VCE Psychology Unit 3 Notes
VCE Psychology Unit 3 Notes.
Covering consciousness and memory Consciousness
Chapter 2 -‐ States of Consciousness
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OVERVIEW
Concepts of normal waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness including daydreaming and alcohol-‐induced, in terms of levels of awareness, content limitations, controlled and automatic processes, perceptual and cognitive distortions, emotional awareness, self-‐control and time orientation
Consciousness
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The awareness of objects and events in the external worlds, and of our own existence and mental experiences at any given moment The experience is personal selective, continuous and changing. Consciousness as a construct Consciousness is a psychological hypothetical construct, because it is a phenomena that cannot be directly observed or measures Researchers can make assumptions about different levels of consciousness, but each individual will have a different construct of consciousness and experiences within consciousness States of consciousness Consciousness can be though of as operating on a continuum from a high level of consciousness or awareness through to the point of being unconscious (being totally unaware) The more aware we are of our thoughts, feelings, perceptions and surroundings, the higher the level of consciousness.
The level of awareness of internal events and external surroundings is known as a state of consciousness (SOC) Continuum of awareness Complete lack of awareness -‐-‐> coma -‐-‐> sleep -‐-‐> hypnotised -‐-‐> meditation -‐-‐> day dreaming -‐-‐> normal waking consciousness -‐-‐> shock/stress -‐-‐> focused task -‐-‐> drugs -‐-‐> total awareness
Awareness •
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Relates to how conscious or aware you are of internal and or external events The continuum of awareness can highlight different levels of alertness Normal Waking consciousness (NWC) occupies the alert to awake zone Altered State of consciousness (ASC) can occupy both reduced and heightened senses of awareness Normal waking consciousness (NWC) The states of consciousness you experience when you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions from internal events and the surrounding environment.
It is relatively organized, meaningful and clear and you experience a real sense of time and place
It creates your reality and provides a baseline from which to judge other states of consciousness Altered state of consciousness (ASC) Changes to normal states of consciousness to the extent that there are noticeable or marked differences in mental functioning Can occur naturally or be induced Involves "distinct changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity... shifts in perceptions, emotions, memory, time sense, feelings of self-‐control, thinking and suggestibility"
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Two main types: Day dreaming, alcohol induced. Day dreaming Occurs when attention is shifted to internal, private thoughts, feelings and imagined scenarios Considered as an Altered State of Consciousness (ASC) because experiences of many things are markedly different to when in NWC Often occur during automatic processes, or when bored Includes a low level of awareness of outside world perceptual and cognitive distortions, fewer content limitations (however we still are in control over the content they may just be less organised with more bizarre thoughts) etc. Daydreaming are a normal part of life and are associated with good mental health and stability and by studying them they can offer an insight into our personality, motives and concerns. Alcohol Induced Alcohol is a psychoactive drug (affects brain and nervous system) that is a depressant (slows nervous system down). It impacts on a persons level of consciousness In high doses, alcohol depresses the N.S so much that it slows down vital processes -‐ Blackouts -‐ Coma -‐ Death Alcohol is consumed on purpose to alter ones state of consciousness The degree to which on experiences ASC may depend on amount, gender, tolerance, height and weight. Self control and bodily control are usually lower, often have poor judgement, emotional outbursts, memory problems and reduced reaction times. Content limitations may also be affected where they may find it hard to think or have all these amazing ideas.
Characteristics of Consciousness Time Orientation Self Control Emotional Awareness Cognitive Distortions Perceptual Distortions Awareness Automatic and controlled Processing Content Limitations
Content limitations The amount of control that you have to limit what you pay attentions (attend) to and the content of the things you focus on) Content may be highly limited, focused, structured and logical (NWC) or free, bizarre and illogical (ASC) During ASC tasks that require selective attention may be impaired. It can also be very difficult to divide attention, even between automatic processes. Attention Relates to the information that you are actively processing, either consciously or outside your conscious awareness -‐Can be selective or divided -‐Can be focused on internal or external environments -‐Can be shifted consciously or unconsciously SELECTIVE ATTENTION Is a content limitations during NWC
It is used when we are focusing on one aspect of a stimulus at expense or exclusion of others, thus creating content limitations
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Can be helpful or not helpful DIVIDED ATTENTION The capacity to attend to and perform two or more activities at the same time One successful when tasks are those which require little mental effort OR When you are very competent at both of the tasks It is much harder when the tasks are complex of require more conscious effort. Automatic processes Requires little awareness, take minimal attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities We are conscious of what is occurring in both instances Needs to be simple or familiar tasks and often turn into procedural memories. Controlled processes Activities that require full awareness, alertness and concentration to reach some goal This interferes with other on-‐going actives As we become more skilled at a task, some of our responses may become more habitual or automatic Perceptual and cognitive distortions The degree of awareness and efficiency of our perceptions and cognitions. Perception is the process of organising sensory input and making sense of it, such as visual perception. During NWC our perceptions are usually clear and rational. Cognition is a term related to mental processes such as memory, problem solving, language and reasoning. During NWC we have a sense of reality, our thoughts are usually rational, clear and meaningful so we are capable of cognitive (problem solving, analysis, reasoning etc) Emotional Awareness The experience of emotion, control over emotion and understanding of appropriateness of emotions Self-‐Control The ability to regulate and maintain appropriate or acceptable behaviours in the correct contexts. Includes the control of inhibitions and level of suggestiveness in terms of regulating behaviour Time Orientation The ability to correctly perceive time and the speed at which time is passing.
Chapter 3 -‐ Methods of Studying Consciousness
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OVERVIEW Methods used to study the level of alertness in normal waking consciousness and the stages of sleep: Measurement of physiological responses including electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph (EMG), electro-‐oculargraph (EOG), heart rate, body temperature and galvanic skin response (GSR) The use of sleep laboratories, video monitoring and self reports
Devices
Device Name
Abbreviation
Definition
Electroencephalograph
EEG
A device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain
Electro-‐oculargraph
EOG
Device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the muscles around the eyes
Electromyograph
EMG
Device that detects amplifies and records the electrical activity and body muscles
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Electrocardiograph
CANT USE Device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical ABBREVIATION IN THE activity of the heart muscles EXAM
(ECG, EKG)
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Galvanic Skin Response
CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM
(GSR)
A device that detects a change in the resistance of skin to an electrical current (measures the electrical conductivity of the skin.) – relates to how much someone is sweating BUT does not measure sweat Increased activity of the sweat glands leads to higher electrical conductivity or lower resistance across the skin)
Body Temperature
Thermometer (degrees)
A device that measures the core body temperature of an individual.
HELP FUL HINTS
D.A.R.E to remember
These devices: D-‐Detecting A-‐Amplify R-‐Records E-‐ Electrical activity
GRAPH VS GRAM Graph – Device you use to measure Gram – Picture/output you would see
WHY USE DEVICES Most of what we know about an individuals state of consciousness is inferred from: The information provided by the person Their behavior (observations) Physiological changes that can be measured Various devices are used to measure physiological responses, which can tell us what state of consciousness someone is on. These reading should be taken with precautions though
Electroencephalograph (EEG) •
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An EEG is a device that detects amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain These are displayed in the form of brainwaves It measures the electrical activity of the brain It uses electrodes on the outside of the skull in a symmetrical pattern The resulting ‘pictures’ are called ‘ electroencephalograms’ Useful in indicating changes to states of consciousness including when they fall asleep, what state of sleep they are in and if they are REM or NREM
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AMPLITUDE AND FRQUENCY Amplitude (peaks and troughs): how high and low the wave is (indicates the level of voltage within the electrical impulses) Frequency: how fast, how close together the wave it (measured in hertz which are how many vibrations per second)
BRAINWAVES
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Brainwave
Description
Typical during
Beta
High frequency, low amplitude
NWC, Alert, active anxious, REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep Eyes are open and person is awake and alert.
Alpha
Reasonably high frequency (not as high Awake but very relaxed, meditate state, drowsy, as beta) daydreaming, about to fall asleep Low amplitude (not as low as beta) Eyes are often closed
Theta
Medium frequency and mixed amplitudes
Delta
A steady pattern of low frequency and Deep sleep. Stages 3 and 4 high amplitude
Stages 1,2 and 3 of sleep
B.A.T.D elta B –Beta (present when brain is busy) A – ALPHA (occur when we are almost asleep) T-‐ THETA = Truly asleep (appear in three stages (1,2,3)) D-‐ DELTA = occurs during deep sleep (4)
Electromyograph (EMG)
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Device
that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles (DARE) •
The
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called an electromyogram Electrodes are attached to the skin above the muscles (usually chin for sleep studies) Helps to determine if awake, NREM or REM sleep stages.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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When awake, the EMG readers can vary between moderate and high depending on the activity. During sleep, the activity is low during NREM and virtually non-‐existent during REM sleep except for the occasional twitching
Electro-‐oculargraph (EOG) •
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Device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the muscles around the eyes (DARE) The recorded pattern is called an electro-‐oculargram and it measures the voltage as the eyes move and rotate in their sockets There is one recorded for each eye Use to determine is in NREM or REM sleep. When awake our eyes make move rapidly (if searching for a friend in a busy room) or very slightly (when staring out a window) POLYSOMNOGRAM A polysomnogram is a chart that displays simultaneously recorded data that is continuously moving Useful to determine what stage of sleep someone is in, by looking at patterns of EEG, EOG and EMG all at one. It takes training to read it accurately as large quantities of data are produced each night.
