THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 16TH CENTURY REFORMATION IN EUROPE

LAGOS ANGLICAN SEMINARY
17 BROAD STREET LAGOS

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 16TH CENTURY REFORMATION IN EUROPE

WRITTEN BY:
OSHISANYA JACOB

COURSE: THE REFORMATION

OCTOBER 2013

INTRODUCTION The reformation was the 16th century radical movement to reform the religious practices in the Western Christendom. The major target of reformation was to restructure the Roman Catholic which as at then had dominated the political, religious and economic lives in Europe with its doctrine. The reformation was championed by a German national and a Roman Catholic priest called Martin Luther. According to David K. Bernard, “Martin Luther was born in 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, to a family of peasant background, but by the time he was eighteen they apparently had some money, for he enrolled at the University of Erfurt, the best in Germany” (Bernard 1996, 14). Prior to his priesthood, Martin Luther was preparing to become a lawyer following the wish of his father when he encountered thunderstorm. Luther made a promise St. Ann that he would become a monk should he survive the thunderstorm. Having survived the attack, Luther joined Augustinian Monastery against the wish of his father. Luther later became a philosophy lecturer in the University of Wittenberg following his transfer to Wittenberg monastery.
Martin Luther may be said to have maintained a steady growth in his zeal and devotion to God. This might probably had led to his decision to travel to Rome on pilgrimage in 1510. Evidently, Luther’s journey to Rome was not for fun but to carry out some religious activities which in Roman Catholic’s belief could earn one salvation from God. In the words of David K. Bernard “In 1510 Luther took a pilgrimage to Rome and performed various acts of devotion in sacred places. For instance, at a staircase supposedly taken from Pilate’s judgment hall, he walked up the steps on his knees in order to obtain an indulgence promised by Pope Leo IV in 850. He wished his parents were already dead so that he might release their souls from purgatory by saying masses in the holy city” (Bernard 1996, 15). The implication of this is that Luther did not just become a Roman Catholic priest; he was deeply committed to its doctrine and practices. However, he was disappointed that Rome which in his own idea should be an epitome of highest standard for the Roman Catholic Church was filled with corruption and materialism. Luther observed the level of ecclesiastical and secular politics being carried out in a supposed holy place, the worldliness of the papacy and the story about the immoral life of Pope Alexander VI who died in 1503 having had numerous mistresses and illegitimate children. Therefore, he returned to Germany being disheartened. But Luther was conscious of his sinfulness as a monk and had a great concern about his personal salvation. He was constantly living under fear and guilt hence he was strict in maintaining personal discipline through prayer, fasting and frequent confession of sin to priest. Notwithstanding, he never found peace, security and satisfaction in these practices.
As he studied the scriptures, he came across Romans 1:17 which says “The just shall live by faith.” This statement quickly permeated the consciousness of Luther and he discovered that his works can never save him and that he needed to have faith in God before he could be justified. Philip Schaff, a church historian in commenting on this said that:
This experience acted like a new revelation on Luther. It shed light upon the whole Bible and made it to him a book of life and comfort. He felt relieved of the terrible load of guilt by an act of free grace. He was led out of the dark prison house of self-inflicted penance into the daylight and fresh air of God’s redeeming love. Justification broke the fetters of legalistic slavery, and filled him with the joy and peace of the state of adoption; it opened to him the very gates of heaven (Schaff; History of the Christian Church). Based on his new revelation, Luther began to preach the message of justification by faith alone. His life took a different direction though was yet a monk and a Roman Catholic priest. He began to realize that many things were wrong the system in Roma Catholic which lay emphasis on salvation by works and such practices as penance, prayer to dead saints, relics, indulgences and so on instead of exercising simple faith in God.
The development that eventually broke the camel’s back was Pope Leo’s plan to raise some money through the sale of indulgence which was the major source of revenue for the Pope in order to complete the building of St. Paul’s Basilica in Rome, which was about the greatest cathedral in the world. This vision was given wide publicity as agents were sent throughout Christendom by the Pope to sensitize and prepare the heart of people for the day appointed.
