three theoretical practices

Antoinette Jackson
Into. Sociology
Mon-Wed. 4:55-6:20
Three Major Theoretical Traditions The question that I hear the most with being a sociology major is “what is sociology?” sociology is the systematic study of the relationship between the individual and society and the consequnces of differences (Witt). Sociologists study the interrelationships between individuals, organizations, cultures and societies". Ritzier ("Sociology", 1979). With that are three main theoretical traditions that operate within sociology, there is structure functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactions. These three theories shape sociology, there are other smaller theories, but these are the most important to understand. The main premise of structure functionalism is for that every social structure there must be a function that sustains society. The main premise of conflict theory is that there is an unequal distribution of resources in society, and the main premise of symbolic interactions is that society is structured by interaction-shaped symbols. This discussion is going to explore the three major theories traditions of society, and to the functions to maintain social order.

Structure functionalism is the study of social and cultural wonders in terms of the functions they perform in a sociocultural system. There are two types of functions: manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are detailed functions that a society, a group, or individuals intended to do. Latent functions are not intended and are a result of manifest functions. In others words, a manifest function is a specifically stated goal of one of our institutions, but due to that function there can be some untended consequences that occur. French sociologist Emile Durkheim based his life’s work on the structure functionalism theory, he help establish sociology by arguing that society had to be studied on its own terms, and that studying individual psychology was insufficient. Durkheim believed that societies are held together by shared values that change over time. The development of functionalism was based on the model of the organic system found in the biological sciences. Various organs of a living thing work together in order to maintain a healthy whole in much the same way that various institutions in society work together to produce social order. Durkheim took this organic likeness and developed it into an outlook that would become structural-functionalism (Stolley). Most social systems tend to remain largely unaffected as long as all of their parts are function correctly. This refers to equilibrium (balance) and when it’s disturbed the system can fail to do their functions. Equilibrium must be dynamic because society is always changing and somehow change must be tolerated. As an example of an off balanced social system, I think of a store owner, there’s owner, store manager, shift leader, and cashiers. There are many things that can cause unbalance in the store system. A cashier calling in sick, late supply deliveries, and faulty registers. Equilibrium can be restored by employees working harder, employees working overtime, and hiring of more staff. Neo-functionalism expands the perspective by trying to respond to critics in such ways as incorporating some of the ideas of conflict theorists and also recognizing the importance of the micro perspective. Neo-functionalists argued that by rethinking some of the basics of functionalism and focusing on how it links with micro perspectives, much of this criticism can be overcome (Collins).

Conflict theory is also one of the three major theoretical traditions. Marxist-based social theory which argues that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Conflict theory explains the inequalities of money, gender, class, and age in the most exact way. These types of characteristics clearly form advantages and disadvantages for people. Social conflict establishes every person into a group that either benefits, or is handicapped, by their place in society hierarchy. Weber felt that there are even more types of conflict, since every cultural group (such as ethnic, religious, or intellectual groups) can also struggle for advantage. In addition, economic conflict takes place in three different types of market relations, pitting employers against workers, producers against consumers, and lenders against borrowers (Wiley 1967). As the dominant, bourgeois class pursues its interests and strengthens its monopolistic control over the economic order, it becomes increasingly in the interest of the working class to overthrow the capitalist system that holds it captive and exploits its labor. As capitalist society develops historically, Marx argued that it “is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other—bourgeoisie and proletariat” (Marx & Engels, 1955: 10). The bourgeoisie or capitalist class are the owners of the manufacturing system who reap the profits from the sale of material goods. The proletariat or working class are no owners of capital who are forced to exchange their labor for wages paid by capitalist employers. To illustrate it, get a cheap bag of candy--like starburst or M&M. This represents the limited resources in a society. Then, divide the class into groups. Ask them to answer questions about conflict theory that you prepare in advance. Each time they answer it correctly, that group gets a piece of candy (I randomize the amount so that they can earn 1, 2, or 3 pieces for a question). However there is a catch! Whoever got the question right cannot eat the candy. First, they have to put all of the candy they earn into a pool in the center of their group. After you have asked all of the questions, the group must divide the candy among all group members using the following rules:
1) you cannot cut or divide the candy pieces
2) everybody in the group must get at least one piece of candy.
Often, there is not an equal division of resources, so the group has to give some people more than others. How did they decide? If they divided equally, why? Did everyone contribute equally?
Both the competition for candy and the division of the candy are examples of conflict theory.

The symbolic interactionism perspective has a long intellectual history, beginning with the German sociologist and economist, Max Weber (1864-1920) and the American philosopher, George H. Mead (1863-1931), both of whom emphasized the subjective meaning of human behavior, the social process, and pragmatism. Symbolic interactionism says that perception determines reality. For example if a person thinks that racism is rampant in a society, that person is more likely to feel themselves being the victim of racism ... even if no racism exists, that perception of racism determines that person's reality. There are three principles of symbolic interactionism, first is that reality is social constructed thru interactions with others (morality, values, and roles). Second is social action that is influenced by beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions, meanings as understood at the moment (dramaturgical). Third is that rules are subject to change of you don’t like them work for change. (What is perceived as real is real in its consequences). The concept of symbolic interactionism is internalization and the degree to which one believes in the expected roles and socialization and learning the social rules. The theory of symbolic interactionism draws on three important parts: meaning, language, and thought. People assign different meanings to objects or people they come into contact with and act differently depending on the specific meaning they've given that person or thing. To express themselves to each other, people create language as a set of symbols to give names to the different meanings we find in the world. Finally, people use thought to examine their beliefs and change their interpretation of things based on new information they've learned about the object or person. These are the three major theoretical traditions in sociology.