Electrocardiograph (EKG) •
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CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM A device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the heart muscles (DARE) Heart rate is recorded which is measured in beats per minute (bpm) Higher heart rate = exercise, drugs, emotional Lower heart rate = drowsy, meditation, NREM sleep it is slow and regular and there is a gradual decrease through the stages Irregular heart rate REM, can end up faster than normal and even reach levels seen when carrying out strenuous exercise
Galvanic skin response (GSR) •
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CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM A device that detects a change in resistance of skin to an electrical current (measures the electrical conductivity of the skin) Increase in arousal à more sweat secreted à increase in electrical conductivity of the skin OR à Decrease in resistance of skin to electrical current. As the skin becomes more moist (through perspiration), its electrical conductivity increases. In NWC, GSR can vary depending on activity (increases when emotional or exercise, decreases when relaxed or cool) In sleep states, GSR is usually lower than NWC In REM, GSR can vary markedly from low to moderate
Thermometer •
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A devices that measures the core body temperature of a person in degrees Celsius
Our body temperature peaks in the mid-‐afternoon and reaches its lowest point in the early hours of the morning (only drops by about 1 degree) Body temperature is linked to alertness and fluctuations in temp can lead to drowsiness. It is predictable and there is little variation in daily rhythm when awake, varies in ASC, eaches its lowest in NREM and during REM it is not regulated so it drifts towards the temperature in the surrounding environment.
Sleep laboratories •
Sleep lab may be used for research or to treat a sleep disorder and provide them with a deeper insight into sleep.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Devices (such as those already studied) are used simultaneously to monitor and record patterns from sleeping person Video monitoring and self-‐reports are often used in conjunction with the measurement of physiological changes Room resembles a bedroom, but patient is hooked up and monitored from another room. Data is recorded when asleep and when awake
ADVANTAGE Has the physiological devices to measure sleep Controlled environment (i.e. noise, temperature) providing a constant for all participants.
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DISADVANTAGE Uncomfortable when being hooked up to the wires which may be frightening for some patients
Poorer night sleep as the patients may be woken up at certain intervals, making it hard to enter a normal sleep cycle Artificial environment so sleep may be harder to come by.
Video Monitoring •
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Sleep labs will often use video monitoring to observe the patient without interrupting their sleep Video monitoring can also be done in the patients own home, allowing a more natural environment The recording can be watched at any time Often used alongside physiological measurement
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AVDANTAGE Lasting record can watch back at any time Good for observations of actual behavior
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DISADVANTAGE Limited information on its own as it doesn’t provide the body's physiological data or what the participant is feeling/experiencing Infra-‐red camera less detailed Limited in that observations of behavior may be subjective and open to different interpretations
Self reports •
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Self reports are statements and answers to questions made by patients themselves concerning their psychological experience (thoughts, feelings and behaviours) in relation to their sleep. Might be questionnaire, diary entry, interview Might tough on quality of sleep, waking patterns, dreams and physiological responses Limitations: subjective, requires conscious awareness, difficult to compare across people, hard to remember all details/accuracy in the morning, may be lying.
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ADVANTAGE Gives the perspective of what the individual experiences
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DISADVANTAGE Subjective open to individual interpretation as they may not remember, they may not be telling the truth or leave out important information or the researches may interpret it inaccurately Difficult to communicate and compare with others
Chapter 4 -‐ Sleep as an ASC OVERVIEW •
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Sleep as an altered state of consciousness Purpose of sleep Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep including rapid eye movement (REM) and non-‐ rapid eye movement (NREM) stages of sleep
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sleep •
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Sleep is a natural occurrence and each day/night we have a period of sleep and of being awake. The sleep/wake cycle is an example of a circadian rhythm.
Circadian rhythms are biologicalrhythms that occur approximately once every 24 hours.
Sleep as an Altered State of Consciousness •
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Sleep can be viewed as an ASC because it differs remarkably from normal waking consciousness When you sleep you lose a lot of awareness of yourself and your environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASC Level of awareness We have very little, awareness of our external environment when we are asleep. At times, we may incorporate what is happening around us into a dream or we may suddenly be woken from a deep sleep by something highly personally relevant Other times, equally intense but less meaningful stimuli do not awaken us. We even know the location of the edge of the bed so we can avoid falling off. ATTENTION CONTENT LIMITATIONS When we sleep, we relinquish conscious control of our thoughts so we have fewer content limitations. Everyone dreams and the dreams we remember tend to be weird or bizarre. The contents of our dreams tend to be much broader and deeper than our thoughts in normal waking consciousness. PERCEPTUAL AND COGNITVE DISTROIONS Our attention to sensory stimuli is lowered during sleep, including our perception of pain.
Our thoughts are more likely to be disorganized and unrealistic during our dreams and we remember little upon awaking. EMOTIONAL AWARENESS Our emotions can be more or less intense or flattened during sleep. A nightmare can make us feel very scared and a good dream can make us feel terrific. There is also some evidence that sleep can help us deal with our emotions SELF CONTROL Our ability to maintain self-‐control, including monitoring our own behavior, is lowered during sleep. For instance, we may snore, dribble on our pillow, grind our teeth or sleep-‐talk during our sleep. TIME ORIENTATION CONTROLLED AND AUTOMATED PROCESSESS Performing other tasks is probably impossible. It is interesting to note that most sleepwalkers, known as somnambulists, usually carry out routine, automatic processes when they sleepwalk.
Purpose of sleep •
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Two theories of why we need to sleep Survival Restorative
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SURVIVAL (ADAPTIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY) THEORIES OF SLEEP One theory is that sleep enables us to survive and be successful in the environment Sleep is an adaption that depends on The need to find food: Animals that need to graze for hours, such as cows, sleep less.
They sleep less because they need to find more food to survive. The vulnerability to predators/how safe it is: sleep is used as an opportunity to stay quiet and undetected by predators. Large animals that are exposed sleep less. Small animals that can hide sleep more. Humans sleep during the night when their vision is not as good so they are more vulnerable to predators or danger
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The need to conserve energy: sleeping reduces metabolism, and is used by hibernating animals to survive periods with low food levels.
CRITISIZIMS OF SURVIVAL THEORY
The assumption that sleep is very useful but not essential. This theory does not explain why we must have sleep. All species sleep, despite the amount of food (abundant or scarce) or danger they are in. (Restorative theory does this better). Not getting enough sleep – sleep deprivation – can have fatal consequences the assumption that sleeping is a way to hide safely from predators. For animals that are highly preyed upon, sleeping can be dangerous.
The loss of awareness during sleep makes the animal very vulnerable to predators and unlikely to be able to respond to danger.
RESTORATIVE THEORIES OF SLEEP According to these theories, sleep allows us to recharge our bodies and recover from the physical and psychological work dyring the day. Sleep replenishes the body and prepares it for action the next day Looks after the physical health of the body States that activities that are more physically demanding should increase sleep: Marathon runners sleep 90 minutes more for two nights after their race and double their deep sleep ‘Take out the rubbish’ – allows clean up of cellular waste products Sleep enhances mood
Mood regulating hormones activated during sleep that influence your mood and emotions Sleep activates growth hormones
Sleep increases growth hormone levels, which helps control metabolism and regulate energy which is why children and adolescents need more sleep as they are still growing Sleep increases disease immunity Sleep is a natural medicine, strengthens immune system andimmune cells that fight disease and infections are produced during sleep. We are more prone to heart disease if we sleep too much or too little as well. Sleep increases alertness Keeps minds alert, attentive and focused the next day so when we don’t get enough sleep we tend to be more easily distrated. Sleep consolidates memories Sleep assists with the consolidations process so improves your memory of things that occurred during that day CRITISIZIMS OF RESTORATIVE THEORY The assumption that more sleep is needed to recover when we are physically active. Unless we partake in extreme physical activities (such as a 100 km marathon, there is little evidence but even then we only need 10 minutes more sleep.
People who do little exercise, including people who are disabled or confined to bed, should sleep less, but there is no evidence: bed-‐ridden people show sleep patterns that are similar to those of normally active individuals. The assumption that the body rests during sleep. The brain is active during sleep. Increased blood flow and energy expenditure occurs during REM sleep and this slows down the synthesis of proteins, assisting the body in getting ready for the next day
Characteristics of sleep •
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Sleep compromises of a number of different but predictable stages Different stages can be measured with physiological changes Hear rate, brainwave patterns, body temperature, eye movement, muscle tension, blood pressure, respiration and hormone release.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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During sleep we shift between non-‐rapid eye movement stages (NREM 1-‐4) and rapid eye movement (REM) stages On average, we go through one full cycle every 90 minutes (ultradian rhythm) Most adults will have 4-‐6 cycles a night. The amount of time spent in REM increases and the amount in NREM decreases as the night progresses We spend 80% of the night in NREM
ULTRADIAN RHYTHM A biological rhythm that is shorter than 24 hours The NREM/REM cycle is an example of it
Stages of sleep •
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STAGE 1 Brief stage, lasting around 5 minutes for most people (ranges from 30 seconds to 10 minutes) It is a very light sleep from which we can be easily awakened. If this happens, we often think we haven't been asleep at all. Sometimes called the presleep stage. Alpha waves begin to be replaced by slower (lower frequency) and larger (higher amplitude) theta waves. Our eyes roll slowly, our muscles relax, and heart and breathing rate decreases. Includes: Hypnogogic jerks (hypnogogic state)
HYPNOGOGIC STATE The relaxed state that is entered during the transition from being awake to being asleep. During this state, we may experience hallucinatory images, such as flashes of light and vivid images.
