UGC 111 notes

UGC 111
Professor David Buell
Lecture 8: Ancient Greece
Part 1: Minoans and Mycenaeans
Hellas – Greece
Greece controlled parts of the Mediterranean
Dictaean Mounatins – Crete
Plains and valleys separated
Communication was poor
Greece was politically fragmented
Mountainous; Suitable land and tree crops
Olive, vines
Suitable land for pastoral activities (herding of sheep and goat)
Mediterranean Sea
Situated within a close distance of the sea
Sea faring people; trade network with Italy and the Eastern in particular
Natural resources: fish
Paleolithic axes from Crete
Homo Erectus (upright human) – 1.8million – 300,000 years ago
Came to island of Crete through sea faring
The Minoans and the Mycenaeans
Homo sapiens sapiens (ie. Modern humans) – 100,000 years ago
7000-6500 BC agricultural farming communities
3500 BC – Bronze weapons and tools
Trade with the Near East
The Greek Bronze Age: Minoans and Mycenaeans
Minoans is the prehistoric of Crete
Mycenaens is the prehistoric of the mainland
Development of cities on the island of Crete, then on main land
Thescus slaying the Minotaur
Minos = King of Crete; tyrant and rules with an iron fist
The Labyrinth = maze that Minos own
The Minotaur = beast
Half human, half bull
Minos feed the Minotaur Athenians
He sends a number of boys and girls
Theseus
Outsmarts Minos in the Labyrinth
Assisted by Minos’s daughter
She gave him a string to help him through the maze
Kills the Minotaur
Later broke up with Minos’s daughter
Arthur Evans = archaeologist
Knossos
Minoans trading outposts throughout the Mediterranean
The Island of Santorini (location of one of the outposts) – Eruption ca 1470 BC
Thera – Minoan colony
Eruption sent a massive tsunami to Crete (evidence of destruction on the sea-coast)
Volcanic ash preserved a lot of the Minoan artifacts (houses, objects etc.)
Minoan houses; rain led to collapse of the rooftops
The Palace of Knossos or… The Palace of Minos (ca. 1900-1100 BC)
Social hierarchies develop which led to extravagant palaces
The palace had places for ceremonial functions, manufacturing of products (metals); served as the political capital for these small states; had storage spaces (palace collected tax from surrounding country side) – comes in form of agricultural stuff
The Central Courtyard at Knossos
Bull leaping took place in these courtyards (ceremonial event (?))
Bulls = important in a religious context (connection to religion)
Emphasized on the community
Frescoes = painting on walls (individuals sitting watching people dance within these large places)
Could be meeting places for events like dancing
Lavish building: well-cut stones; well-constructed buildings; highly decorated
The Minoans like to depict scenes of nature in art; (marine fresco = dolphin fresco)
In storage spaces: grain, wine, olive oil
Mount Juktas- A Minoan Peak Sanctuary
Minoans didn’t worship in temples but in shrines on high mountain peaks (Peak Sactuaries)
Communicated with Gods (the peaks are higher to the Gods)
Large, open-air, high spaces
Each palace have a peak sanctuary and can be seen from the courtyard
Minoan Writing
1) Pictographs- pictures representing various things (ex. The Phaistos Disk – in spirals)
2) Hieroglyphs- 1700-1600 BC- Minoans somehow adopted Egyptian idea
3) Linear A (syllabic + ideograms)- consists of various inscriptions all made by a line
Undeciphered; therefore we have no idea what language they spoke
Documented from what were in the storages
Ex. Linear A tablets – wrote on them, then erase
Massive destructions on Crete – massive fires that destroyed the palaces
The olive oil in storage spaces fueled the fires and explosions
The Mycenaeans
These people might have invaded Crete (1400-1300 BC)
Illiad and the Odyssey = epic poems written about the Mycenaens
Two cultures interact between the Mycenaens and the Minoans
Mycenaean Greece (1800-1180 BC)
Mycenae
Excavated by famous archaeologist called Heinrich Schliemann
Ruled by Agamemnon in the Illiad
Mycenaeans = Indo – Europeans
The city of Mycenae
Mycenae – Grave Circle A – ca. 1600 BC
Change of how people were buried
Circular tomb
Individuals were provided with lavish things: shroud, gold objects, death masks, metal objects, weapons (swords, spears)
Ex. lion-hunt dagger; death mask of “Agamemnon”
Mycenaean Tholos Tomb – “Beehive Tomb”
Circular burial chamber
Approached itself by a long passage way
Built into hill sides (covered by the earth)
Corbelled arch – structure (valve consisted of stones) (beehive term comes from this)
Build with elaborate building materials through human labor
Stand as markers for the elites of Mycenaeans society
The Palace of Pylos Or… The Palace of Nestor
Served as economical, social, and political purposes like the Minoans
Megaron = central unit of the palace
Organized around a central building, Megaron
These Megarons were H-shaped buildings and contained a hearth which was surrounded by columns
Described in the Illiad and the Odyssey
Megaron = throne room for people to meet the King (emphasized on the king)
King receives various objects and were entertained
Frescoes from Pylos – depicts an individual sitting on a rock playing a lyre (bart/bard (?))