In 1517, Luther discovered that the papal was already successful in raising a lot of money through this means; he therefore began to preach against trusting in indulgences. But he was not satisfied with the preaching alone, therefore on October 31, 1517, he wrote and posted his ninety five theses on the door of St. Paul’s Basilica to oppose the sale of indulgences. This was the event that is traditionally recognized as the beginning of reformation. SIGNIFICANCE OF REFORMATION
Owing to the Reformation, the Roman Catholic went through certain change which is popularly known as Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation. The Catholic Reformation was both a reaction to the Protestant Reformation and a conscious move to introduce changes in the morals and practices of the Church. David Bernard observed the claim by some catholic historians and theologians of today that the fundamental Catholic doctrine was correct until the middle Ages when numerous abuses and moral failures crept in as many of the Church leaders gave in to wrong doings thereby corrupting the system. This claim cannot be relied upon however, especially when history has it that “before the Reformation began, the Catholic humanists, the foremost of whom was Erasmus, were already questioning certain doctrines and practices and proposing ethical reforms. While not directly promoting new doctrines, they felt free to depart from both tradition and the literal meaning of the Scripture”(Bernard 1996, 162).
There were also attempts by some Catholic leader to reform the system in the church without necessarily altering the doctrine. Cardinal Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros in Spain was a prominent example whose immediate reaction to Protestant Reformation was to resist it. Some theologians engaged the Protestant leaders in a debate both orally and through writing as a way of contesting their new doctrines. Luther and Carlstadt were personally engaged in a debate by a prominent professor named John Eck (1486-1543). John Eck later wrote against Melanchthon who was a younger colleague to Luther and also against the Reformed leaders, Zwingli and Bucer. However, a deep thought of reform was provoked by the Protestant Reformation even among the loyalists of the Roman Catholic Church. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-63)
The 16th century Reformation left much of Europe vulnerable to the Protestants. A situation which opened the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church leaders to the need to uphold their traditional doctrines and disprove what according to their view are errors of the Protestantism, and to abolish corrupt practices in the Roman Catholic Church that allowed it to suffer criticisms from the Protestants. The hierarchy which includes the papacy had degenerated in their moral behavior as a result of quest for worldly pleasure including wealth, political and military power. Finally, there was sudden consciousness among the popes of the urgent need for thoughtful reform at all levels of the Church. This led to the convening of the Council of Trent in northern Italy in 1545 by Pope Paul III. The council met on three major occasions under the direction of some popes being theologically guided by the Jesuits. Their last session ended in 1563 and the council’s decrees were confirmed in 1564 by Pope Pius IV. The council of Trend was to critically consider some vital issues that have developed in the political, theological and ecclesiastical nature of the Church. emperor

At the end of their meeting, the council of Trend came up with the following results;
1. It emphasized and solidified the power of the pope within the Church hierarchy and over the Holy Roman emperor. The supreme authority to interpret and implement decisions was attributed to the pope by the council. A tradition that continued until the formal adoption of the doctrine of papal infallibility in 1870.
2. The council implemented moral and institutional reforms from the top to down. The changes were instituted by the pope and hierarchy who actually saw the need for it before its circulation to every level of the Church. It should be noted that this change only affected the traditional view of the church particularly, the moral and religious life of the Church and her government. It had nothing to do with her doctrine, liturgy and basic institutions.