HYPNOGOGIC (HYPNIC) JERKS Involuntary muscle twitches that cause us to jolt -‐ are common.
Often considered to be part of Stage 1 NREM sleep.
STAGE 2 -‐ NREM The point at which true sleep begins and we spend about 20 minutes in stage 2 sleep in our first NREM/REM sleep cycle.
Fairly easy to be woken up at this stage. If we are woken, it is likely that we still won't believe we were asleep. Includes sleep spindles, k-‐complexes and theta waves Older people tend to wake more often in the night and their sleep contains fewer sleep spindles.
Our eyes stop rolling, our muscles become further relaxed, and breathing and heart rate continues to decrease. Stage 2 sleep accounts for about 50 per cent of our total sleep. SLEEP SPINDLES Common in stage 2 Short bursts of rapid brainwave activity that represent a mechanism that helps the brain to 'switch off' its responses to sensory stimuli, thereby keeping us asleep K-‐COMPLEXES Common in stage 2 A single sudden high amplitude wave and occur about once a minute in stage 2.
Sometimes they occur following a sleep spindles episode but can also be triggered by environmental stimuli, such as a door closing or someone calling your name.
STAGE 3 -‐ NREM A brief transitional stage that marks the start of deep sleep (slow wave sleep).
Become less responsive to external stimuli and more difficult to awaken (feel very groggy and disorientated) Slower (lower frequency) and larger (higher amplitude) delta waves become more common. These replace theta waves and occur between 20 and 50 per cent of the time.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Eyes do not move, our muscles are relaxed, and heart and breathing rates continue to become slower and more regular. Night terrors can occur
STAGE 4 -‐ NREM Deepest sleep, it is extremely difficult to wake someone in his sleep. (fast asleep, sleeping like a log)
Level of conscious awareness is very low, we can still be sensitive to certain stimuli, such as a baby crying or a smoke alarm. In the first NREM/REM sleep cycle, we spend about 30 minutes this stage (about 1 hour after first falling asleep) Brainwave patterns consist of regular, slow and large delta waves for more than 50 per cent of the time. There is no eye movement, little, if any, muscle activity and heart and breathing rates are at their slowest and most regular during sleep. While body temperature follows a circadian cycle, during NREM, it drops slightly, being lowest in stage 4 sleep. Night terrors can occur NIGHTMARES Unpleasant and upsetting dreams associated with feeling of helpless terror that occur during REM sleep. Little physiological changes and little movement Often awaken during or immediately after and usually remembered Experience more often by children than adults and by twice as many females as males NIGHT TERRORS Extremely frightening episodes associated with sheer terror and often screaming that occur during stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep Breathing is usually rapid, heart rate increases and involves violent body movements Wake but usually fall asleep again quickly and generally cant be remembered. Experiences more often in young children
REM SLEEP Also known as paradoxical sleep as the body can appear calm on the exterior (virtually no muscle activity) but other bodily systems and the brain are highly active, having many features that are similar to being awake. Beta waves, very frequent and shallow peaks and troughs. Random fast with beta like peak and sawtooth waves. On average, we enter the REM stage approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep. The first cycle of REM sleep might last only a short amount of time (10 minutes), but each cycle becomes longer. REM sleep can last up to an hour as sleep progresses. There are repetitive bursts of rapid eye movement, and heart rate, blood pressure and respiration increase and fluctuate. Body temperature tends to match the surrounding environment and genitals are aroused. There is no muscle tension and they are very relaxed to the point of almost being paralysed
Easy to be woken up from and tend to remember dreams when woken during it. Dreaming usually occurs during REM with the most bizarre, longest, strangest one being the final one.
HYPNOPOMPIC STATE The period between being asleep and waking up, a time when the brainwaves are predominantly alpha waves.
Vivid images (hypnopompic images) are often seen during this phase.
MUSCLE ATONIA OR CATAPLEXY The paralysis of your muscles (except for the occasional twitching during REM sleep
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HYPNOGRAM Graph that plots sleep cycle
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Stage 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM. After the first NREM/REM cycle, we often skip stage 1 sleep and enter stage 2 sleep again. We then descend through stages 3 and 4 before returning via 3 to 2 to REM sleep.
Stages 3 and 4 sleep typically only occur during the first two cycles of NREM/REM sleep
Sleep patterns also change with age. Newborns spend about 16 hours per day sleeping, with about half of this time in REM sleep. Adults sleep for about 8 hours, with about a quarter of this in REM sleep. By the age of 60 years, very little time, if any, is spent in stage 4 sleep with sleep lasting for about 6 hours, still with 20-‐25 per cent in REM sleep.
Chapter 5 -‐ Sleep deprivation
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OVERVIEW The effects of total and partial sleep deprivation: Loss of REM and NREM sleep Sleep recovery patterns including amount of sleep required, REM rebound and microsleeps Sleep-‐wave cycle shifts during adolescence compared with child and adult sleep including delayed onset of sleep and need for sleep
Sleep Deprivation •
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Going without sleep, partially or totally for a short or long period of time Effects of sleep deprivation depend on the amount of sleep loss and the period of time over which is occurs Effects are temporary until individual is able to sleep
Randy Gardner •
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Total sleep deprivation 264 hours, 11 days without sleep His health, thoughts, feelings and behaviors were recorded.
SYMPTOMS Still capable of completing complex task for a short period of time. But unable to do simple tasks well. Delusions (thoughts, famous sportsperson) Hallucinations (street sign was a person) Mood changes (grumpy and short tempted)
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Slurred speech Difficulties concentrating
Short term memory difficulties Finger tremors
LONG TERM SIDE EFFECTS Afterwards he slept for almost 15 hours Within a few days his sleep patterns returned to normal He did not have to catch up on all the sleep missed NO LONG TERM SIDE EFFECTS FOR A SHORT PERIOD OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION
Non Human studies •
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It is unethical to conduct an experiment on the effects of sleep deprivation on humans as it can lead to death but non-‐human studies offer a lot of information. A study on rats who were not allowed to sleep died within 33 days while those who did sleep remained in good health. However it was hard to determine if the death was due to sleep deprivation or stress related illness or health issues such as the overheating of the body.
Sleep deprivation and partial sleep deprivation •
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Total sleep deprivation: going without sleep for more than 24 hours Partial sleep deprivation: getting some sleep within 24 hours but not enough (more likely to experience partial)
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SYMPTOMS OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS AFTER ONE DAY Cognitive difficulties Impairment of memory Difficulty paying attention and concentrating Difficulty processing information Difficulty thinking and reasoning and poor decision making Memory problems Imparied creativity Distorted perceptions Affective (feelings) disturbances Highly emotional, confusion, irritability, sadness Previously enjoyed activities seem boring Lack of motivation Feelings of fatigue Behavioral difficulties Slowed performance Clumsiness, injuries Risk-‐taking behaviour Reduced ability on simple, monotonous cognitive tasks More likely to believe they had performed better on a task than they actually did PSYCHOLOGICAL AFTER A FEW DAYS OF TOTAL SLEEP DEPRIVATION Depression Hallucinations Delusions Paranoia Hat phenomenon PHYSIOLOGICAL Hand tremors Drooping eyelids Difficulty focusing eyes
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Slurred speech Higher pain sensitivity Slower physical reflexes Headaches Lower energy levels NOTE: There is little change, if any in heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and body temperature Over an extended period of time it can lead to death (this is why it is unethical to test on human participants) Driving when sleep deprived increases the likelihood of an accident (24 hours without sleep is like driving with a BAC of 0.1 making you 7 more likely to crash than those who a BAC of 0.00
Chronic Sleep Deprivation
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Many people are chronically sleep deprived (not having enough sleep over an extended period of time), particularly with partial sleep deprivation Evidence showing a link between sleep deprivation and: Depression Hypertension Heart disease Diabetes Obesity Some forms of cancer Anxiety disorders Accelerated ageing Sleep disorders such as insomnia Heart burn
There is increasing evidence that chronic sleep deprivation is linked to cardiovascular diseases, mood disorders and immune deficiencies. Lack of sleep increases the levels of cortisol (a stress related hormone that interferes with immune functioning).
After several days of partial sleep deprivation there will be an effect on immunity which explains why people are more susceptible to colds in times where you are deprived. Increased levels of cortisol has also been linked to damage of the brain cells responsible for learning and memory. Chronic sleep deprivation is also linked to females shift workers having a higher risk of experiencing
reproductive problems, breast cancer than someone who a normal sleep patter.
Lack of REM and NREM sleep •
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REM effects Learning Memory (high level of brain activity helps to consolidate memories although this is still controversial) Ability to pay attention Mood (REM interupts the release of some neurotransmitters that affect mood) REMEMBER-‐ Restorative theory says we need to have sleep for these things! We use REM sleep for these functions (mind). However it is still important for physiological well-‐being NREM effects Interferes with restoring the body physically as during NREM growth hormones are released. Illnesses and diseases can become common REMEMBER – Restorative theory says we need to have sleep for these things! We use NREM sleep for these functions (body).
However it is still important for psychological well-‐being
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sleep recovery patterns •
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SLEEP DEBT The accumulated amount of sleep loss from insufficient sleep We do not have to sleep all the hours back to overcome sleep deprivation
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REM REBOUND The recovery of REM sleep immediately following a period of lost REM sleep by spending more time than usual in REM sleep. Some will fall into a REM cycle very quickly (60 sec) The person is more likely to remember their dreams after experiencing REM rebound as they have been in REM more. REM rebound can have implications for people coming off drugs that limit or prevent REM (alcohol, nicotine, anitidepressants) as they report having more vivid dreams or nightmares which is quite distressing and can even lead to the resumption of the drug.
