The Role Of Mexico's Economic Conditions In Mexico
Prior to the revolution, Mexico’s economic conditions were in disarray. As a result of the Wars of Independence and the widespread fighting that occurred in Mexico, several industries were damaged and experienced decreased production levels. The gold and silver mines, which were previously upheld by the Spaniards, had flooded and produced two-thirds less than times before the war. The textile industry also suffered as a result of the conflict with many buildings and villages becoming ruins. The country’s infrastructure, specifically the roads, was undeveloped and transportation was primarily by stagecoach, which was dangerous due to the terrain, and pack saddle, which was expensive and significantly slower than other modes of transportation.
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Barriers to economic growth led to high unemployment rates and few jobs.
Veterans that had fought in the Wars of Independence, which consisted of roughly 15 to 30 percent of the entire adult male population, were jobless at the end of the conflict and posed social threats due to their aggression and military ability. While some of these men were able to find employment, there were several other alternatives. Some remained in the army and others became criminals. However, men who became faux military support for caudillos, or local political bosses, were crucial to the political situation in Mexico. The new social structure of Mexico, while containing these veterans, was also directly impacted by the
conflicts.
The Mexican social structure undergone multiple changes preceding the revolution. A prevalent part of the aristocracy, the Spaniards, was dismantled by a government ruling that removed all Spaniards from Mexico in the 1820’s. This change, along with post-conflict recovery, allowed the wealthy class to be composed of new groups of people. Creole landowners transitioned into the upper levels of the social structure and flaunted their extravagance. This level of society was divided into “old” families, who maintained traditional ideas and valued the solitude of their land, and “new” families, who spread into commerce and other professions while still remaining close to their land. This wealth, however, was not enjoyed by the masses in Mexico.
A majority of the Mexican population experienced economic hardship and poverty. Campesinos, or country people, prevalent in the center and the south of Mexico, earned their sparse livings from the land. The classic peasantry of Mexico, however, provided Mexico with a large mass of native workers, which allowed Mexico to fully express their antiforeign sentiments. Many people worked in the agricultural sector of the Mexican economy and lived on haciendas where they experienced serfdom in all but name.
The impoverished masses of Mexico were under the influence of two powers, the church and the military. The church, which was still wealthy after the Wars of Independence, closely allied itself with the upper class of Mexico. Profits were generated from its widespread banking operation and loans to large landowners. However, the masses experiencing hardship received little benefit from the immensely wealthy church and eventually opposed this part of the political scene in Mexico.
The military, contrary to the church’s social ties, prevailed mainly in politics. Mexico endured political confusion during the period from 1821 to 1860 where there were at least 50 separate presidencies that averaged less than one year in power. Thirty-five of these presidencies were military officers who achieved office through military coups. One key figure, Antonio López de Santa Anna, the most famous Mexican caudillo, arose during this time of political chaos and held the presidency nine separate times. Caudillos, accompanied by their faux armies, battled into presidency hoping for wealth and were eventually replaced by a new reigning group of caudillos. This unceasing change of national leaders and continuous conflict left Mexican politics constantly in disorder. Mexican politics also experienced conflict due to the loss of the Mexican American War.
Prior to the Mexican American War, Americans sought to settle in the lands to the west and south, which were apart of Mexico’s territory. The disputed lands, ranging from Texas to California, were unpopulated by Mexico due to lack of resources. The Americans settled into Texas first and the Texans eventually revolted against Mexico in 1835, gaining their independence during the following year. Santa Anna attempted to combat this defiance, but he was unsuccessful and Texas remained independent. In 1845, with the annexation of Texas to the United States and the presence of American military troops in a disputed border area, Mexico felt invaded and counterattacked against Polk, the president of the United States at the time. Polk subsequently retaliated and declared war. While the Mexican troops, led by Santa Anna, were able to hold their own at the beginning of the war, the introduction of United States General Winfield Scott caused Mexico to lose. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which officially ended the war, conceded the payment of $15 million to Mexico from the United States and the land ranging from Texas to California was granted to the United States. However, the Mexicans still view the war as a bitter defeat and call it the “War of the North American Invasion.”
The loss of the war and the resulting military humiliation caused Mexico’s political scene to experience conflict. Accusations regarding the responsibility for defeat occurred between the Conservatives and Liberals. The Conservatives believed that Mexico should revert back to its Hispanic traditions and promote aristocracy, protect the legal powers of the military and church, and adopt a constitutional monarchy. However, the Liberals believed that Mexico should welcome the steps and causes for modernization. This conflict, as well as Santa Anna’s trade of the Mesilla Valley in exchange for $10 million, led to Santa Anna being removed from office in 1855 by an opposition movement. The resulting time period featured new social reforms and a new constitution.