3. The Council of Trent took a strict stand against the Protestants and in the process clearly defined Roman Catholic identity. According to Bernard, “The canons of the council repeatedly denounce distinctive Protestant positions, stating of anyone who holds them, “Let him be anathema [cursed]” (Bernard 1996, 172). MORAL REFORM
The council took it upon itself to introduce quite a number of significant moral modifications and established certain rules to serve as standard to checkmate the traditions and abolish common abuses in the system. One of the traditions that was considered as abuse was when a bishop abandons his office assignments and would only divert the income of the office to himself. This practice is otherwise called absenteeism. The council also abolished the practice of buying and selling of offices (simony); it put an end to nepotism (appointment of relatives) which was also a common practice among the popes; efforts were also made by the council to invalidate illegal ordination where young boys from prominent families were offered high ecclesiastical offices in the Middle Ages. History has it that after their ordination, the powers that be would go ahead to take them through clerical rankings in a very short period in order to make them qualify for the highest offices. Religious appointment at this period was determined by political, social and monetary influences and not necessarily based on moral and theological soundness. To curb the ever increasing abuses, the council came up with stringent conditions for occupying any office and process for ordination into priesthood. It also established the parameter for advancing through the various stages in the Church hierarchy. These were done to ensure that the right people were allowed to occupy different offices in the Church.
In addition, a provision was made to ensure that the priests were thoroughly equipped with better understanding of the scripture and the Roman Catholic doctrine by setting a higher standard for their theological education. It was believed that by so doing they would be in a better position to challenge the Protestants, whose reference and authority was the Bible, who also circulated difference translations of the Bible to the people in their native languages. The use of confessional box was introduced by the council so that parishioners would be given greater privacy and the priests being protected against temptation during confession. Trend reaffirmed the traditional rule which prohibit marriage and keeping of concubine among the clergy. It also admitted that the sales of indulgences had given room for a lot of abuses in the system. Therefore a ban was placed on the sales of indulgence which was the main cause of the Reformation. The method of granting indulgence based on donation was abolished by the council, who also ruled that good work would be the only basis for granting of same. This is actually a situation where one trades a Monkey for a dog. The fact remains that a four legged animal is still within his domain. Whether indulgence is granted based on donation or good works is not the issue. What the Church failed to recognize was that a person’s good works or donation apart from faith in God does not have the capacity to grant him/her eternal life. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
There was a massive transformation in the method of teaching owing to the Reformation and subsequent breaking of ties with the Roman Catholic. The medieval method was replaced with Renaissance system of education. Dr. Riemer Faber, a professor of Classics at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada is of the view that the Reformers were also concerned about the state of schools as much as they were concerning the Church. In one of his articles titled Martin Luther on Reformed Education he said and I quote;
It is sometimes forgotten that the Reformation was as much concerned with school as it was with church and home. Appreciating the role of education in directing church and society back to the source of the Christian faith, the reformers were committed to the schooling of the young. Accordingly, it is no exaggeration to state that as a result of the Reformation public education was much altered by the end of the sixteenth century” (Faber 2013).
It is believed that among Martin Luther’s early proposals at the beginning of the Reformation was the conversion of monasteries into schools. And prior to his death in 1546, he also proposed the establishment of school in Eislebien where he eventually died. Although the passion to bring Reformation to schools might not have started nor ended with the first generation of reformers, it is evident based on history that effort was more intensified in the 16th century to achieve the desired goal. The reformers were mostly interested in transforming the method of learning in accordance with what the scripture approved. There were lots of improvements in Christian education following the efforts of the first generation of reformers, however, the 16th century witnessed some remarkable changes and contributions especially in setting up school buildings, curriculum development, text book publication, and so on. The need for educational reform was considered to be an urgent matter at the beginning of the 16th century due to non-existence of school system. Prior to this period, teaching or learning was not made available for all in the society. It was limited to the children of wealthy merchants and city rulers.
Many of the Church institutions such as youths, choirs, etc. were being trained in the monastery under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Church. But when the corruption and abuses among the clergy became known to the people, there was massive reaction as the people no longer have confidence in the church to train their children. Many parents therefore withdrew their wards form the training. Owing to this development, it became the primary task of the reformers to assure parents of the well-being of their children adding that their spiritual development should be considered more important than their physical comfort.
