Urban Education Case Study
Confronting the issues of educating urban youth involves examination of the overarching challenges and re-emerging issues that urban administrators encounter when hiring effective teaching staff. Specifically, one surmises that effective staff must embody characteristics that unilaterally create a classroom environment conducive to student learning and acceptance of individual differences (Nelson 2004; Shanklin, Kozleski, Meagher, Sands, Joseph & Wyman, 2003). While research acknowledges that these types of teachers exist, such teachers are not abundantly present in urban schools (Arroyo, Rhoad, & Drew, 1999). Furthermore, some research suggests that urban schools are not privy to candidates who are willing to teach minority students for various reasons, based mostly on preconceived notions
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(Jorissen, 2003; McConney, Ayres, Hansen, & Cuthbertson). With the assertion that urban schools are unable to recruit and retain capable teachers, one must question the effectiveness and diversity of remaining teachers to provide a comprehensive classroom experience for students (Mullen & Patrick, 2000; Weiner, 2000). This paper examines the challenges of preparing teachers to overcome the obstacles present in urban schools, discusses efforts to attract qualified and effective teachers to these schools, and addresses the retention of teachers in this environment.
Interesting research emerges as one investigates the factors that contribute to the flight of teachers from urban schools, as well as their preparedness to teach students of different ethnicities. Schultz (as cited in Proctor, Rentz & Jackson, 2001) stated, "80% of . . . prospective teachers . . . believed that 'urban children ' were lower in learning ability than other children or that their ability was limited by . . . personal attributes or . . . environment" (¶ 2). Clearly, this percentage speaks largely about the opinions of some teachers toward minority students. Thompson (2004) documents equally disturbing research of some attitudes toward minority students that suggests some teachers "had very low expectations and offered . . . a non-challenging curriculum" (¶ 1). Similarly, deMarrais & LeCompte (1999) report, "during 'sharing time ' . . . . teachers of lower-class children tend to accept their students ' presentation without correction or elaboration" (p. 14). In understanding these attitudes however, it is important to examine if such feelings factually represent teachers ' attitudes or if other issues, such as lack or preparation to teach ethnically diverse students, account for a significant portion of research findings. In fact, from their study, Terrill and Mark (as cited in Proctor et al., 2001) suggest, "Most of the teacher education students . . . had little or no experience in schools with non White populations" (¶ 2). This would offer a plausible explanation for schools struggling to retain non-prepared teachers, and reasons why ethnically different teachers opt to teach in environments where they are most comfortable.
Other researchers of urban education offer greater, more in depth hypotheses for the problems in urban schools, relating to teacher retention and preparedness of teachers. Zeichner (as cited in Proctor et al., 2001) emphatically purports, "Of particular concern . . . 'poor children of color ' . . . have not traditionally not done well with teachers who differ in ethnicity and social class" (¶ 1). These issues of differences in social class and stratification may present challenging struggles for teachers to overcome; however, greater attempts to develop greater sensitivity and cultural competence to other ethnicities, would initiate the process of creating effective teachers and teaching practices in the classroom. Sullivan (as stated in Harmon, 2002) relates that, "culturally competent necessitates that teachers demonstrate knowledge of the history of minority populations, societal racism, language, affirmation of minority students, multicultural education, and the role of community and family" (¶ 7). Possession of these attributes for teachers, provide students with a greater, richer educational and cultural experience, and most certainly a competitive education among their peers.