Skirts, armor – depicted as Mycenaens
Buried with arms and armor
Helmet made out of tusks
Depicted as great warriors; fought with the Cretens and the Minoans
They also fought with each other
Used massive stones for their fortifications
Cyclopean architecture
Walls were built really high (built by “Cyclops”?)
Mycenaean Writing
Linear B (syllabic script)- symbols with vowels and constants
Michael Ventris – codebreaker in WWII
Compared it to ancient and modern Greek
Linear B was undeciphered but he found that Linear B is similar to the Greek
Greek
Collapse of the Mycenaeans
1180 BC
Sea Peoples, Civil Unrest, Troubles to the North (Northern Invaders coming to Greece), Drought, etc..
Cities abandoned
Depopulation
Migration
Dark Ages

Lecture 10: Greece, Pt. 2
The Dark Ages – The Archaic Period
The Collapse of Mycenaean Civilization
1180 BC
Sea Peoples, Civil Unrest, Troubles to the North, Drought, etc..
Cities abandoned
Collapse of Palaces – various cultural arts disappearing
Lost of writing (degeneration of art after Bronze Age)
Depopulation
Migration
Dark Ages
Ancient Greece
Dark Ages – 1100-753 BC
Archaic Period – 750-500 BC
Classical Period
Hellenistic Period
The Dark Ages (1180–750 BC)
Poverty and recession
Depopulation
Decline in the standard of living
Isolation
Stagnation – degradation of art
Migrations to the other parts of the Mediterranean
Revival
900-800 BC
Iron (resources were used)
Individuals turning to iron work
Small local iron industries all over Greece
Most tools and weapons are made out of iron instead of bronze
Art- human representation
Ex. From the Dipylon cemetery in Athens (ca. 760-750 BC)
Depicting funeral perception
Luxury objects
Gold, silver, ivory objects
Greece looking outwards towards end of Dark Age
Establishment of fairly-sophisticated economic market
The Polis (pl. poleis)
Athens, Argos, Corinth, Knossos and Sparta
Polis = City-state
City where a new concentration of people who controls the hinder-lands (large territories)
City + hinterlands
City + hinderlands (chora) – vast tracks of land
Several agricultural villages
Independent Greek settlements led to development of own walls (conflicts with each other)
Acropolis (ceremonial order)
Major temples located here
Public festivals
Agora (political center, market place)
Functioned as main market place of the Polis
Where they brought their produce and perform trading activity
Area where political buildings were located (ex. chambers for meeting)
Each polis was different!!!
Quite diverse
Ex. Athens – democracy
Ex. Sparta – monarchy (2 kings)
Ex. Others are ruled by councils and aristocrats
Each polis comprised of community of citizens with distinct customs and laws
Great Migration and Colonization
Migration in the Dark Ages (refugees)
People fleeing
Ionia (coast of Asia Minor)
Colonization in the Archaic Period
Magna Graccia (Greater Greece)
Greece settled in various places such as Sicily, Italy, etc.
Spread of Greek culture all over the Mediterranean
Interacted with the natives which led to trade
Trade networks
Phoenicians and Greeks Phoenicians (“Purple People”) – traded purple clothes, metal, etc.
Greek interacted with these Phoenicians
Traded olive oil, wine, vessels, iron products with them
Early Greek Writing
Adapted from Phoenician alphabet ca. 800 BC
Phoenicians: one of the first people who developed the alphabet
The interactions between the Greek and Phoenicians led to the Greeks developing their new type of writing using the alphabet
Trade
Writing used to facilitate trade
Epic
Wrote on broken fragments of vessels
Left them on various sanctuaries as gifts to God
Laws – ca. 650 BC
Ex. The Dreros Law Code
Homer and Epic Poetry
750-720 BC
The Iliad and The Odyssey
Homer – a blind bard reciting these two epics
Detail the events of the Trojan War
These epics were composed and recomposed on the spot
Repetitive passages in both works (can be as long as 10-15 lines)
Stock phrases
Epithet = descriptor (e.g. Swift-footed Achilles)
Names in the epics were preceded by these descriptors
Oral Tradition
Continuously performed and stories were ever-changing
Passed down from generation to generation
Homer perfected the poems with his own personal signature
The Trojan War
The Trojan War
The Heroic Past
Paris from Troy went to the home of the Greek king and stole his wife, Helen
Helen of Troy
Greeks vs. Trojans
10 Year War
Greek victory
Tells us a little bit about the Bronze Age
Stories passed down through time
Mythology
Mythos = word or utterance
Possible Quiz Question*
(Mythology – traditional stories set in the past and of collective importance)
Traditional stories set in the past
Depict actions of divine beings, humans, and semi-divine heroes
Collective importance
Important to everybody in their specific culture
Gods/goddesses, heroes/ heroines
Hesiod – ca. 750-650 BC
Heavens, earth, and the underworld (Hades)
Primal entities (e.g. Chaos, Gaea, Tartarus -underworld god, Uranus -sky God, etc..)