In his bid for Christian education, Luther wrote a letter in 1524 to a group called the Councilmen of all cities in Germany urging them to establish and maintain Christian schools. He wrote the letter as a way of responding to the church run schools which at that time was in decline and the sentiments that were attached to the school system in both Wittenberg and elsewhere. The council was charged in the letter to ensure decency and promote godliness in the society. He made effort to convince them that adequate education would be of good benefit to both the Church and the state. Luther did not however limit his address to the council-men, he also wrote to challenge the citizens to arise to their own responsibilities. Whereas the councilmen were charged with the development of the society where Christian education would flourish, the citizens and especially parents were to nurture their offspring. Citing passages from the Bible such as Psalm 78:5-7; Deut. 21:18-21; Deut. 32:7, Luther challenged parents to teach their children the laws of God. Evidently, Luther alerted both parents and civic leaders to their respective responsibilities in educating their young ones asserting that the best and greatest welfare, safety and strength of a city is in no small measure determined by the number of learned, wise and well educated citizens it can boast of.
THE RISE OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
The main character behind the development of the Church of England was King Henry VIII. He was born in Greenwich Palace in London on June 28, 1491. He was the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of New York. Henry was a brilliant child and as a student, he studied under the English poet and comedian John Skelton who incidentally was his first tutor. Henry learned how to write and speak and studied languages, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy. “He was an even more capable athlete and excelled at hunting and wrestling. Henry loved music and could play, sing, and dance. When he was 11, Henry’s life was transformed by the death of his elder brother, Arthur” Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
In 1503 Henry lost both his mother and grandmother and was in the same year made Prince being the heir to the throne owing to the death of his elder brother. Henry’s upbringing was at this point the sole responsibility of his father who was known for his greediness. This aspect of his life must have effected and influenced his son who inherited a great wealth and a crown after the death of his father in 1509.
King Henry VIII of England considered himself a good Catholic king. He regularly attended mass and had always been supporting the church. He had strongly opposed Protestant heresy when it started which earned him the title, “the Defender of the Faith” from the papacy. But all of these were meaningless to Henry, who became uncomfortable when his marriage to Catherine of Aragon could not produce a male child after eighteen years of wedlock. Hence he thought of divorcing her for another woman who wiould give him a heir to his throne. Catherine suffered loss of children for many years but had only one daughter called Princess Mary who survived infancy. Out of desperation for a male child, Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn and through Wolsey he presented a request to the papacy for the annulment of his marriage with Catherine, arguing that it was illegal from the stand point of the Bible in Lev. 20:21. However, Henry’s request to Pope Clement VII could not be granted on the basis that the act was forbidden in the Church. But Henry, who felt that Wolsey was inefficient, replaced him with Sir Thomas More who also made the Lord Chancellor. But contrary to Henry’s expectation, More would not support his decision against his strong religious belief. Microsoft Encarta captured it thus; “English statesman Sir Thomas More was one of the officials most favored by England's King Henry VIII, but More was unable to disregard his belief in papal supremacy when Henry wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragón. More was imprisoned and sentenced to death when he refused to take an oath of supremacy (pledging loyalty to the king over that of the pope)” Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
But the circumstance surrounding the disapproval of the divorce filled by Henry was more of political than religious owing to the fact that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor was Catherine’s nephew. According to David Horton, “Clement refused as he was under pressure from Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain” (Horton 2006, 482). It was seemingly impossible for the pope to take side against Charles who was considered to be the most powerful ruler in Europe.
When it was clear to king Henry that the papacy would not grant the annulment of the marriage, he decided to take certain steps in order to get his wish accomplished. In 1531, he was declared the head of the Church in England by the English clergy. In 1532, following the approval of the papacy, he appointed Thomas Cranmer the archbishop of Canterbury, a post which was the highest ecclesiastical office in England. Cranmer was a friend and a chaplain to Boleyn household and was concerned for Henry’s wishes. In 1533, King Henry VIII secretly married Anne Boleyn and directed the Parliament to declare that the Church in England has the prerogative to take decision on issues that border on marriage without interference from the papacy. Owing to this development, the archbishop of Canterbury was to preside over the case of Henry’s marriage with Catherine. He granted Henry the sought after divorce and authenticated his marriage with Boleyn.