Following the removal of Santa Anna, Mexico went through a period known as La Reforma. The goal of this time, supported by civilian-led Liberal governments, was a new social structure and reforms. Vital reforms targeting the influential powers included the enforcement of soldiers and church members standing trial in civil courts and the prohibition of owning property not related to daily functions and operations. Another reform allowed the powers of registry to be controlled by the state instead of the church. In 1857, all of these reforms led to a new constitution that contained Mexicans first absolute bill of inalienable rights. However, these social reforms were met with opposition from the Conservatives.
This opposition resulted in the War of the Reforms, a bitter conflict caused by heated arguments and issues regarding the power of church versus state. During the war, Benito Juárez arose leading a self-made Liberal government. Juárez issued several extreme reforms including the formal separation of church and state, federal ownership of church properties and assets, and harsher restriction of religious processions in public places like the streets. In 1861, Juárez and his assembled government formally took office. However, his presidency also faced discord with the introduction of monarchy.
During the presidency of Juárez, Mexico was on the verge of declaring bankruptcy. In an attempt to stave off this economic decline, Juárez declared a two-year cease of payments on Mexico’s foreign debt. Angered by this decision and seeking to expand its power, France began a war of occupation. Emperor Napoleon III placed archduke Ferdinand Maximilian von Hapsburg of Austria as emperor of Mexico. Juárez’s resistance to Maximilian’s rule resulted in a civil war. During the conflict, distractions in Europe caused Emperor Napoleon to withdraw from the war, leaving Maximilian stranded in Mexico. In May of 1867, Maximilian surrendered and was executed the following month.
After the war, the Liberal government resumed power and Juárez began to modernize Mexico with economic and educational reforms. As a result of the fierce election for Juárez’s fourth term, one of the other competitors, Porfirio Díaz argued against constant reelection of the president and began an uprising, which was quickly put down. However, in 1872, Juárez suddenly died of a heart attack and Lerdo de Tejada became the president. Upon announcing his plans for reelection, Díaz once again voiced his opposition and through the military, occupied Mexico City in November of 1876. Despite expressing adamant refusals for reelections, Díaz ruled for thirty-five years.
During his rule, Díaz demonstrated skillful maneuvers in politics, especially through decisions regarding the military and the church. He allowed caudillos more freedom and encouraged disputes amongst the political bosses. He relied heavily on local police forces in rural areas where the federal government struggled to spread its control. Through the increase in military power, Díaz also increased the power of the federal government. During his rule, Díaz also influenced the power of the church. While Díaz was a Liberal, he differed from other in the party by encouraging neutrality between the church and the state. Díaz allowed his Catholic wife to represent the peace between the state and the church the Liberals were so adamantly against.
Barriers to economic growth led to high unemployment rates and few jobs.
Veterans that had fought in the Wars of Independence, which consisted of roughly 15 to 30 percent of the entire adult male population, were jobless at the end of the conflict and posed social threats due to their aggression and military ability. While some of these men were able to find employment, there were several other alternatives. Some remained in the army and others became criminals. However, men who became faux military support for caudillos, or local political bosses, were crucial to the political situation in Mexico. The new social structure of Mexico, while containing these veterans, was also directly impacted by the
conflicts.
The Mexican social structure undergone multiple changes preceding the revolution. A prevalent part of the aristocracy, the Spaniards, was dismantled by a government ruling that removed all Spaniards from Mexico in the 1820’s. This change, along with post-conflict recovery, allowed the wealthy class to be composed of new groups of people. Creole landowners transitioned into the upper levels of the social structure and flaunted their extravagance. This level of society was divided into “old” families, who maintained traditional ideas and valued the solitude of their land, and “new” families, who spread into commerce and other professions while still remaining close to their land. This wealth, however, was not enjoyed by the masses in Mexico.
A majority of the Mexican population experienced economic hardship and poverty. Campesinos, or country people, prevalent in the center and the south of Mexico, earned their sparse livings from the land. The classic peasantry of Mexico, however, provided Mexico with a large mass of native workers, which allowed Mexico to fully express their antiforeign sentiments. Many people worked in the agricultural sector of the Mexican economy and lived on haciendas where they experienced serfdom in all but name.
The impoverished masses of Mexico were under the influence of two powers, the church and the military. The church, which was still wealthy after the Wars of Independence, closely allied itself with the upper class of Mexico. Profits were generated from its widespread banking operation and loans to large landowners. However, the masses experiencing hardship received little benefit from the immensely wealthy church and eventually opposed this part of the political scene in Mexico.