Titans (e.g. Cronus and Rhea)
Children forced to stay on Earth
Cronus became king of new generation of Gods, the Titans
Refuses to allow children to be born
Swallows the children (afraid one of these Gods would overpower him and take his position)
Gaea tricks Cronus by giving him a stone
Took the child that Cronus was about to swallow, Zeus, and hid Zeus
Fought against Titans
Zeus became 3rd ruler of the universe
Olympian gods 1: Zeus, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Demeter
Olympian gods 2: Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Hermes, Ares, Hephaestus, Dionysus, and Aphrodite)
Heavens inhabited by Gods  Earth inhabited by human Underworld
The Greek Gods
Anthropormorphic
Stronger, more beautiful and more powerful than humans
…but psychologically similar
Live in families, being competitive, etc.
Not all powerful
Restricted by limited knowledge
Being wounded
Gods can suffer pain
Can be permanently in prison
Appeasement through formal rituals
Communal, not a private religion
Favors were promoted through rituals which were organized by priests
Temples- became larger; mostly rectangular; labyrinth painting and decorations
Temples built all over Greek world

Lecture 10: Greece, Pt. 3
The Archaic – Classical Period
Pan-Hellenic = all of Greece
Shared heritage, language, customs and religion
Ex. Plan of the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi
Ex. The Temple of Apollo at Delphi
Plan of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia
Olympic Games established in 776 BC* (remember date)
Held every four years (very important)
Aristos = best
Agon = contest or struggle
Olympic Truce (no fighting during games so athletes can travel)
Individual won wreathes
Victors acquire fame, gifts of honor from hometown (large sums of money, prizes)
The Family, and Greek Society
Oikos = home / household
Land is worked by family; more sons and daughters = provide more labor
Some who were wealthier used slaves
Patrilineal and patriarchal society
Everything belongs through the male’s line
When father dies, properties are divided amongst the sons
Males – primarily authority figure; power of life and death in household
Wealth derived from agricultural properties
Social classes:
Citizens – males born from other citizens
Metics (foreigners) ; many people start living in these cities (merchants, artisans); however, they are not citizens
Freedmen (ie. Freed slaves)
Slaves (Horrible to be one, good to possess one); individuals captured in war or kidnapped
Hoplite = citizen soldier
Citizens who owned land have to serve in military for various times
Have to be able to afford his own equipments
Usually land owners + having some sort of economic means
Outfitted with metal helmets, breastplates, leg protectors, grieves, large shields (hoplon), sword, spear
Hoplon = shield
Phalanyx = battle formation
# of hoplites standing shoulder to shoulder in a square and interlock their shields as protection
Spears as primary weapons: running to each other like tanks and clash + stab over on top of their shields
Swords underneath the shields
Neck + genital wounds
Trireme
Warship
Takes its name from three banks of oar)
Fast and sat low in water; light-weight
Possess one man per oar
Outfitted with 10 marines
Powered by man and wind (man-powered; wind-powered through sails
Attack = ramming and boarding
Outfitted with a ram (rowing up to another ship and puncture a hole on its side)
Wealthy benefactors would buy these ships and outfitted by individuals who didn’t possess as much money
Political Systems of the Greek Poleis
Democracy = rules by the demos (ie. People)
Citizenship restricted to adult males, therefore large group were excluded (women, slaves, foreigners)
Oligarchy = rule by the few
Ruled by wealthy individuals; nobles; elites; aristocrats
Tend to listen to the people (need support from the people)
Generally do good things
Monarchy = rule by one (ie. A King)
Tyranny = rule by a tyrant (extra-constitutional strongman)
Extra constitutional strong-man
Somebody usually able to use their wealth to rule
Not hereditary
Benefited society
Social welfare, public monuments, etc. (needed support from people)
Sparta and Athens
Athens – navy
Located on the coast; interested in trade
Very liberal
Sparta – army
Not interested in trade
Very conservative
Individuals start colonizing other places
Sparta and Athens took part
Sparta solved land problems by taking parts of Messene
Reduced entire population to slavery
Sparta
Lycurgus – 820-730 BC (legendary king)
Lycurgan Reforms
All Spartan citizen were required to serve in military since they conquered Messene
Worried that the slaves from Messene will rise up
Creates a standing army against these slaves
Military training began at age of 7-60