As the teacher shortage in America becomes more apparent, schools are seeking innovative ways to attract and retain teachers (Lucas & Robinson, 2003; VanKraayenoord, 2001). A number of programs are being tested including recruitment incentives, and emergency, alternative, or accelerated certification and accreditation of teachers. Despite the bleak picture painted of the plight of urban schools, attempts are being made to attract teachers to urban areas. One such attempt, Teach for America, has committed to putting teachers in urban areas with the hopes of revitalizing the schools. "Since 1990, more than 10,000 exceptional individuals have joined Teach for America, committing two years to teach in low-income rural and urban communities. Following this experience, many have become committed leaders in the effort to expand opportunities for all children" (Teach for America, n.d.). While two years may seem a small commitment to large problem, more than 60 percent of Teach for America participants remain in education. Other programs recruit paraeducators to assist them in becoming fully licensed teachers. According to the National Teacher Recruitment Clearinghouse, over 500,000 paraeducators work in schools. Making higher education more readily available and accessible to them will help both the paraeducator and the school. Recruiting paraeducators makes sense because they have already demonstrated a commitment to the students they serve. Professionals seeking to become teachers can do so via an alternate route certification program. These programs are designed to provide degree-holding individuals with the knowledge and skills to transition from their current profession to that of teaching. This type of program has flourished in urban areas with high turnover rates. "Alternative certification attracts more diverse, mature, academically able teachers...who want to teach in urban schools" (Zumwalt as cited in Jorissen, 2003, ¶ 3). However, the program must address the needs of urban schools in their training of these teachers in order to prevent the urban flight demonstrated by their traditionally prepared peers.
In addition to attempts to bring more teachers to urban areas, there is a tremendous need to recruit a more teachers of color (Lucas & Robinson, 2003). Thirty five percent of all students are minorities yet "only 14 percent of the 3 million public school teachers...are people of color" (National Education Association [NEA], 2004a, p. 30). Steps to recruit more teachers of color, such as "financial aid policies...to target community colleges, part-time students, and adult learners could attract new teachers and diversify the teaching profession" (NEA, 2004a). Without more aggressive attempts to attract a diverse teacher pool, students in the nation 's poorest schools will continue to be in crisis.
Getting quality teachers into urban schools is only half the battle. "At present, urban districts lose nearly one half of their newly hired teachers within the first 5 years of service" (Sachs, 2004, ¶ 1). Districts are using signing bonuses to attract new teachers, then offering low-interest housing loans, and tuition reimbursement programs to keep them (NEA, 2004b; VanKraayenoord, 2001). Other perks new teachers look for are high quality mentoring programs and on-going programs that promote collaboration among teachers. Mentoring may be especially important in urban areas where new teachers are faced with the challenge of working with students who need extra social, emotional, and academic support for which the teacher is not prepared (Kajs, 2002; NEA, 2004b; Tillman, 2003). While university programs struggle to prepare today 's teacher for the challenges of the urban environment, the mentor can play a key role in bridging the gap between university instruction and practical experiences.
Teacher preparation, recruitment, and retention in urban areas provide a glimpse at the much larger issue of providing quality educational experiences for all students (Diamond, Randolph, & Spillane, 2004; Nelson, 2004). Additional concerns about local control, parental involvement, and effective leadership factor in to the overall reform necessary to overcome some of the societal problems evident in the nation 's urban areas (Sanders & Harvey, 2002; Zepeda, 2004). These areas must be addressed as they relate to increasing the effectiveness of the teachers to provide educational opportunities for the nation 's poorest students (Cole-Henderson, 2000).
References:
Arroya, A.A., Rhoad, R. & Drew, P. (1999). Meeting diverse student needs in urban schools: Research-based recommendations for school personnel. Preventing School Failure, 43(4), 145-153. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Cole-Henderson, B. (2000). Organizational characteristics of schools that successfully serve low income urban African American students. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 5(1&2), 77-91. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
deMarrais, K. B., & LeCompte, M. D. (1999). The way schools work (3rd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Diamond, J.B., Randolph, A., & Spillane, J.P. (2004). Teachers ' expectations and sense of responsibility for student learning: The importance of race, class, and organizational habitus. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 35(1), 75-98. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Harmon, D. (2002). They won 't teach me. Roeper Review, 24(2), 68-76. Retrieved May 17, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Jorissen, K. T. (2003). Successful career transitions: Lessons from urban alternate route teachers who stayed. High School Journal, 86(3). Retrieved May 27, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Kajs, L. T. (2002). Framework for designing a mentoring program for novice teachers. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 10(1), 57-70.
Lucas, T., & Robinson, J. (2003). Reaching them early: Identifying and supporting prospective teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching, 29(3), 159-175.