The king was finally declared the supreme head of the Church of England by the Parliament in 1534, a situation that could be considered as formal separation from the Roman Church. He ordered for the execution of prominent figures in the Roman Catholic who never supported his idea including Thomas More whom he appointed the Lord Chancellor. Henry dissolved the monasteries and confiscated the bulk of the Roman Catholic assets to himself. It should be noted that the vision of Henry was not to actually reform the Church but to make himself a more important figure than the pope. In the words of David Bernard, “Henry’s goal was the consolidation of political and ecclesiastical power under himself; he was not interested in reforming the practices and doctrines of the church. He sought to operate the church as always, substituting his authority for that of the pope” (Bernard 1996, 140). This hunt for self-glory by the king could only give birth to a Protestant church in nomenclature but Roman Catholic in doctrine and practice. History has it that even at the time when the Church of England became Protestant in theology, the Anglo-Catholics maintained intimacy with the Roman Catholic in terms of liturgy, tradition, and the significant of sacraments.
After the death of Henry, the protestant doctrines began to receive recognition under his successor, Edward VI, the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. The Book of Common Prayer was developed during his reign in 1549 by Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury. It became the liturgy and the standard for the Church in England. And in 1553, forty-two Articles of Religion were developed under the authority of Edward which was more of Cranmer’s contribution and these set forth the doctrine of the Church of England.
Edward died in 1553 and the only person that was next in line for the English throne was Mary, Henry’s daughter. She was a devout Catholic and was highly against the Protestant Church especially since it was the product of Henry’s divorce from her mother, Catherine of Aragon. With the use of persecution, she attempted to reinstate the Roman Catholic Church in England. She became known as the “Bloody Mary” as a result of her torture, execution and burning of many Protestants including Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop. However, Mary could not succeed in her plans owing to the fact that Protestant theology had already been strongly rooted in England. Mary’s reign lasted till 1558.
Elizabeth, another daughter of Henry VIII by Anne Boleyn took over from Mary as a Protestant. It was during her reign that the Church of England was firmly established as Protestant. She modified the forty-two Articles of Religion and reduced it to thirty-nine. And in 1517, copies were circulated.
Conclusively, the 16th century reformation had undoubtedly a far reaching significance throughout the continent of Europe irrespective of different forces involved. Generally, the medieval tradition which has been for centuries received a radical reform. Economically, there was growth in modern capitalism owing to the destruction of the medieval system of authority which helped in dealing with traditional religious restrictions on trade and banking. Power and wealth which formally lied with the Church were lost to the middle classes and monarchical rulers. Several religions in Europe were accorded political, religious and cultural independence. The emphasis on personal judgment by the protestant paved way for democratic government which was determined by the collective choice of individual voters. One of the greatest impacts of the 16th century reformation in Europe was the writing of religious literatures and other books in the language of the people which encouraged better learning and understanding.
Additionally, the cultural life in entire Europe was also affected by the Reformation. It developed in the society the desire to adopt a wholesome life by cutting down on their corrupt and illicit acts. Nick, Mayer has demonstrated in his article titled “Effects of the Protestants Reformation” that the social effect was based on the decision by the Church to do away with what is evil. In his words, “this is attributed to the idea that as the churches began to draw the line on what is acceptable and what is not, people began to live a more holy life in all senses” (Mayer 2009). This development made it difficult for the government of different countries in Europe to continue to have their way by paying off the Church since religion has a lot to contribute in the government and the state. Owing to this development, issues were addressed by the government to suit the new way of life in the society which include influencing the Church by paying them so that their opinion would be enforced and become socially acceptable.

REFERENCE LIST
Bernard, David K. 1996. A History of Christian Doctrine Volume Two; Word Aflame Press. USA.
Faber, Riemer Dr. 2013. Martin Luther on Reformed Education: http/www.spindlework.com
Horton, David. 2006. The Portable Seminary. Bethany House Publishers: Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Mayer, Nick. 2009. Effects of the Protestants Reformation. www.yahoo.com/effects-protestant-reformation
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church