Spartans earn reputations for being mightiest warrior in the world
Rather come home victorious or dead with shield
Spartans were carried home with shield when they die; retreat is never an option
Spartan women owns household, land
Expected to be strict mothers and good wives
Trained to produce strong male offspring
Household labor done by Helots (slaves that were owned by the state)
Helot = state slave
Monarchy + Oligarchy + Democracy = Spartan political system
Top of political system: 2 kings
Kings were hereditary
In order to prevent kings from getting too powerful
Gerousia = Council of elders
Individuals over 60
Prepared bills
Comprised of all Spartan warriors
Voting; saying yes
Athens
Oligarchy at first
Aristocrats begin to seize land from others
Slavery
Fewer landowners = fewer hoplites
Bad year  hungry  taking food  surplus lessens
Wealthy landowner buying entire farms
People selling themselves to slavery; citizen body starts shrinking
Individuals not longer to afford weapons, armor
Draco – law code in 621 BC
Laws belonged to citizens (everybody equal before the law)
Recorded on wooden tablets so everyone can see
Harsh laws --- death penalty
Laws concerning homicide, murder, debts and credits
“Draconian” term means you are harsh!
Solon
638-558 BC
Archon = chief magistrate of Athens
594-593 BC reforms
Charismatic poet
Solon creates political, economic and moral reforms for demands of rich and less fortunate people
Freed people who sold themselves into slavery
Tried to expand citizen body
Introduced standardized coinage (coin with Athenia) – boost trade
Restrict them from trading produce but to use it for the citizens of Athens
Olive oil = essential big thing in trading with other people
Poor and rich were the same in the eyes of the law
Boule = council
400 individuals who prepared agenda for discussions in assembly
Comprised of wealthier individuals
Ecelesia = general assembly
Comprised of the common people who voted
Citizens can choose the political figures
Cleisthenes
508-509 BC
Boule – 500 men chosen by lot from all Athenian citizens (improvised)
Isonomia = the equality of rights for all
Ostracism = voted exile
A practice where a vote where 6,000 citizens would exile an individual for 10 years
Used against an individual who go against the democratic principle (ex. trying to be a tyrant)
Individuals met; scratch names on pottery
Ostracism abused – reporting neighbors, etc
Democracy?
Excluded non-citizens including freed men, metics, and women

The Classical Period
500-338 BC
The “Golden Age” of Greece
Flowering of the arts, architecture, philosophy, drama, and literature
…but lots of war…
Herodotus
484-425 BC
The Histories
The Father of History
The first anthropologist
Wrote an account of the Persian War between the Greeks and the Persians
Traveled all over Egypt to find the accounts of the Persian War
Weird stories from people from other land

Lecture 11 – Greece, pt. 4
Classical – Hellenistic Periods
- 2nd Quiz – Next week Wednesday
- Research topics posted online (Research Paper)
Herodotus
484-425 BC
The Histories – Persian War
The Father of History
The first anthropologist
The Ionian Revolt
499 BC
Ionian Greeks + Athenians vs. the Persians
Colonialization of Greeks under the Persians

Sack of Sardis, 499 BC
The Greek colonies revolt
Sent embassies asking for help and only Athens respond
Athens sent limited money and men
The Athenians end up leaving the Ionian Greek city-states
When Greek sack city of Sardis, they destroyed the religious settlements
Angered the Persians
Persian king = Darius
Revolt put down by this king
The Battle of Marathon
490 BC
Athenians and Plateans vs. Persians
Spartans – festival to Pan
Spartans were celebrating a religious festival when Athens asked for help
Athenians victorious!
Athenians and Plateans won against the Persians
Persians were fairly unprepared with the military formation
During battle, Persians left Greece and retreated
Athenians gathered the dead and buried them at Marathon
Burial mound = tumulus
Buried in heaps
Left as a monument representing honor and victory; remembered as war heroes
Persian Wars Pt. 2
Xerxes, the king of Persia, mounts new expedition to Greece in 480-479 BC
Battle of Thermopylae
The Greeks united together to fight the Persians
At first, Persians were fairly successful
Thermopylae – a pass that allow access to rest of Greek
The Greeks thought they could stall the Persians at Thermopylae
Allowed time to muster their forces
Greeks were victorious
Leonidas
Athens destroyed
Athens abandoned their city
Athens allowed access to interior of Greece
Persia destroy all the religious buildings for a retribution of what the Athens had done
Battle of Salamis (sea)
Battle of Plataea (land)
Spartans, etc. were able to defeat the Persians
Why did the Greeks win?