McConney, A., Ayres, R., Hansen, J. B., & Cuthbertson, L. (2003) Quest for quality: Recruitment, retention, professional development, and performance evaluation of teachers and principals in Baltimore City 's public schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 8, 87-116. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Mullen, C.A., & Patrick, R.L. (2000). The persistent dream: A principal 's promising reform of an at-risk elementary urban school. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 5, 229-250. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
National Education Association. (2004a). Gap shrinkers. NEA Today, 22(8), 30.
National Education Association. (2004b). Teach again? You bet. NEA Today, 22(7), 15.
National Teacher Recruitment Clearinghouse. (n.d.). A guide to developing paraeducator to teacher programs. Retrieved May 27, 2004, from http://www.recruitingteachers.org/resources/a+guide+to+developing+paraeduca.pdf
Nelson, C. (2004). Reclaiming teacher preparation for success in high-needs schools. Education, 124(3), 475-480. Retrieved May 27, 2004, from Proquest database.
Proctor, T., Rentz, N.
& Jackson, M. (2001). Preparing teachers for urban schools: The role of field experiences. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 25(4), 219-227. Retrieved May 16, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Sachs, S. K. (2004). Evaluation of teacher attributes as predictors of success in urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(2), 177-188.
Sanders, M.G., & Harvey, A. (2002). Beyond the school walls: A case study of principal leadership for school-community collaboration. Teachers College Record, 104, 1345-1368. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Shanklin, N., Kozleski, E.B., Meagher, C., Sands, D., Joseph, O. & Wyman, W. (2003). Examining renewal in an urban high school through the lens of systemic change. School Leadership & Management, 23, 357-378. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Teach for America. (n.d.). Retrieved May 27, 2004, from http://www.teachforamerica.org
Thompson, G. L. (2004). Playing God with other people 's children. High School Journal, 87(3), 1-5.
Tillman, L. C. (2003). Mentoring, reflection, and reciprocal journaling. Theory into Practice, 42(3), 226-233. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost
database.
VanKraayenoord, C. (2001). Wanted--teachers! International Journal of Disability, Development & Education, 48(2), 125-129.
Weiner, L. (2000). Research in the 90s: Implications for urban teacher preparation. Review of Educational Research, 70, 369-406. Retrieved from Proquest database.
Zepeda, S.J. (2004). Leadership to build learning communities. Educational Reform, 68, 144-151. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
(Jorissen, 2003; McConney, Ayres, Hansen, & Cuthbertson). With the assertion that urban schools are unable to recruit and retain capable teachers, one must question the effectiveness and diversity of remaining teachers to provide a comprehensive classroom experience for students (Mullen & Patrick, 2000; Weiner, 2000). This paper examines the challenges of preparing teachers to overcome the obstacles present in urban schools, discusses efforts to attract qualified and effective teachers to these schools, and addresses the retention of teachers in this environment.
Interesting research emerges as one investigates the factors that contribute to the flight of teachers from urban schools, as well as their preparedness to teach students of different ethnicities. Schultz (as cited in Proctor, Rentz & Jackson, 2001) stated, "80% of . . . prospective teachers . . . believed that 'urban children ' were lower in learning ability than other children or that their ability was limited by . . . personal attributes or . . . environment" (¶ 2). Clearly, this percentage speaks largely about the opinions of some teachers toward minority students. Thompson (2004) documents equally disturbing research of some attitudes toward minority students that suggests some teachers "had very low expectations and offered . . . a non-challenging curriculum" (¶ 1). Similarly, deMarrais & LeCompte (1999) report, "during 'sharing time ' . . . . teachers of lower-class children tend to accept their students ' presentation without correction or elaboration" (p. 14). In understanding these attitudes however, it is important to examine if such feelings factually represent teachers ' attitudes or if other issues, such as lack or preparation to teach ethnically diverse students, account for a significant portion of research findings. In fact, from their study, Terrill and Mark (as cited in Proctor et al., 2001) suggest, "Most of the teacher education students . . . had little or no experience in schools with non White populations" (¶ 2). This would offer a plausible explanation for schools struggling to retain non-prepared teachers, and reasons why ethnically different teachers opt to teach in environments where they are most comfortable.
