x 10-5 1.3 x 10-4 8.5 x 10-6 3.0x 10-4

*Half-lifein hours is the hydrolysisrate at noe in ethanol at pH 6.0 buffer solution.

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used such an insecticide. This might explain the cyclodiene organochlorine insecticides detected in closed lakes in Sweden and some other European countries where they have never been used. Temperature variation might affect the level of toxicity of the same compound to the same insect. This is called the temperature coefficient for each compound. Most of the insecticides have positive temperature coefficients, while DDT and some synthetic pyrethroids are generally of negative temperature coefficient. Increased relative humidity favours insecticidal toxicity (Kamel and EI-Sebae, 1968). Lipoid solubility in terms of partition coefficient (Table 5.7.14) reflects the potential of bioaccumulation and biomagnification of persistent insecticides. The data showed that Leptophos is more lipoij soluble than p,p ' -DDT. Photolysis is one of the degradation processes and is intensified under subtropical arid and semi-arid areas. Recently EI-Sebae et al. (1983) reported that photoperiodism affects fish susceptibility to insecticides. The toxicity of cypermethrin and fenvalerate to mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) was significantly increased under the 12 hr darkness and 12 hr light rotation when compared with the condition of continuous darkness. It was also found that at 0900 fish were more susceptible to poisoning than at 2100, due to circadian rhythmic response effects. 5.7.6 ADVERSE AND HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES IN EGYPT

Hegazi et al. (1979) studied the effect of the application of a group of pesticides (aldicarb, pendimethalin, dinoseb, chlorpyrifos and simazine) on nitrogenase activity in Giza clay-loam soil under maize cultivation near Cairo. All these pesticides showed different inhibitory effects and these effects were increased with higher doses and longer incubation periods. Carbamate and organophosphorus insecticides were found to cause harmful inhibition of soil dehydrogenase activity (Khalifa et al., 1980). Similar unfavourable side-effects of other pesticides on different soil enzymes were reported. Cole et al. (1976) demonstrated that sub-surface application of aldrin resulted in reduction of the corn plant 's height due to its phytotoxicity. Other compounds and solvents are known to be phytotoxic. Edwards and Thompson (1973) indicated that pesticides in the soil affect its content of non-target and beneficial organisms, including earthworms, collembolans, and insect larvae. This leads to deleterious effects on the texture and fertility of the soil. Organochlorine insecticides tend to accumulate to 9-fold in earthworms and 20-fold in soil snails (Gish, 1970). Such soil fauna can be used as indicators for monitoring levels and effects of pesticides and their degradation products in the soil. EI-Sebae et al. (1978) were able to minimize the acute toxicity of methomyl and zinc phosphide through the microcapsulation formulations using sustained gelatine capsule walls.

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Delayed neuropathy is one of the adverse effects caused by some organophosphorus insecticides, particularly of the phosphonate type. EI-Sebae et al. (1977,1979,1981) proved that Leptophos, EPN, trichloronate, salithion, and cyanophenphos are delayed neurotoxicants. Evidence was given clinically and biochemically. This effect is irreversible and there is no antidote for their application. Recently, methamidophos, trichlorfon, and DDVP were found to cause delayed neuropathy in man. Cytotoxic effects, including mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and teratogenesis, were reported for a number of pesticides. The list in Table 5.7.15 indicates these health hazards (EI-Sebae, 1985). . El-Mofty et al. (1981)proved that the bilharzia snail molluscicide, niclosamide, is carcinogenic to amphibian Egyptian toads. Raymond and Alexander (1976) indicated that nitrosoamines can be formed in the soil from the reaction between some carbamates and nitrites. Nitrosamines can be translocated to edible plants. EI-Sebae (1985) found also that the response of exposed workers to pesticide poisoning differs widely, depending upon their blood group type. Such wide genetical variation should be taken into consideration when applying a safety factor in setting acceptable daily intakes of such pesticides and related toxic derivatives.

Table 5.7.15 Compound

Cytotoxic hazards of pesticides used in Egypt Type of cytotoxic hazard expected Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Teratogenicity Oncogenicity Teratogenicity Fetotoxicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Fetotoxicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity Oncogenicity

Amitraz Azinphos-methyl* Benomyl BHC Captan* Carbaryl Chlorbenzilate Chlordane Chlordimeform Dimethoate Dichlorovos Endrin Monuron Nic10samide Permethrin Propanil Trichlorofon Trifluralin* Toxaphene Thiodicarb