Superior armor and weapons (the Hoplite)
Superior tactics (the phalanx)
Superior navy (the trireme)
Knowledge of the land
Independent poleis
They had everything to lose…
The Delian League
Naval alliance between the numerous Greek city-states (headquarter on island of Delos)
Intention - Liberate Ionia
Liberate rest of the city states from Persia and prevent Persian threats
Money of ships
Under the leadership of Athens
They moved the headquarters to Athens
Treasury at Delos, but then moved to Athens
Prohibit other allies from leaving the League
430s Athenian Empire
Athens became powerful
The Spartans became concerned about the Athenians’ rising power
Thucydides
460-395 BC
Athenian general
Exiled
History of the Peloponnesian War
Detailed the war events as it happened
Pericles
495-429 BC
Athenian stratagos (general)
He moved the treasury to Athens
Funeral Oration
Praised Athens- leading example, etc.
Athens as the “school of Hellas”
Used the money from the Delian League to beautify the city
- Well decorated on interiors and exteriors
- Cultural representation of Athenian life, Greeks battling, hoplites fighting, Gods fighting giants – metaphorical; represented order over chaos (Athens = order, Persians = chaos)
The Peloponnesian War
460s-446 BC; 431-404 BC
Sparta vs. Athens
Sparta + Athens = too different and too powerful!
- Athens used their strength (the navy) the fight the Spartans
- Problem – Spartans were really far in-land
Plague in 431 BC
- Unsanitary living conditions in Athens since everyone moved into the city
- Pericles died from Plague (their political figure)
- Other political figures try to stride to take over
- Deviates from original strategy
- These new political figures led to successful invasions of other cities
Athens invade Sicily – 415 BC
- Athens lost after intense battle
- Countryside laid waste; massive loss of life; agriculture destroyed; plague; drained of resources
Sparta wins the Peloponnesian War
- Dismantled Athens’ wall
Oligarchy in Athens
- Spartan got rid of their democracy and replaced it with oligarchy
- Only lasted a couple of years
- Struggle between Sparta and Athens (two were very powerful and different)
Greek Literature and Drama
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, etc…
Plays at festivals
- Drama performed with social commentary
- Much like Olympic Games; prizes given; these playwrights competed with each other
All citizens could attend
In large theatres (ex. Theatre at Epidarus)
Philosophy
Archaic Period
Rational explanation
Pre-Socratic
- Thought everything were made out of simple elements
- Fire, air, earth and water
Democritus (ca. 460) – atoms (made out of invisible and indestructible forces)
Hippocrates (470-400 BC)
- Sought with natural means to deal with diseases
- Medicine (sickness from physical problems)
- Humors (blood, phlegm, black and yellow bile)
- Imbalance of bodily fluid – disease
- Balancing these bodily liquids could make an individual healthy
- Letting nature take its course; not letting physical force
Sophists – lived in Athens
- Politics and language (questions beliefs and laws)
- Taught for money
- Charged the aristocrats money in order to teach

Socrates
470-399 BC
Philosophy to politics and people
Ethical issues
Questioning (ie. Socratic dialogue)
Executed (corrupting the youth)
- Forced to commit suicide
Plato, 427-34 BC (his pupil)
- Founded the philosophical school called the Academy
Greece after the Peloponnesian War…
Sparta in power
Sparta vs. Thebes
Thebes in power
- Rises up and destroy the Spartas
The rise of Philip II of Macedon
- Macedonians worshiped same Gods as Greek
- Spoke Greek with an accent
- Interested in raising horse breeding; horse raising
- Monarchical system – ruled by king
Philip II of Macedon
King of Macedon, 359-336 BC
Defeats Thebans in 338 BC
League of Corinth, 338/337 BC
- Incorporated Greece into his empire
Changed the military
- Devises military strategy to take over Persia
- Unable to initiate this invasion
Assassinated in 336 BC
- In tombstone, discovered he took a blow to the head; damage to the right eye
- Reproduction of Philip’s face
Father of Alexander
The Macedonian Phalanx (military formation)
Created by Philip II
Sarissa = long pike
- Long spear with an advantage of longer reach in front lines of warfare
Phalanx, cavalry, peltasts (lightly armed troops – bows and arrows to harrass) and siege equipment (ex. catapult used first time in Mediterranean)