Other researchers of urban education offer greater, more in depth hypotheses for the problems in urban schools, relating to teacher retention and preparedness of teachers. Zeichner (as cited in Proctor et al., 2001) emphatically purports, "Of particular concern . . . 'poor children of color ' . . . have not traditionally not done well with teachers who differ in ethnicity and social class" (¶ 1). These issues of differences in social class and stratification may present challenging struggles for teachers to overcome; however, greater attempts to develop greater sensitivity and cultural competence to other ethnicities, would initiate the process of creating effective teachers and teaching practices in the classroom. Sullivan (as stated in Harmon, 2002) relates that, "culturally competent necessitates that teachers demonstrate knowledge of the history of minority populations, societal racism, language, affirmation of minority students, multicultural education, and the role of community and family" (¶ 7). Possession of these attributes for teachers, provide students with a greater, richer educational and cultural experience, and most certainly a competitive education among their peers.
As the teacher shortage in America becomes more apparent, schools are seeking innovative ways to attract and retain teachers (Lucas & Robinson, 2003; VanKraayenoord, 2001). A number of programs are being tested including recruitment incentives, and emergency, alternative, or accelerated certification and accreditation of teachers. Despite the bleak picture painted of the plight of urban schools, attempts are being made to attract teachers to urban areas. One such attempt, Teach for America, has committed to putting teachers in urban areas with the hopes of revitalizing the schools. "Since 1990, more than 10,000 exceptional individuals have joined Teach for America, committing two years to teach in low-income rural and urban communities. Following this experience, many have become committed leaders in the effort to expand opportunities for all children" (Teach for America, n.d.). While two years may seem a small commitment to large problem, more than 60 percent of Teach for America participants remain in education. Other programs recruit paraeducators to assist them in becoming fully licensed teachers. According to the National Teacher Recruitment Clearinghouse, over 500,000 paraeducators work in schools. Making higher education more readily available and accessible to them will help both the paraeducator and the school. Recruiting paraeducators makes sense because they have already demonstrated a commitment to the students they serve. Professionals seeking to become teachers can do so via an alternate route certification program. These programs are designed to provide degree-holding individuals with the knowledge and skills to transition from their current profession to that of teaching. This type of program has flourished in urban areas with high turnover rates. "Alternative certification attracts more diverse, mature, academically able teachers...who want to teach in urban schools" (Zumwalt as cited in Jorissen, 2003, ¶ 3). However, the program must address the needs of urban schools in their training of these teachers in order to prevent the urban flight demonstrated by their traditionally prepared peers.
In addition to attempts to bring more teachers to urban areas, there is a tremendous need to recruit a more teachers of color (Lucas & Robinson, 2003). Thirty five percent of all students are minorities yet "only 14 percent of the 3 million public school teachers...are people of color" (National Education Association [NEA], 2004a, p. 30). Steps to recruit more teachers of color, such as "financial aid policies...to target community colleges, part-time students, and adult learners could attract new teachers and diversify the teaching profession" (NEA, 2004a). Without more aggressive attempts to attract a diverse teacher pool, students in the nation 's poorest schools will continue to be in crisis.
Getting quality teachers into urban schools is only half the battle. "At present, urban districts lose nearly one half of their newly hired teachers within the first 5 years of service" (Sachs, 2004, ¶ 1). Districts are using signing bonuses to attract new teachers, then offering low-interest housing loans, and tuition reimbursement programs to keep them (NEA, 2004b; VanKraayenoord, 2001). Other perks new teachers look for are high quality mentoring programs and on-going programs that promote collaboration among teachers. Mentoring may be especially important in urban areas where new teachers are faced with the challenge of working with students who need extra social, emotional, and academic support for which the teacher is not prepared (Kajs, 2002; NEA, 2004b; Tillman, 2003). While university programs struggle to prepare today 's teacher for the challenges of the urban environment, the mentor can play a key role in bridging the gap between university instruction and practical experiences.