The military, contrary to the church’s social ties, prevailed mainly in politics. Mexico endured political confusion during the period from 1821 to 1860 where there were at least 50 separate presidencies that averaged less than one year in power. Thirty-five of these presidencies were military officers who achieved office through military coups. One key figure, Antonio López de Santa Anna, the most famous Mexican caudillo, arose during this time of political chaos and held the presidency nine separate times. Caudillos, accompanied by their faux armies, battled into presidency hoping for wealth and were eventually replaced by a new reigning group of caudillos. This unceasing change of national leaders and continuous conflict left Mexican politics constantly in disorder. Mexican politics also experienced conflict due to the loss of the Mexican American War.
Prior to the Mexican American War, Americans sought to settle in the lands to the west and south, which were apart of Mexico’s territory. The disputed lands, ranging from Texas to California, were unpopulated by Mexico due to lack of resources. The Americans settled into Texas first and the Texans eventually revolted against Mexico in 1835, gaining their independence during the following year. Santa Anna attempted to combat this defiance, but he was unsuccessful and Texas remained independent. In 1845, with the annexation of Texas to the United States and the presence of American military troops in a disputed border area, Mexico felt invaded and counterattacked against Polk, the president of the United States at the time. Polk subsequently retaliated and declared war. While the Mexican troops, led by Santa Anna, were able to hold their own at the beginning of the war, the introduction of United States General Winfield Scott caused Mexico to lose. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which officially ended the war, conceded the payment of $15 million to Mexico from the United States and the land ranging from Texas to California was granted to the United States. However, the Mexicans still view the war as a bitter defeat and call it the “War of the North American Invasion.”
The loss of the war and the resulting military humiliation caused Mexico’s political scene to experience conflict. Accusations regarding the responsibility for defeat occurred between the Conservatives and Liberals. The Conservatives believed that Mexico should revert back to its Hispanic traditions and promote aristocracy, protect the legal powers of the military and church, and adopt a constitutional monarchy. However, the Liberals believed that Mexico should welcome the steps and causes for modernization. This conflict, as well as Santa Anna’s trade of the Mesilla Valley in exchange for $10 million, led to Santa Anna being removed from office in 1855 by an opposition movement. The resulting time period featured new social reforms and a new constitution.
Following the removal of Santa Anna, Mexico went through a period known as La Reforma. The goal of this time, supported by civilian-led Liberal governments, was a new social structure and reforms. Vital reforms targeting the influential powers included the enforcement of soldiers and church members standing trial in civil courts and the prohibition of owning property not related to daily functions and operations. Another reform allowed the powers of registry to be controlled by the state instead of the church. In 1857, all of these reforms led to a new constitution that contained Mexicans first absolute bill of inalienable rights. However, these social reforms were met with opposition from the Conservatives.
This opposition resulted in the War of the Reforms, a bitter conflict caused by heated arguments and issues regarding the power of church versus state. During the war, Benito Juárez arose leading a self-made Liberal government. Juárez issued several extreme reforms including the formal separation of church and state, federal ownership of church properties and assets, and harsher restriction of religious processions in public places like the streets. In 1861, Juárez and his assembled government formally took office. However, his presidency also faced discord with the introduction of monarchy.
During the presidency of Juárez, Mexico was on the verge of declaring bankruptcy. In an attempt to stave off this economic decline, Juárez declared a two-year cease of payments on Mexico’s foreign debt. Angered by this decision and seeking to expand its power, France began a war of occupation. Emperor Napoleon III placed archduke Ferdinand Maximilian von Hapsburg of Austria as emperor of Mexico. Juárez’s resistance to Maximilian’s rule resulted in a civil war. During the conflict, distractions in Europe caused Emperor Napoleon to withdraw from the war, leaving Maximilian stranded in Mexico. In May of 1867, Maximilian surrendered and was executed the following month.
After the war, the Liberal government resumed power and Juárez began to modernize Mexico with economic and educational reforms. As a result of the fierce election for Juárez’s fourth term, one of the other competitors, Porfirio Díaz argued against constant reelection of the president and began an uprising, which was quickly put down. However, in 1872, Juárez suddenly died of a heart attack and Lerdo de Tejada became the president. Upon announcing his plans for reelection, Díaz once again voiced his opposition and through the military, occupied Mexico City in November of 1876. Despite expressing adamant refusals for reelections, Díaz ruled for thirty-five years.
During his rule, Díaz demonstrated skillful maneuvers in politics, especially through decisions regarding the military and the church. He allowed caudillos more freedom and encouraged disputes amongst the political bosses. He relied heavily on local police forces in rural areas where the federal government struggled to spread its control. Through the increase in military power, Díaz also increased the power of the federal government. During his rule, Díaz also influenced the power of the church. While Díaz was a Liberal, he differed from other in the party by encouraging neutrality between the church and the state. Díaz allowed his Catholic wife to represent the peace between the state and the church the Liberals were so adamantly against.