*Waters et al. (1980). Reproduced with permission

370 5.7.7 REFERENCES

Ecotoxicology and Climate

Abo-Elamayem, M., Saad, M. A., and EI-Sebae, A. H. (1979). Water pollution with organochlorine pesticides in Egyptian lakes. Proc. of the Internat. Egyptian-German Seminar on Environment Protection from Hazards of Pesticides, Alexandria, Egypt. March 24-29, pp.94-108. Aly, Osama A., and Badawy, M. I. (1981). Organochlorine insecticides in selected agricultural areas in Egypt. Proc. of the Internat. Symposium on Mgmt. of Indust. Wastewater in the Developing Nations, Alexandria, Egypt, March 28-31, pp. 273-281. Askar, A. (1980). Monitoring of pesticides in Lake Brullus. M.Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University. Cole, L. K., Sanborn, J. R., and Metcalf, R. L. (1976). Inhibition of corn growth by aldrin and the insecticides fate in the soil, air and wildlife of a terrestrial model ecosystem. En vir. Entomol, 5, 538-589. Edwards, C. A., and Thompson A. R. (1973). Pesticides and the Soil Fauna, Residue Reviews, Gunther, F. A. (ed.), 45: 1. EI-Mofty, M., Reuber, M., EI-Sebae, A. H., and Sabry, I. (1981). Induction of neoplastic lesions in toads, Bufo regularis, with niclosamide. Proc. of Internat. Symposium on Prevention of Occupational Cancer, Helskinki, April 21-24. EI-Sebae, A. H. (1985). Management of Pesticide Residues in Egyptian Environment, Appropriate Waste Management for Developing Countries, Kriton Curi, (ed.), Plenum Publishing Corp., pp. 563-577. EI-Sebae, A. H., and Abo-Elamayem, M. (1978). A survey of expected pollutants drained to the Mediterranean in the Egyptian Region. Proc. of the XXXVI Congress and Plenary Assembly of the Internat. Comm. of Sci. Explor. of the Mediterranean Sea, Antalya, Turkey, pp. 149-153. EI-Sebae, A. H., Kassem, E. S., and Gad, A. (1969). Persistence and breakdown of dalapon and 2,4-D in three soil types. Assiut. J. Agric. Sciences, 3, 359-366. EI-Sebae, A. H., Soliman, S. A., Abo-Elamayem, M., and Ahmed, N. S. (1977). Neurotoxicity of organophosphorus insecticides: Leptophos and EPN. J. Environ. Sci. and Hlth, B12 (4), 269-288. EI-Sebae A. H., Ibraheim, S. M., EI-Feel, S. A., and Srivastava, S. N. (1978). Microencapsulation of methomyl, zinc phosphide and copper sulphatemethodology and activity. Fourth Internat. Congress of Pesticide Chem. Proc. (IUPAC), Zurich, July, pp.562-566. EI-Sebae, A. H., Soliman, S. A., and Ahmed, N. S. (1979). Delayed neurotoxicity in sheep by the phosphonothioate insecticide Cyanophenphos. J. Environ. Sci. and Hlth, B14 (3), 247-263. EI-Sebae, A. H., Soliman, S. A., Ahmed, N. S., and Curley, A. (1981). Biochemical interaction of six OP delayed neurotoxicants with several neurotargets. J. Environ. Sci. and Hlth, B16, 463-474. EI-Sebae, A. H., Morsy, F. A., Moustafa, F. I., and Abo-Elamayem, M. (1982). Impact on plant leaf wettability of insecticidal efficiency. Proc. of the Second EgyptianHungarian Conj. on Plant Protection, Alexandria University, pp.295-403. EI-Sebae, A. H., El-Bakary, A. S., Le Paturel, J., Kadous, E., and Macklad, M. F. (1983). Effect of photoperiodism on fish susceptibility to insecticides. Proc. of the Internat. Conj. on Photochemistry and Photobiology, vol. 2, pp. 961-966. EI-Zorgani, G. A. (1980). Residues of organochlorine pesticides in fishes in Sudan. J. Environ. Sci. and Hlth, B15 (6), 1090-1098. Ernst, W., Macklad, F., EI-Sebae, A. H., and Halim, Y. (1983). Monitoring of organochlorine compounds. I. Some marine organisms from Alexandria Region. Proc. Int. Conj. Env. Haz. Agrochem, vol. 1, pp. 95-108.

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Gish, C. D. (1970). Organochlorine insecticide residues in soils and soil invertebrates from agricultural lands. Pesticides Monitor J, 3 (4), 241-252. Hegazi, N., Menib, M., Belal, M., Amer, H., and Farag, R. S. (1979). The effect of some pesticides on asymbiotic N2-fixation in Egyptian soil. Archs. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, 8, 629-635. Kamel, A. M., and EI-Sebae, A. H. (1968). Effect of temperature and humidity on the effectiveness of insecticide deposits, Alex. J. Agric. Res., 16, 59-66. Khalifa, M. A. S., Tag EI-Din, A., Komeil, A. A., Desheesh, M. A., and Helwa, L. A. (1980). Pesticides and soil enzymes relationships. 1Ileffects of some organophosphates and carbamates on soil dehydrogenase activity. Proc. of Fourth Con! on Microbiology, Cairo, Egypt, December 24-28. Macklad, F., EI-Sebae, A. H., Halim, Y., and Barakat, M. (1984a). Monitoring of chlorinated pesticides in fish samples from Lake Maryout and Alexandria Hydrodrome. Bull. of the High Inst. of Public HUh, Alexandria Univ., vol. XIV (2), pp. 161-173. Macklad, F., EI-Sebae, A. H., HaIim, Y., and EI-Belbesi, M. (1984b). Monitoring of chlorinated hydrocarbons in some fish species from Lake Edku and Abu. Quir Bay. Bull. High Inst. of Public HUh., Alexandria Univ., vol. XIV (4), pp. 145-157. Othman, Mohamed A. S., Antonious, G. P., Khamis, A., and Tantawy, G. (1984). Determination of residues of fIucythrinate, cypermethrin, dimethoate, and methomyl on tomato and cabbage plants. Abstract in: Symposium on Integrated Pest Mgmt. and Rationalization of Pesticide Use in the Arab Countries, Algeria, Sept. 16-20. Raymond, D. E., and Alexander, M. (1976). Plant uptake and leaching of dimethylnitrosoamine. Nature, 262, 394-395. Riskallah, M. R., EI-Sayed, M. M., and Hindi, S. A. (1979). Study on the stability of Leptophos in water under laboratory conditions. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, 23, 607-614. Waters, M. D., Simmon, V. F., Mitchell, A. D., Jorgenson, T. A., and Valencia, R. (1980). Overview of short term tests for the mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of pesticides. J. Environ. Sci. and Hth, BlS, 867-906.

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