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MICROSLEEPS A very short period of drowsiness or sleep that occurs while a person is apparently awake due to being sleep deprived EEG pattern similar to early NREM Normally occurs when doing a simple monotonous task Loss of conscious awareness and often doesn’t recall of events occurring during the micro sleeps Micro sleeps assist us in overcoming or preventing sleep deprivation and usually last 3–15 seconds however having short sleeps or powernaps can help prevent micro sleeps
How much sleep do we need? •
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How much sleep we need is very much dependent on Genetics, lifestyle and age GENETICS RELATED Family members may have similar sleep needs but specifically identical twins Females tend to need more sleep than males LIFESTYLE RELATED Lifestyle influences sleep needs Work habits: stress levels and cognition levels Social habits and physical activity levels Culture: some societies have a ‘siesta’ culture Season: Summer = less sleep needed
Winter= more sleep needed AGE RELATED Young children need more sleep, and adults less, in order to perform at their best. AGE
AMOUNT OF SLEEP
Newborns (1-‐2 months)
14-‐18 hours
Infants (3-‐11 months)
13-‐16 hours
Toddlers (1-‐3 years)
12-‐14 hours
Preschoolers (3-‐5 years)
11-‐13 hours
Children (5-‐12 years)
10-‐11 hours
Teens (13-‐17 years)
9-‐10 hours
Adults (18 and up)
7-‐9 hours
Sleep/wake cycles
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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OUR SLEEP/WAKE CYCLE Our bodies are attuned to a sleep/wake cycle that revolves around night and day.
This regularcycle, an example of a circadian rhythm, is determined by an internal body clock which runs close to a 24.2 hour cycle or even longer (up to 25 hours), especially in brightly lit rooms.
This means that our natural sleep/wake cycle is slightly longer than 24 hours and explains why it is easier to fall asleep slightly later rather than earlier at night. Sunlight readjusts this time difference with sensors in your eyes and back on your knees informing the brain to adjust its internal body clock and go to sleep or stay awake
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ADOLESCENT SLEEP WAKE CYCLE Teenagers need more sleep than adults (and sometimes children) Ideally this would be 9-‐10 hours a night Many do not get this, particularly with early school starts and other thing such as homework, family commitments, social life, electronic devices, television, playing sport Teenagers also experience a shift in their normal sleep wake cycle during their adolescent years This returns to normal adult patterns once adolescent period is finished (about 19-‐21 years) SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFT Adolescent sleep wake cycle shift means that their ‘body clock’ is out by about two hours and they also need slightly more sleep than children and adults Your parents may tell you to go to bed at 10pm but to you it still feels about 8pm This cycle shift is due to the regulation of sleep/wake hormones called melatonin and cortisol MELATONIN Melatonin, causing ‘sleepiness’, is secreted by the pineal gland The signal to secrete begins when it is dark and wen your temperature is dropping Light prevents melatonin secretion and therefore prevents sleepiness Many shift workers will end up on melatonin tablets to help regulate their hormone levels allowing them to get some sleep during the day Have trouble waking up? Flood your room with light first thing, replace alarm clock for a light up alarm clock Have trouble sleeping? Make sure your room is free from lights, even little ones like ones from phones and computers.
Chapter 6 and 7 -‐ The interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure and Studies of cognitive processes
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OVERVIEW
• The interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure including: – Roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic), and autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic) – Roles of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex in the control of motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory processing in humans; primary cortex and association areas – Hemispheric specialization: the cognitive and behavioral functions of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, non-‐verbal versus verbal and analytical functions Contribution of studies to the investigation of cognitive processes of the brain and implications for the understanding of consciousness including: – Studies of aphasia including Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia – Spatial neglect caused by stroke or brain injury – Split-‐brain studies including the work of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
The nervous system •
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Composed of billions of interconnected neurons Complex combination of neurons that helps our brain to understand what is happening inside and outside of our body Organized into different branches.
The central nervous system •
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Compromises of
Brain Spinal cord System of nerves (over 100 billion) Receives information from the Peripheral Nervous System Transfers information to the Peripheral Nervous System
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BRAIN Organizes integrates and interprets information from within and outside the body
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SPINAL CORD It enables the brain to communicate with the rest of the body by conveying messages from the brain to the Peripheral Nervous System and from the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
The upper section of it is responsible for communication between the brain and the upper parts of the body The lower section is responsible for the lower parts of the body such as legs, toes and feet Transmits sensory information to the brain Transmits motor information from the brain
Peripheral nervous system •
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The entire network of nerves located outside the Central Nervous System Messages are detected from sensory organs, internal organs and muscles including information from the outside world (such as environmental temperature and sensation on the skin via sensory neurons) and from the inside world (such as aches and pains) and sent to the CNS Transmits sensory information to the spinal cord Transmits motor information from the spinal cord
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SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Transmits messages from the sensory receptors to the Central Nervous System Controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles Does this via the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
S.A.M.E. Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Controls the functioning of the body’s internal organs and glands by being responsible for the communication
of information between then and the CNS Is mainly self regulating – happens involuntarily and then feedback is provided to the brain. This occurs so
that the organism has the cognitive resources to pay attention to other matters Divisions Sympathetic Parasympathetic SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TIP-‐ S for stress Division of Autonomic NS In times of stress activates Nerves Glands Visceral muscles To help us cope/survive the threat and prepares the body for fight or flight Cool, pale skin, sweating dilated pupils, dry mouth, breathing rate
Organ
Function
Parasympathetic NS
Sympathetic NS
Pupils
Regulates the amount of light entering the eye
Contracts/constricts
Dilates (expands)
Salivary glands
Digestion
Increases salivation
Decreases salivation
Heart
Pumping blood
Slows heart rate
Accelerates heart rate
Bronchioles of lungs
Breathing
Contracts/constricts
Dilates
Stomach
Digestion
Increases contractions
Decreases contractions/inhibits
Pancreas
Blood sugar secretion
Stimulates pancreas
Inhibits pancreas
Tear glands
Provides moisture to eyes
Stimulates tear glands
No effect on tear glands
Liver
Produces bile to aid digestion, maintains blood sugar (glucose) level
Decreases the release of glucose
Increase the release of glucose
Gall bladder
Stores bile
Stimulates the release of bile
Inhibits the release of bile
Adrenal glands
Secretes the hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin
Inhibits hormone secretion
Stimulates hormone secretion (increased HR , BR, blood pressure, relaxation of intestinal muscles)
Bladder
Urine storage
Increases contractions
Relaxes
Intestine
Digestion
Increases contractions
Relaxes
Genitals
Reproduction
Stimulates erection
Stimulates ejaculation
Sweat glands
Regulates temperature
Decreases production of perspiration
Increases production of perspiration
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Arousal
Overall state of alertness and activation of an individual. Stimulation of the senses/thought processes.
At times we can be very aware of our physiological arousal. Heightened arousal when sympathetic NS is activated
Fight or Flight An automatic reaction of the sympathetic NS Helps the body to prepare to face a threat or run for it Adaptive response that occurs in response to a real or imagined threat Maximize our chance of survival Physiological arousal These days a threat might be a stressful situation ie, Exam or oral presentation
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Tips -‐ P for PEACE Autonomic Nervous System Helps the body to function efficiently by maintaining automatic day-‐to-‐day functions known as homeostasis Restores a state of calm Effects the same organs and glands as the sympathetic nervous system but has the opposite effect
The brain
The cerebral cortex •
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Largest area of the brain that covers the cerebral hemispheres which is only 3mm thick but contains billions of neurons (70% if the brains neurons) It looks like a walnut because the surface is convoluted and has many folds, groves, valleys (sulcus) and bulges (gyrus) which is so that the surface area and volume of the cortex is large enough to contain the number of neurons and blood vessels necessary) It is much larger in proportion to body mass compared to other animals which is the point of difference between humans and animals in terms of intellectual functioning so animals with a larger surface area have a higher intellectual brain ability. 2 cerebral hemispheres – left and right Each hemisphere is connected by the corpus callosum – a bundle of nerve fibers Each hemisphere is divided into four areas or cortical lobes which is clear due to the deep groves (central fissure) It allows you to undertake a range of tasks both simple, detect the difference between pieces of information, understand the meaning
Frontal Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Each lobe controls a different range of behaviors and functions
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX Involved in the integration of the information between the motor and sensory areas and higher-‐order mental processes including decision making, thinking, planning, initiating movement analysis, synthesis and language.