Cavalry = hetairoi (companions)
- Philip and his son Alexander inspired the troops; traveled, fought, camped with the troops
- Fostered group identity
Alexander the Great
356-323 BC
Persia
- fought Persians in many battles and later became king of Persia
- Absorbs Greek
Found a city called Alexandria
Largest empire – Greece to India
- Soldiers exhausted refused to go farther
- Set out to return to Macedonia
- Made it as far to Babylon and died from numerous wounds, exhaustion, excessive drinking
Died in Babylon in 323

Lecture 12: The Hellenistic World – The Romans
Quiz # 2
Wednesday, March 6th
Minoans to Augustus + Recitation Readings
20 Multiple Choice (20 marks)
5 Fill in the blanks (5 marks)
- Ex. Founding of the Olympic Games Date
3 Short Answers (15 marks)
1 Compare and Contrast (10 marks)
Alexander the Great
356-323 BC
Persia – 330 BC
- Finally able to defeat the Persians
- Absorbs Persian empire into his own empire
- Became king of Persia
Alexandria
- City near Nile
- Become largest in the world
- Cultural center: development of schools; major library that collected all works from ancient world
Largest empire – Greece to India
- Turned attention to eastward
- 10 years of hard fighting
- Once reached India, soldiers refused to move on (strike)
- Alexander forced to return home
- Never makes it back to Macedonia
Died in Babylon in 323 BC ***Remember date*****
- Causes: wounds; partying
- Died at 32
- Established Macedonia empire but crumbled after he died
The Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Ptolemy = Egypt
Antigonus = Macedonia
Selecucus = western Asia to India
Once Alexandra dies, each of his generals decides to be sole leader
- Didn’t leave a successor
- Whoever is strongest can be the king
Civil War for 43 years between these generals
Spread of Greek ideas and traditions
- New Greek cities with temples – religion spreads
- Establishment of trade
Cities and colonies settled with Greek and Macedonians
Hellenistic Trade
Standarized weights, coins and measures
Spread of Greek language
Roads
Spread of luxury goods
Science, Technology, and Mathematics
Result of mixing of Greek customs and with those in other areas
Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BC) – heliocentrism
- Sun is larger than Earth, stars were distant)
- Planets revolve around the Sun
Euclid (300s BC) – geometry
Archimedes (287-212 BC) – water screw, compound pulley, mathematics
- Interested in military technology
- Innovation in siege equipments
- Principle of weight of solid on liquids = weight of solid displaced

The Romans
Roman History
The Etruscans – prior to 750’s
The Monarchy – 753-509 BC
The Republic – 509-27 BC
The Empire – 27 BC-476 AD
Etruscans, People of Latium, Greeks, Early Romans, Gauls, Carthaginians (Phoenicians)
The Etruscans
Adapted Greek alphabet (not much knowledge obtained from writing)
Knowledge from their remains
- Rich mortuary rituals
- Buried in house tombs (underground rock-cut chambers that mimics a house)
- Room with pillars (sculpted tools and implements); ex. butcher knives, ceiling
- Women had equal relationship as husbands
Early Rome
On the Tibur River
7 Hills (Palatine and Capitoline, etc…)
- United these hills and created Rome
Rome founded in 753 BC****Remember Date*****
Monarchy: 750-509 BC
Forum Romanium (marketplace)
Alphabet, togas (clothing), and fasces (bundle of rods tied around axe – symbol of authority and power; power of life over death)
Romans adopted a lot from the Etruscans
- Religion
- Alphabet
The Founding of Rome (we don’t really know where they came from)
Created mythology to know more about the founding of Rome
Aeneas- one of the few Trojan survivors; hero
- Left Troy with father and son and had adventures in Mediterranean
The Aeneid by Virgil (accounted in this story)
Numitor and Amulius
Mars (Roman God of war) + Rhea Silva = Romulus and Remus
- Romulus and Remus exposed on the Tibur river
- Shepards takes them home
- Found Rome
Rome founded in 753 BC
Roman myths – virtues: bravery, fighting and speaking well, piety, and putting the city before oneself
Tried to connect themselves with Greek mythology, stories involving the Trojan War
Roman mythology tried to input value; citizens and soldiers of Rome putting city before themselves; tremendous respect for God

7 kings of Rome
- Elected by the senate (council of noble men)