Teacher preparation, recruitment, and retention in urban areas provide a glimpse at the much larger issue of providing quality educational experiences for all students (Diamond, Randolph, & Spillane, 2004; Nelson, 2004). Additional concerns about local control, parental involvement, and effective leadership factor in to the overall reform necessary to overcome some of the societal problems evident in the nation 's urban areas (Sanders & Harvey, 2002; Zepeda, 2004). These areas must be addressed as they relate to increasing the effectiveness of the teachers to provide educational opportunities for the nation 's poorest students (Cole-Henderson, 2000).
References:
Arroya, A.A., Rhoad, R. & Drew, P. (1999). Meeting diverse student needs in urban schools: Research-based recommendations for school personnel. Preventing School Failure, 43(4), 145-153. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Cole-Henderson, B. (2000). Organizational characteristics of schools that successfully serve low income urban African American students. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 5(1&2), 77-91. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
deMarrais, K. B., & LeCompte, M. D. (1999). The way schools work (3rd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Diamond, J.B., Randolph, A., & Spillane, J.P. (2004). Teachers ' expectations and sense of responsibility for student learning: The importance of race, class, and organizational habitus. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 35(1), 75-98. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Harmon, D. (2002). They won 't teach me. Roeper Review, 24(2), 68-76. Retrieved May 17, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Jorissen, K. T. (2003). Successful career transitions: Lessons from urban alternate route teachers who stayed. High School Journal, 86(3). Retrieved May 27, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Kajs, L. T. (2002). Framework for designing a mentoring program for novice teachers. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 10(1), 57-70.
Lucas, T., & Robinson, J. (2003). Reaching them early: Identifying and supporting prospective teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching, 29(3), 159-175.
McConney, A., Ayres, R., Hansen, J. B., & Cuthbertson, L. (2003) Quest for quality: Recruitment, retention, professional development, and performance evaluation of teachers and principals in Baltimore City 's public schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 8, 87-116. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Mullen, C.A., & Patrick, R.L. (2000). The persistent dream: A principal 's promising reform of an at-risk elementary urban school. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 5, 229-250. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
National Education Association. (2004a). Gap shrinkers. NEA Today, 22(8), 30.
National Education Association. (2004b). Teach again? You bet. NEA Today, 22(7), 15.
National Teacher Recruitment Clearinghouse. (n.d.). A guide to developing paraeducator to teacher programs. Retrieved May 27, 2004, from http://www.recruitingteachers.org/resources/a+guide+to+developing+paraeduca.pdf
Nelson, C. (2004). Reclaiming teacher preparation for success in high-needs schools. Education, 124(3), 475-480. Retrieved May 27, 2004, from Proquest database.
Proctor, T., Rentz, N.
& Jackson, M. (2001). Preparing teachers for urban schools: The role of field experiences. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 25(4), 219-227. Retrieved May 16, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Sachs, S. K. (2004). Evaluation of teacher attributes as predictors of success in urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(2), 177-188.
Sanders, M.G., & Harvey, A. (2002). Beyond the school walls: A case study of principal leadership for school-community collaboration. Teachers College Record, 104, 1345-1368. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.
Shanklin, N., Kozleski, E.B., Meagher, C., Sands, D., Joseph, O. & Wyman, W. (2003). Examining renewal in an urban high school through the lens of systemic change. School Leadership & Management, 23, 357-378. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost database.
Teach for America. (n.d.). Retrieved May 27, 2004, from http://www.teachforamerica.org
Thompson, G. L. (2004). Playing God with other people 's children. High School Journal, 87(3), 1-5.
Tillman, L. C. (2003). Mentoring, reflection, and reciprocal journaling. Theory into Practice, 42(3), 226-233. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from EBSCOhost
database.
VanKraayenoord, C. (2001). Wanted--teachers! International Journal of Disability, Development & Education, 48(2), 125-129.
Weiner, L. (2000). Research in the 90s: Implications for urban teacher preparation. Review of Educational Research, 70, 369-406. Retrieved from Proquest database.
Zepeda, S.J. (2004). Leadership to build learning communities. Educational Reform, 68, 144-151. Retrieved May 23, 2004, from Proquest database.