FRONTAL LOBE
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Location: The largest lobe which occupies the part of the brain behind the forehead General Functions: initiating motor movements, enabling higher mental functioning involving learning and memory, speech and language, planning, judgment, problem solving, aspects of personality and emotions Damage to frontal lobe may result it inability to learn from experiences and make more mistakes in planning because they lack foresight PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX Location: At the back (posterior) of the frontal lobe. Function: Neural messages from the motor cortex are EFFERENT and leave the brain (‘E’ like the word Exit) The primary motor cortex is; Contralateral Right hemisphere controls the movement on the left side of the body Left hemisphere controls the movement on the right side of the body Inverted Neurons that control the movement of body parts at the top of our body are located at the bottom of the motor cortex Neurons that control the movement of body parts at the bottom of our body are located at the top of the motor cortex Proportion of the brain Parts of the body that are required to make the finest/controlled movements – take up much more space than other areas in the body (homunculus) NOT the biggest parts but the most space. Damage to the primary motor cortex Inability to move that part of the body Often due to stroke Nothing wrong with that part of the body
BROCA’S AREA (LANGUAGE) Location: Left frontal lobe (95%), near the bottom of the primary motor cortex (L for language, L for left) Function: It is responsible for the production of clear and articulate speech (movement for speech as it controls the muscles associated with language), involved in understanding complex grammatical structures, production of speech that follows the rules of grammar. Damage to the Broca’s area Broca’s Aphasia Is a language disorder caused by damage to Broca’s area
Broca’s Aphasia
Or expressive aphasia
Location of the brain damaged
Left frontal lobe near motor cortex
Language difficulties
Difficulties with the production of speech (motor skills) Difficulties expression themselves in words or sentences, grammatical difficulties
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
as it often lacks syntax Some patients cannot speak at all Difficulty in writing Fluency of speech
Non-‐fluent slow, deliberate and effortful
Level of understanding
Ability to understand written and spoken language is largely unaffected
Level of awareness
Patients are aware that they have aphasia
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ASSOCIATION AREAS Apart from the primary motor cortices, 75% of all of the Cerebral Cortex is made up of Association areas. In the frontal lobe, association areas are responsible for most complex and mental functions and it includes the Brocas area Including planning, estimating, personality, attention control of emotions and emotional expression, judgments and applying knowledge. ‘Executive’ role in thinking, feeling and behaving Damage to the association areas causes Personality change Impaired judgement
Case study
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Phineas gage. A metal pole went through his frontal lobe Once was regarded as the most efficient and capable foreman After incident, his mind was radically changed. He was fitful, irreverent, swearing, impatient.
PARIETAL LOBE Location: behind the frontal lobe at the top of the brain Function: Responsible for processing touch and sensation and locating the body in space. Specialized to receive bodily sensations. The right parietal lobe enables a person to perceive three-‐dimensional shapes and designs.
The left parietal lobe has a role in reading, writing and performing mental arithmetic. PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX Location: At the front (anterior) of the parietal lobe Function: Responsible for processing touch, temperature, pain and sensation. Neural messages coming to the somatosensory cortex are afferent (‘A’ like the word ARRIVE) The primary somatosensory cortex is; Contralateral Right hemisphere process the sensations such as touch pressure and temperature from the left side of the body Left hemisphere processes the sensations such as touch pressure and temperature from the right side of the body Inverted Neurons that processes sensations from the body parts a the top of our body are located at the bottom of the somatosensory cortex Neurons that processes sensations from the body parts at the bottom of our body are located at the top of the somatosensory cortex Proportion of the Brain Parts of the body that are the most sensitive take up much more space than other areas in the body (homunculus) **think about where would you NOT want to be hit These body parts have more nerve endings (ie. Tongue) and therefore get more cortical space
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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ASSOCIATION AREAS Association areas integrate information about our body and position in space Perceive your own body in your surroundings Perceive where things are located in the environment Left parietal: reading writing performing mental arithmetic Right parietal: seeing objects as complete Damage to Primary Somatosensory Cortex Inability to receive sensations from a part of the body Often due to stroke Phantom limb where you still receive sensations but the limb is no longer there Spatial neglect SPACIAL NEGLECT Location: posterior part of the right parietal lobe is damaged This often follows stroke or other brain damage Can results in the person systematically ignoring or neglecting all stimuli on the left side of their world (remember contralateral processing) They are not blind or visually impaired, they can see but they do not acknowledge or attend to the stimuli This can even occur in memories where they only remember the right visual field information Often unaware they even have the problem The reason isn’t fully understood but there is a clear link to the parietal lobe and our ability to pay attention and be consciously aware of objects our environment and our own bodies (spatial awareness) The location and extent of damage influences the degree of neglect (severe to mild) The sufferer may experience significant daily difficulties, or none Trying to rehabilitate a person who isn’t even aware of their problem is really tricky
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OCCIPITAL LOBE Location: the back of the brain Function: Almost exclusively concerned with vision. Receives visual info, interprets colour, shape and distance PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX
Location: At the posterior of the visual cortex Function: Responsible for processing visual information Information in the left visual field is cast onto the right side of each retina and is processed in the right hemisphere. Information in the right visual field is cast onto the left side of each retina and is processed in the left hemisphere Damage to primary visual cortex Person is unable to process visual information; there is nothing wrong with their eyes. Degree of damage will impact on the degree of vision lost Ie. Hemianopia
ASSOCIATION AREAS Have an important role in vision Work to select, organize and integrate visual information Interact with other association areas in frontal parietal and temporal lobes to integrate visual information Responsible for recognition of objects and memory for objects and items Damage to association areas Difficulty recognizing objects Eg. See different parts of a dogs body but cant put it all together
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sperry’s Study •
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SPLIT BRAIN STUDY Corpus Callosum A bundle of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemisphere together and allows for communication to occur between the two hemispheres (back and forth) Extremely invasive Patients underwent an operation that severed their corpus callosum which prevented communication between the two hemispheres on a higher cortical level. They are still connected at the subcortical (deeper) level but the cerebral hemispheres are now seperated Although the left and right hemispheres sides look the same, they have slightly different functions however they did not seem to have any major side effects and subsequently personality and behaviour in most cases appears normal. Tachistoscope (Joe) Person told to focus eyes on the central dot Image flashed for a short period of time to the far left or right This ensures it is shown to only one visual field, not both This transfer the visual information to only one hemisphere not both The experiments suggest that the left and right hemispheres have different language skills with the left brain(the interpreter) being responsible for constructing theories and relationships between perceived events, actions and feelings.
‘KEY’ on brain drawing.
Object is on the right visual field Transferred to the left side of EACH retina Processed in the left hemisphere
Could they say what it was?
YES Because the information is processed in the left hemisphere which controls language
Could they pick it up?
Yes with their right hand only Because the left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body The information cannot travel to the right hemisphere as the corpus callosum has ben severed so they can only pick it up with their right hand
Could they draw it?
Yes with their right hand only Because the left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body The information cannot travel to the right hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only pick it up with their right hand.
‘RING’ on brain drawing.
Could they say what it was?
No Because the information is processed in the right hemisphere which does not control language The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed
Could they pick it up?
Yes with their left hand only Because the right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only pick it up with their left hand
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Could they draw it?
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Yes with their left hand only Because the right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only draw it with their left hand.
TEMPORAL LOBE
Location: At the side of the brain, near the ear Function: Processing auditory information, hearing sounds, language comprehension, facial recognition and memory. Eg. To understand speech or listen to music Damage to the right temporal lobe may lead to inability to recognise songs, faces or paintings PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX Location: At the top of the temporal lobe Function: Responsible for the processing of auditory information received from the ears Damage to the auditory cortex If it is damaged, people may experience forms of deafness ASSOCIATION AREA Part of the temporal lobe is connected with the hippocampus – encoding of long term memories Emotion Visual recognition (faces) Appreciation of music Damage to association areas
Damage to the right temporal lobe can also result in inability to recognize faces (memory link) called prosopagnosia. May also lead to being able to hear something but being unable to locate that item in space Hippocampus damage: difficulties consolidation new memories WERNICKES AREA (LANGUAGE) Location: Left temporal lobe (L for language, L for left) Function: This area is responsible for interpreting/comprehending the meaning of language and words Used to understand both written and verbal language
It locates words from memory to express a particular meaning and creates a coherent and grammatically correct speech and writing Damage to Wernicke’s area Wernicke’s Aphasia (language disorder) WERNICKES=WEIRD speech
Wernicke’s (receptive) Aphasia
Location of the brain damaged
Left temporal lobe near parietal lobe
Language difficulties
Difficulty understanding written and spoken language Difficulty producing written and spoken language that makes sense to others Inappropriate or made-‐up words can be used There is partial or complete loss of the ability to recall names (anomia). The person may have trouble finding and using the right words
Fluency of speech
Very fluent but makes no sense
Level of awareness
Patients are unaware that they have aphasia
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Hemispheric Specialization •
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Refers to the fact that the left and right hemispheres of the brain have some specific functions that exist predominately the those hemisphere While hemispheres have a particular specialization, it is important to remember that they work together and complement each other in their functions. They communicate with each other through the corpus callosum that connects the two.
Left Hemisphere (L for language, logic)
Right Hemisphere
MOTOR FUNCTION • Controls movement in the right side of the body
• Production of speech
MOTOR FUNCTION • Controls movement in the left side of the body
SENSORY FUNCTION
• Receives sensations from the right side of the body
SENSORY FUNCTION • Receives sensations from the left side of the body
PERCEPTUAL FUNCTION • Comprehension of language (written and spoken).
PERCEPTUAL FUNCTION • Recognition of faces
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Recognition of patterns • Processing spatial information
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS (VERBAL AND ANALYTICAL) • Analytical thinking
• Logical reasoning • Mathematics • Sequential processing • Writing
• Reading
• Fine details • Serial behaviours and behaviours (taking it in turns, reading, writing).
TREE
COGNITIVE FUNCTION (NON VERBAL) • Musical ability
• Detection and expression of emotion • Spatial ability-‐ design, movement, dance • Making a meaningful whole. • Appreciation of art • Thinking globally or holistically FOREST
Remember that you always use your whole brain eg. When dancing, you are not only using the right hemisphere you are using your left as well
Comparison of NWC and ASC
Characteristic and Definition
Level of Awareness Awareness relates to how conscious or aware you are of internal and or
Normal Waking Consciousness (NWC) The states of consciousness you experience when you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions, from both your internal and external environment.