Tarquinias Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) – last king
The Rape of Lucretia (virtuous woman)
- Lucretia commits suicide after getting raped by son of Tarquinias Superbus
Lucius Junius Brutus
- Led a rebellion
- Elected 1st council of Rome
Roman Republic 509 BC
Roman Social Classes
Patricians – aristocracy (nobles; wealthy)
Eques/ Equites – “Knights.” – Wealthy merchants
Plebeians – common people
- Didn’t have much say in political system
Government During the Republic
Consuls (ea year, 2 consuls elected – served 1 year term)
- Wartime; consuls held highest military position
- Held state religion
Practors
- Served justice
- Served as governors
Senate (753 BC – AD 603)
- Advisor body used in interest of King
- Senators appointed by consuls (senators for life once appointed)
- Advised the consuls and other officers of military and political matters
- Handled government’s finances
- Dealt with foreign policies
- Senate met at Curia (senate house) from time of Julius Caesar
Senatus populusque Romanus (SPQR)
- The Roman Senate and the People (translation)

Conflict of the Orders
494 -287 BC
Military strike
- Plebians formed a strike
- They were the bulk of the Roman army
- Rome always felt threatened so Senate changed things up
- Plebians were allowed to elect own officials
Marriage
- Patricians were allowed to intermarry
Tribunes – veto power
Laws of the Twelve Tables
- Asked for law code to be published and Patricians used it as they pleased (Laws of the Twelve Tables)
Offices opened up
Roman Military and Expansion
Citizen army
- In summers, they went to campaigns
- Used army to conquer the groups in Italy
- Rome tried to consolidate Italy
Adapts/absorbs elements of local people’s customs
Gauls, Etruscans, Samnites, and Greeks
Roman Religion
Etruscan and Greek
Individual and State
Individual: genius/genii (spirits)
State: Pantheon
- Priests = pontiffs
- Head Priest = pontifex maximus - Jupiter = Zeus (sky God) - Juno = Hera (Queen of God) - Neptune = Poseidon - Mars = Ares - etc…
Honored Gods in welfare of the state
Roman Gods taking on aspects of Greek Gods
- No problem incorporating deities
- Piety – afraid of angering Gods
- Essentially wanted every God on their side for military
The Punic Wars
Rome vs. Carthage (Phoenician colony)
1. 264-241 BC (Sicily) – under control of Carthage
- Romans developed navy rather quickly
- Tremendously good at adapting situations
- Took Sicily
- Carthage colonized Spain for their silver, gold (mineral resources) for money after war
2. 218-201 BC (Spain, Italy and North Africa)
- Land based
- Army of elephants
- Hannibal – thought he could convince others to rebel in Rome
- None of the indigenous people rebel; they enjoyed citizenship of Rome
- Cannae – 216 BC
- Scipio Aricanus
- Zama – 202 BC
3. 149-146 BC (North Africa)

Lecture 13
The End of the Republic – Imperial Period
Quiz # 2
Wednesday, March 6th
Minoans to Augustus + Recitation Readings
20 Multiple Choice (20 marks)
5 Fill in the blanks (5 marks)
- Ex. Founding of the Olympic Games Date
3 Short Answers (15 marks)
1 Compare and Contrast (10 marks)
The Punic Wars
Rome vs. Carthage (Phoenician colony)
1. 264-241 BC (Sicily)
2. 218-201 BC (Spain, Italy and North Africa)
3. 149-146 BC (North Africa)
Roman Expansion
Italian campaigns – 509-396, 242-282 BC
Punic Wars – 264-146 BC
Macedonia + Greece – 215-148 BC
Asia Minor – 89-63 BC
+ Celts, Germans, and Gauls…
The Roman Army
Legions – 4,800-6,000 men
- Armed  heavily armed soldiers
- Armor, breastplate, large shield, gladius (sword), javelins
- Throw javelins, then run up with short swords to engage enemies (aiming bellies)
Harsh discipline
- Decimation
- Lottery: every 10 men (1 in 10) gets beaten
Rewards: money, honor, prizes
- Triumph for general
- Triumph – parade; general gets paraded through Rome with soldiers, captives, spoils behind
- Farms not being worked
- Citizens become to shrink
- Military starts to shrink
Roman military camp = castrum (pl. castra)
As Rome expand, military camps were made
Square, rectangular form
2 major streets that intersected with gates
Generals are at the intersecting point
Outside wall are ditches
These camps become like little cities
Roman origin from military camps; Roman culture is spread
Military Reforms (made by Marius – 157-86 BC)
Do not have to own land
- Asked soldiers to pack gears (shovels, etc.)