Experience a clear sense of time, place
(ASC) Daydreaming Daydreams occur when attention is shifted to internal, private thoughts, feelings and imagined scenarios. Often occur during automatic processes, or when bored and includes a low level of awareness of outside world.
(ASC) Alcohol Induced A psychoactive drug is a chemical substance that affects nervous system and brain activity.
They impacts on consciousness and alter thoughts, feelings, perceptions and behaviours.
Occupies the alert to awake zone Awake and generally aware of internal and external events. A good sense of
Is decreased compared to NWC. Most often, level of awareness is lowered during an altered state as you are
Alcohol significantly decreases a persons level of awareness both internally and externally. They have difficulty
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
external events.
The continuum of awareness can highlight different levels of alertness
place, time and reality.
thinking of other things rather than focusing on what is happening in your surroundings.
concentrating and attending to one thing and will be easily distracted.
Controlled and Automatic processes Automatic requires little awareness, take minimal attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities Controlled Activities that require full awareness, alertness and concentration to reach some goal
Able to perform controlled and automatic processes, within normal limits. Attention is focused or highly selective and can be divided between tasks.
Usually less able to perform controlled processes and automatic processes. Usually less control over attention, which may be highly selective, but less able to be divided between tasks. This is because you aren’t concentrating on the task you should be doing.
May be less than in NWC. Usually less constrained or controlled, with reduced ability to process information but fewer limitations on content. The mind processing in the brain is slower and therefore it takes longer to reach the goal.
Content limitations The amount of control that you have to limit what you pay attention (attend) to and the content of the things you focus on
May be highly limited, focussed or structured More constrained and controlled. Can selectively process different parts of what is in consciousness.
Free, bizarre and illogical The amount of control you have is decreased which makes selective attention difficult. Content limitations is also decreased
Free, bizarre and illogical May be more or less than in NWC. Usually less constrained or controlled, with reduced ability to process information but fewer limitations on content.
Perceptual and cognitive distortions Perceptions (including of pain) are The degree of awareness and efficiency realistic and normal. Effective control of of our perceptions and cognitions memory processes: storage and retrieval. Thought processes are organised and logical.
Perception (including pain) may be altered, might not be as good as you are focusing on other things. Memory processes may be disrupted or distorted: storage and recall may be more fragmented or less accurate as you are being distracted. Thought processes are disorganized and less logical.
Perception (including pain) may be altered. Senses/feeling/emotions re experienced as stronger and more vivid or are suppressed and blurred. There can be a loss or detachment from a persons sense of self and hallucinations can occur. Cognitive distortions: Individuals may lose touch with reality. Information processing is also distorted so thinking may be illogical and non-‐sequential, and difficulties in problem solving and recall may be experienced.
Emotional awareness The experience of emotion, control over emotion and understanding of appropriateness of emotions
More aware of emotions, e.g. more or less affectionate, aggressive, anxious. Good daydreams can enhance mood but negative ones may depress your mood. They also may flatten our response to emotional situations in the real world
Less control of emotions, e.g. more or less affectionate, aggressive, anxious. More susceptible to it as they aren’t as in control of their behavior. Depending on the type of personality and behavior when the person is drunk or how much alcohol is consumed, can change the emotions.
Self-‐control More control over actions and The ability to regulate and maintain movements, e.g. you are able to make appropriate or acceptable behaviours in yourself walk in a straight line. the correct contexts.
Includes the control of inhibitions and level of suggestiveness in terms of regulating behaviour
Less control over actions as you are thinking of other things and your body might be doing things unintentionally.
Usually less control over actions and movements, e.g. not able to make yourself walk in a straight line. Less control over emotions and thoughts but greater susceptibility to suggestion may decrease self-‐control. Can cause people to behave in a way they wouldn’t usually including taking more risks
Time orientation The ability to correctly perceive time and the speed at which time is passing.
Clear sense of time: e.g. the passage of time, including past, present and future.
Distorted ‘sense’ of time, e.g. time may Distorted ‘sense’ of time, e.g. time may appear to speed up as you are thinking of appear to speed up or slow down other things. depending on how much alcohol the person has consumed.
Memory
The brain actively stores information in memory and retrieves information from memory. Individuals are able to remember experiences and information processes in this state.
Perceptions (including of pain) are realistic and normal. Effective control of memory processes: storage and retrieval. Thought processes are organised and logical.
Continuity in memory is disrupted, creating gaps or blackouts. It is often difficult to remember because information ahs not been processed into memory due to cognitive disruptions.
Memory
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Chapter 8 –Models for Explaining Human memory
OVERVIEW – Atkinson-‐Shiffrin’s multi-‐store model of memory including maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, serial position effect and chunking –Levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart – Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-‐spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer -‐ Organisation of long-‐term memory including declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory, and semantic network theory
Intro to Memory-‐ the Basics •
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Most acknowledge that memory has three basic processes, and these are sequential
These include encoding, storage and retrieval • Encoding is the process of changing the information into a form that can be stored in memory. (the type of encoding effects ability to be recalled.) • Storage is the process of keeping the information in the brain for later retrieval (stored in different ways, eg. semantic network theory) • Retrieval is the process of getting information back from memory so that we can use it again (relies on using the right cues)
Atkinson-‐Shiffrin's Multi-‐Store model of memory •
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Most common model, proposed in 1968 Describes three stores of memory • Sensory memory: a very brief memory store. Information enters from all the senses. • Short-‐term memory: a limited store of actively conscious memory • Long-‐term memory: A store of info virtually limitless in capacity. Needs to be retrieved to be brought back into conscious awareness. These levels are separate but work together to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve information.
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SENSORY MEMORY Info received by sense organs from the environment If it is attended to (paid attention to) it is transferred to STM. If we don’t pay attention, info is lost forever as it is not processed Sensory memory has an unlimited capacity but only a brief duration Purpose of brief duration is that it stops us from being overwhelmed by too much info. Acts like a filter and allows us to perceive world as smooth and ongoing. The information, if not attended to, is briefly stored in its raw form before the traces fade or decay Two examples of sensory memory include our visual sensory memory, called iconic memory, and our auditory sensory memory, called echoic memory. ICONIC Visual sensory memory 0.3 seconds duration (fades rapidly) (0.3 rhymes with see) Unlimited capacity
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Still shots presented quickly seen as 'moving' For example: Wave sparkler around and read image ECHOIC Auditory sensory memory 3-‐4 seconds duration (fades) (4 rhymes with au-‐ditory) Unlimited capacity Explains why we can ask someone to repeat what they have said, but then give them the answer before they repeat
SHORT TERM MEMORY Where information is actually used and manipulated (stored acoustically) It allows us to retain for long enough to use it in that given moment Duration of 12-‐30 seconds (provided there is no interference) Capacity of 5-‐9 items (7 plus or minus 2) When capacity is reached, new info can only enter short term memory if old info is displaced (lost) Susceptible to interference, displacement and possibility of decay Attention and rehearsal will help store info in LTM It also holds and manipulates information being retrieved from long term memory
REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES CHUNKING Chunking is the grouping together of items that can then be remembered as a chunk. These are stored as a single unit
The capacity of STM is still 5-‐9 UNITS Chunking can increase the capacity of information able to be stored in STM Think about how you remember a phone number Chucking is more effective when the chunks themselves have their own meaning in LTM, eg. There are 356 days in a year, you were born in 1997 MAINTEN ANCE REHEARSAL If you rehearse the information in short term memory you increase chances of retaining the information This does not add meaning or link to long term memory better, just holds it in place longer If we repeat something often enough, transfer to long term memory is possible otherwise, if it stops, the info will be lost 12-‐30 seconds later Methods of maintenance rehearsal could be verbal (saying things out loud or in your head) and non verbal (visualizing or imagining how it feels)
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LONG TERM MEMORY Information is encoded and stored in long term memory for later retrieval Information is stored semantically (by meaning), and forms semantic networks. Virtually unlimited capacity and duration With appropriate cues, ‘forgotten’ things can be remembered. Forgetting is due to poor cues and not capacity limitations Long term memories are maintained because of the physiological changes to the neurons and their connections with other neurons.
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL Elaborative rehearsal is the process by which we give meaning to information and link it to other information already in memory by using effort If we think of two examples of concepts and link to other information as we go we tend to give more meaning and process information at a deeper level
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Salience, or personal relevance, also improves encoding An advantage of elaborative rehearsal is that its more likely to be retrieved because it is attached to more things Using mnemonic devices is one way of improving encoding.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT Gives evidence that Short term memory and long term memory are separate memory systems The serial position effect is a finding that immediate free recall (any order) is better for items at the beginning and end of the list than for items in the middle of the list. The words have to be similar in characteristics and significance to the learner in order for it to be accurately observed.
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TIPS FOR REMEMBERING GRAPH
Serial reminds you of cereal, what do you eat cereal out of? A bowl. The shape of the graph is like a bowl.
PRIMACY EFFECT The primacy effect describes superior recall for items at the beginning of a list compared to those in the middle This is because it is likely that the initial items received more attention and rehearsal and were transferred into LTM before the capacity of STM was full RECENCY EFFECT The Recency effect describes superior recall of items at the end of the list compared to those in the middle This is most likely because these words are remembered because they were read last and are still in short-‐term memory. Those with anterograde amnesia have good recency effects but poor primacy effects as they are unable to form new declarative memories ASYMPTOPE
On a graph, this shows the inferior recall for items in the middle of a list compared to those at the start or end of a list. Items are not stored in LTM or a displaced from STM
Criticisms to Atkinson-‐Shiffrin's Multi-‐Store model of memory •
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Does not adequately explain the interaction between the memory stores It does not show why the coding of the information changes between the different memory stores. Other researches state that it is a continuum rather than separate memory stores.
Craik and Lockhart: Levels of Processing •
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This model of memory storage is different as it suggests we have a continuous dimension of memory rather than specific storage units The memory dimension is relative to the way that memories are encoded and therefore how easily they can be retrieved
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The ‘deeper’ the processing the greater chance of being retrieved Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggested there are three levels at which we encode material STRUCTURAL Physical features of words
Upper, lower case, vowel, consonant, long, short, round or straight letters Shallow level of processing 20% of words recalled PHONEMIC Words are learnt by their sounds
Book, nook, took Moderate level of processing 50% of words are recalled SEMANTIC Words are learnt by their meaning and placed directly into our semantic networks Which fit in a sentence or which describe you Deep level processing 80% of words recalled
STUDY TIPS LTM is better when we process information semantically The more complex the processing, the stronger the memory, even within the same level of processing Personal relevance or salience has greater effect on recall Memory grows stronger the more it is elaborated upon and linked to things we already know well BEST ENCODING TIPS FOR STUDENTS Make sure you understand new information by restating it in your own words Actively question new information Think about potential applications and implications of the material Relate the new material to information you already know, searching for connections to make the new information more meaningful Generate your own examples of the concept especially from your own experiences
Baddeley and Hitch’s model of Working Memory
A more recent system of memory (2009) This is the active part of memory where the information that we are consciously aware of is actively ‘worked on’ in a variety of ways • We use information from sensory memory and long term memory and is like a mental workspace for what you are cognitively doing and working on RIGHT NOW 4 separate but interdependent aspects • Phonological loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Central executive • Episodic buffer
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP • Our verbal/auditory working memory that is active whenever we read, listen, speak or repeat works • Stores and rehearses about 7 items of speech information for about 2 seconds • It is a slave system-‐it does not make decisions, just follows orders. Sends and receives information to central exec when instructed to • Contains the phonological memory store and the articulatory sub-‐vocal rehearsal Phonological Memory Store •
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Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Helps us understand the meaning of a sentence by retaining the words from the start of the sentence to the end/ Can hold traces of speech-‐based or acoustic material for about 2 seconds unless it is maintained Articulatory sub-‐vocal rehearsal Mentally rehearse what you are going to say (sub vocal) Prevention of rehearsal results in rapid loss of information
Eg. Think about when you have to ‘introduce yourself’ at the start of the year.
VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD Our visual working memory where we temporarily store what we see Can use it to work on visual and spatial tasks and manipulate things in our mind It is a slave system. Sends and receives from central executive when instructed to. Stores and manipulates about 4 items of visual and spatial information at a time Eg. Drawing your bedroom layout from memory
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE Monitors, integrates and coordinates information received from these slave systems as well as information from Long Term Memory; making decisions, problem solving, planning, controlling =’thinking’. Puts together the sounds and visions of working memory and controls attention and enables us to perform mental manipulation on data Main Functions of central executive Intense Swearing Unit Inhibition -‐ aspect of attention, screening out irrelevant material Switching -‐ changing attention from one item to another Updating – Modifying items brought in from Long term Memory before recommitting them to memory (this allows a process of accommodation on the semantic network) Stores information for 18-‐20 seconds Is our ‘consciousness’ (our here and now)
EPISODIC BUFFER New sub-‐system of working memory model Explains how working memory interacts with Long Term Memory Seen as a temporary storage place that holds about 4 chunks of information and combines auditory and visual information from both slave systems, as well as connecting them directly to Long Term Memory Under the control of the central executive like the other areas It helps ‘file’ things away in Long Term Memory for proper storage, and retrieves ‘ files’ from Long term memory when information is needed
Working memory and Multitasking •
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Difference stores in working memory are fairly independent We can do two things at once if the stores are using different stores in working memory BUT only if we are good at both tasks Ie. Drive a car while recalling information relevant to a conversation with a car passenger is hard when you are leaning If stores are too much the same, task is also difficult
Ie. Talking on phone while listening to someone talk to you People who perform well on working memory tasks tend to show high levels of ability in such tasks as reading comprehension and even intelligence tasks and are likely to be better at understanding other people point of view.
Organisation of Long Term Memory
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Long term memory is usually divided into two systems – procedural memory and declarative memory Procedural memory is the how to’ – memory of skills, habits and actions Declarative memory is memory of facts and events. It is further divided into episodic and semantic memory.
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PROCEDURAL MEMORY Memory for skills habits and actions, operations and conditioned responses Very resistant to forgetting (ie. Hard to forget how to ride a bike) Seems largely unconscious Does not decline that much over time When learning a new task, a conscious and deliberate effort is often required. However after practice the knowledge retrieval becomes implicit.
DECLARATIVE MEMORY Involves the memory of facts, events and general knowledge. It is generally referred to as information associated with learning for school, reading, maths and higher order thinking which is associated with intelligence. TYPES OF MEMORIES Episodic Memory Episodic is about memories of particular events and is often autobiographical Retrospective memory includes memory of pasts events Prospective memory includes remembering to do things in the future Semantic Memory Semantic memory is memory for facts (things learnt at school, meanings of words), worldly or general knowledge
IMPLICIT VS. EXPLICIT Implicit Memory Memory involves unintentional remembering. It is unconscious and tends to be procedural or emotionally driven Role of Amygdala Includes classical conditioning and procedural memory Explicit memory Memory involves the conscious retrieval of memories. Involves declarative memories, recall and recognition. Role of hippocampus Includes episodic and semantic memory
OTHER TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY Flashbulb memories Emotional content Results in intense recall Activated amygdala at time of encoding Photographic (Eidetic) Memories
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sharp, detailed visual
Images able to be recalled from Long Term Memory even after only viewing for a few moments
SEMANTIC NETWORK THEORY Collins and Quillian (1969) Information in Long Term memory is stored hierarchically according to particular concepts Each piece of information is called a node (item). The nodes link to other nodes. The closer the nodes, the stronger the link and the quicker the information will be retrieved Links are the lines showing the relationship between the nodes. In reality, links are physical, neurons that connect between where different memories are stored.
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OVERVIEW – The neuron in memory formation including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters – Role of the temporal lobe including the hippocampus and the amygdala – Consolidation theory – Memory decline over the lifespan – Amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
Chapter 9 -‐ Mechanisms of Memory formation
The neuron – Diagram
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Neurons
receive information from other neurons, process this information and then communicate it to other neurons. Neurons are generally comprised of three elements
Dendrites •
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The tree-‐like part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons Soma
The cell body of a neuron. It is the largest part of the neuron and controls metabolism and maintenance of the cell. Axon A nerve fibre in the neuron along which the electrochemical nerve-‐impulse is transmitted away from the soma and towards the cells that communicate
Neurons and Memory •
Memories are stored throughout the brain and linked together through neural tracts or pathways known as a memory trace.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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MEMORY TRACE A physical or chemical change that is believed to occur in brain cells as they store information during memory formation.
HOW DOES INFORMATION TRAVEL THROUGH THE NEURON? Information (in the form of a neurotransmitter) is received at receptor sites in the dendrites of a neuron, from here the message travels down the neuron through the axon and to the axon terminals This is called an electrical process
ACROSS THE SYNAPSE At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles and they travel across the synaptic gap.
This is now a chemical process Neurons never touch
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WHAT CHANGES OCCUR When a neuron is activated more than once, the presynaptic neuron increases the number of neurotransmitters it releases into the synapse This then prompts the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron to grow. They become more numerous and also grow towards the presynaptic neuron. They also became more sensitive to the neurotransmitters This then means that new synaptic connections are formed, making it easier for the message to travel from one neuron to another
Each time we access a memory or give a memory extra meaning, we strengthen the connection and the memory itself.
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LONG TERM POTENTIATION Repeated stimulation of a neural pathway tends to strengthen the likelihood of the neuron firing. Neurons that fire together, wire together
SPECIFIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS Research shows that memory is formed due to biochemical changes in the synapses in response to different neurotransmitters (chemicals) Some neurotransmitters help memory storage while others can disrupt it. It is known that memory is helped by the serotonin and acetylcholine neurotransmitters, as well as the hormone noradrenaline. Dopamine and Glutamate are heavily involved in learning, which is a ‘memory’ process as well.
Neurotransmitter
Effects
Acetylcholine
Memory and memory loss, learning Muscle movement Activates cerebral cortex REM sleep
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Hippocampus Dopamine
Facilitates movement, attention, learning, reinforcement
Serotonin
Regulates mood Eating, sleep, arousal, pain
Glutamate
Necessary for the changes in the synapses that occur with memory formation
Hormone
Effects
Adrenaline
Triggers physiological arousal
Cortisol
Repairs the body
The Brain
MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBE •
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The Medial temporal lobe is the inner surface area at the base of and towards the middle (‘medial’) of the temporal lobe. This area included the hippocampus; the amygdala, which is next to and touches the hippocampus; and other cortical tissue. There is evidence that patients are likely to experience more verbal memory loss afterremoval of their l eft temporal lobe (language side) whereas patients with loss of their right temporal lobe are likely to have loss of non-‐verbal memory such as maze-‐learning.