- Soldiers act as soldiers and engineers (conduct underground water channels, build military camp)
Payment for fulltime service
- Marius being generous to these soldiers (gave spoils from war in addition to standardized pay)
Benefits upon retirement
- Marius gave them land
- Soldiers feel more in an allegiance with people like Marius instead of Rome
Marius’ Mules
The Romans develop Greek tastes
- Literature, artworks and language
- Romans develop interest in bathing
Roman baths
- Supplied by aqueducts
- Hypocaust heating - furnace fire can keep it warm and control the temperature
- Areas for men and women with different kinds of pools (hot, warm, cool) to relax
- Served as social interaction (ex. for businessmen)
- Served for exercise
- Romans as one of the first cultures to use brick/concrete (hollow walls, floors)
The Roman Household
House = domus
Head of household = paterfamilias
- Complete control over family, relatives, slaves within a household
- Possess the right to expose his offspring (ex. Romeulus, Remus)
- Arrange marriage of the females in household
Patriarchal and patrilineal
Patria potestas = father’s power
Roman matrona = ideal Roman woman
Men = later age, women = early age in marriage
- Purpose of marriage: produce legitimate children, strengthens family alliances, and connect
- Women arrange household affairs, look after children (little power in household)
Roman Social Classes
Patricians – aristocracy
Eques/Equites – “Knights” (Wealthy Merchants)
Plebians – common people
Freedman
Slaves
- Powerless
- Obtained through warfare (a lot especially in Republican Period)
- Huge population
- Used in mines, agricultural fields
- Manumission – to free a slave
- This led to rebellion
3rd Servile War – 73-71 BC
Gladiators led by Spartacus
- Gladiators rebel and at first, became successful
- Able to defeat a couple of smaller Roman armies
- However, gladiators hold up in Italy by generals
Put down by Pompey and Crassus (generals)
- Did so ruthlessly
6,000 slaves crucified
- Large farms employed poor people b/c afraid of slave revolt
- Slaves able to develop some relationship with master/owners
- Master can choose to free slaves b/c they worked hard or close relationship
- Manumission – to free a slave
- Freedman – can participate in society but cannot pull highest majesty in Rome
- Restricted from becoming senators and Equites
Turmoil at the End of the Republican Period
Period of powerful political men
Marius successive consulships
- Consulships = most powerful position in Rome (1 year term)
Sulla dictator
- Comes into conflict with Marius
- Uses his army and then later nominated as dictator
- Dictator = top political figure and military leader BUT only in times of crisis (6 month term)
- Sulla served 9 years as dictator from support of army
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus = 1st Triumvirate
- Roman senate lost control of generals and army
- Political system dominated by individuals
- All 3 of them formed an alliance  triumvirate
The 1st Triumvirate
Julius Caesar – 100-44 BC
- Conquest of Gaul (France) – 58-51 BC
- Gave spoils to his soldiers through years
- Soldiers became well-trained through years of warfare under Julius Caesar
- Dictator for life – 45 BC + consul and imperator (military authority)
- Good in oration and able to convince Pompey and Crassus to make alliance for their money and military experience
- Claimed he was descendent of Trojan hero Annius (spelling(?)) (god)
Pompey the Great – 106-48 BC
Crassus (115-53 BC)
- Crassus dies and loses 30,000 men
- Led to conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey for power
- Pompey became more sympathetic to rest of senates (allies)
- They wanted Caesar to disband army and return to Rome; he said no
- Caesar initiated Civil War in Italy
Civil War – 49-45 BC
- Battle of Phasalus – 45 BC
- Caesar takes army and confronts Pompey and the Senates
- Defeats Pompey and the Senates
Cleopatra – 69-30 BC
- Pompey flees to Egypt and gets killed by pharaoh
- Caesar removes the pharaoh b/c he declares that nobody kills a Roman citizen besides himself
- Then declared the pharaoh’s sister, Cleopatra, as the pharaoh
- Roman did not like the idea of having one man having power
- Roman aristocrats see this as monarchy
Assasination of Julius Caesar
March 15th (the Ides), 44 BC
Killed by senates who he thought were close people
Marcus Junius Brutus
- One of the men who helped with assassination
The 2nd Triumvirate
Octavian Caesar – 63 BC – AD14 (Caesar’s grand nephew at age 18 forms army)
- Italy
Marcus Antonius – 83-30 BC
- Egypt
- Cleopatra
Marcus Lepidus – 88-12 BC
- These 3 planned alliance to defeat Julius Caesar’s assassins in Greece
- Conflict occurred after imbalance with Octavian and Antonius
- Octavian absorbs army and then Cleopatra + Antonius killed themselves
- Had world largest army in his time
Battle of Philippi – 42 BC
Battle of Actium – 31 BC
The Roman Empire
Octavian is voted… (Octavian aka Augustus)
- Successive consulships + tribune (politics)
- Pontifex maximus (religion) – head priest of Roman state
- Imperator (military) – head military person
- Princeps (leading citizen)
Empire: 27 BC – AD284
Divi Filius – Son of a god (ie. Julius Caesar) – he claimed descent of God
Political, military, economic and moral reforms
Pax Romana – Peace of Rome
- Concerned with defense; populated borders with Rome with soldiers
- Peace of prosperity, stability
- Incredible political stability
- Led to trade

Golden Age of Rome
- Moral reforms – concerns with marriage; fertility
- Populated Rome with temples to ensure God is on their side
- Augustus made Roman Empire better