CEREBRAL CORTEX Associated with the encoding formation and storage of long term declarative memories
FRONTAL LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Working memory Procedural memory Episodic memory
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Declarative memories for some forms of sounds, pictures and words/language
THE HIPPOCAMPUS The hippocampus is a medial temporal lobe structure that is crucial for long-‐ term memory formation (but not all long term memory types as after a period of time, a more permanent memory is formed or transferred to somewhere else in the brain for example in the cerebral cortex) There is one 3.5cm long, tubular and curved shaped hippocampus in each hemisphere however it is usually larger in women. Also connected directly with the frontal lobe, thalamus, and amygdala. ROLE OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS The hippocampus has a crucial role in forming or encoding new declarative explicit memories (semantic and episodic) but not in forming or retrieving implicit procedural memories
It is also responsible for difficult tasks that draw upon declarative memory eg. A child learning to spell unfamiliar words
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Its role in forming new declarative explicit memoires is sometimes referred to as consolidation, a process that involves strengthening of newly forming memories to enable their permanent storage. It also plays an important role in the relationship between emotion and memory including both the emotions that are generated by particular memories and memories that are triggered by emotions.
DAMAGE TO THE HIPPOCAMPUS: Could be damaged by; Psychological factors: stress, anxiety depression, PTSD (prolonged stress could lead to the shrinking of the hippocampus) Brain trauma: head injury Degenerative conditions: Alzheimer’s disease, herpes, encephalitis Surgical: Old fashioned treatment for epilepsy
Damage to the hippocampus does not seem to seriously affect storage or retrieval of procedural memories, but formation and retrieval of declarative memories is affected how ever they are not aware that they ever learnt the information Damage does not affect short-‐term storage or working memory in any significant way Provides evidence that Short Term Memory (or working memory) is different from long term memory and that the hippocampus is not involved in short term storage. Hippocampus transfers newly encoded memories to other cortical areas for storage. This could be areas of the frontal lobe cortex or temporal lobe cortex Damage to both hippocampi results in anterograde amnesia (difficulty encoding and recalling any new memories since damage occurred).
AMYGDALA The amygdala is a small almond structure (about 1.5 centimeters long) located behind the temple and next to and interconnected with each of the hippocampi in the medial temporal lobes. ROLE OF THE AMYGDALA The amygdala plays crucial roles in processing and regulating emotional reactions, particularly strong emotions such as fear and aggression. In particular, it is involved in the encoding and storage of declarative memories that have a significant emotional component (sometimes called emotional memories) Also highly specialized for remembering emotions shown on faces. More likely to remember events that produce strong emotional reactions One reason is that the amygdala attaches emotional significance is because when adrenalin is released it stimulates the amygdala which activates the hippocampus to encode and store the relevant memories The amygdala contributes to the formation of explicit declarative memories. This is apparent in a specific type of episodic memory known as a flashbulb memory. DAMAGE TO AMYGDALA Amygdala damage shows reduced ability to acquire conditioned (learned) emotional responses and to interpret or express a variety of emotions These individuals form conscious explicit memories involving details of the even but not implicit procedural memories that would enable them to produce the fear response.
CEREBELLUM Thought to be involved in Procedural memories, particularly motor skills Involved in the implicit process of remembering as skill as well as classically conditioned responses.
BASAL GANGLI Long term procedural (implicit) memory for movement
HOW ARE MEMORIES CONSOLIATED?
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
CONDITION
DESCRIPTION
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Consolidation mostly happens through the hippocampus, which converts information from the short-‐term memory into permanent memory codes that are gradually stored in the long-‐term memory The short term memory changes the strength of the existing synapses in the brain, whereas long-‐ term memory involves the growth of new connections between neurons (Kandel 2001) Long-‐term memories are probably stored in the same areas of the cerebral cortex that were originally involved in processing the sensory input of the information (e.g. Visual information in the occipital lobe)
No Disruption •
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There is a period where memories are less consolidated or ‘set.’ These memories are susceptible to alteration by new relevant information The process may be disrupted but a head injury, the amount of attention that is paid to the information, or the arousal level due to anxiety and alertness Information can be altered or completely lost during this process
Time •
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Neural connections that have had more time to strengthen are less likely to be disrupted. This explains why head injury patients can still remember their names, family members and address but not remember the events that led to the head injury happenings. Researchers are still identifying the period of time it takes for consolidation to take place to the point where it is no longer vulnerable to disruption or change. Some research suggests that it is a process that can occur over a 30-‐minute period. Yet there is also evidence to suggest that it can take several years before some memories are permanently stored and no longer vulnerable to disruption or change.
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KEY THINGS A physical change occurs There has to be NO INTERUPTION It takes a certain amount of TIME
Memory decline over lifespan •
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Natural to experience some memory difficulties as you age however it is not an automatic part of the normal ageing process Connected with the organically aging brain In the case of dementia and other degenerative disorders, decline is more rapid and impacts on functioning more seriously
NORMAL AGE-‐RELATED MEMORY DECLINE (ARMD) Functioning of the Central nervous system begins to slow down which may effect memory After age of 60, there is a reduction in the function of the pre-‐frontal cortex reduction which leads to deficits in working memory and episodic memory Decline in the bundles of axons (white matter) that connect different regions of the brain causing a disruption of the communication between the difference regions of the brain. There is a hypothetical loss of synapses in the hippocampus which leads to less connections between neurons and therefore a slower rate of learning and a more rapid of forgetting.
TYPES OF MEMORIES AFFECTED BY ARMD
LONG TERM MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY (DECLARATIVE) • Perform just as well as young people but it may take longer to encode and retrieve info. • It may take longer to learn the new material but if they are given enough time, they can learn just as well as young people • Implicit knowledge based memories (reading and spelling of familiar words) is not effected and is readily retrieved and used.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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EPISODIC MEMORY (DECLARATIVE) • Older people have autobiographical episodic memory decline • Prospective memory (remembering things to do in the future) is also affected. • Episodic memory is relatively stable but there is a sharp decline after middle age possible due to the fact that older people tend to talk more readily about their lives when they were younger rather than more recent personal events • May remember early events but not more recent • Higher performance for women in old age (only memory with gender difference) PROCEDURAL MEMORY • Procedural (implicit) memories not affected • ie. Opening a can, cleaning teeth, cooking a meal
SHORT TERM MEMORY • For simple tasks there is no difference with age and they can perform just as well on them (for example on remembering a list of numbers) • Newly learnt verbal information is most affected • Newly learnt visual information is less affected WORKING MEMORY • Perform more poorly than young people on complex working memory tasks • Eg. Difficulty repeating string of numbers backwards, doing several tasks at once or dividing attention without interference
• Pre-‐frontal cortex less active and less efficient over 60 yrs of age. • Implications for elderly drivers and their ability to navigate the roads safely?
MEASURES OF RETENTION-‐ARMD Older people have more difficulty in retrieving new information rather than encoding new information. While Recall declines with age, Recognition does not decline with age (even for the same pieces of information) Implications for memory research which has highlighted that you must choose the right method of retention when testing ARMD
MOTIVATION AND CONFIDENCE -‐ARMD Motivation: some loose interest in trying to learn and recall new things Those who actively try and learn new things into old age suffer less memory loss Testing on ‘word lists’ may be seen as not important and not actively try to achieve good results Confidence: some worry about capacity to learn new things and do not seek opportunities/make as much effort
Organic forms of forgetting •
Forms where memory loss occurs due to physiological/biological factors that cause damage to the brain and therefore interfere with its proper functioning.
Amnesia •
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Amnesia refers to the loss of memory due to any reason, and can be partial or complete, temporary or permanent
Might be caused by brain trauma and injury or degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s It includes specific types of amnesia: Anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
RETROGRADE AMNESIA The difficulty in recalling previously stored memories from before the person sustained the damage Retro meaning backwards: the memory loss is backwards in time Memory loss Is usually the period just prior to the injury but may be moments, days, weeks, moths or even years
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Oldest memories tend to be left unaffected Usually temporary, can be caused by a blow or knock to the head or a trauma such as a stroke and if this is the case memory loss usually shrinks with recovery however most immediate memories probably will never be recovered (consolidation disruption) Common with patients treated with ECT (Electroconvulsive shock therapy) When occurs in Alzheimer’s and dementia patients, lost memory is unlikely to be recovered.
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA The loss of memory only for information or events that occur after the individual has sustained the brain damage so they have the inability to encode, store or learn new memories. Antero means forward: the loss is forward in time Memory for events prior to damage usually remains This is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease where damage has occurred to the temporal lobe and hippocampus Usually results from damage to the hippocampus (particularly a part called CA1 which connects to the storage part for the cortex H.M had great difficulty forming any new long term declarative memories following his operation Did not remember names of his doctors Did not remember events that occurred just moments before.
Brain Trauma •
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Brain Trauma is an umbrella term that is used to describe any brain damage that impairs or interferes with normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily of permanently It refers to 'organic' or physiologically-‐based amnesia It is typically a partial and selective amnesia, total amnesia is extremely rare Accident resulting in injuring
Surgery Disease and infection Drug and alcohol abuse Seizure Malnutrition
Neurodegenerative Disease •
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A disease characterized by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue Neurons (neuro) gradually deteriorate (degenerate) and lose their function Typically age related, such as Alzheimer’s disease and dementia
DEMENTIA Dementia refers to a disorder affecting higher mental functions that is characterized by progressive decline, with memory loss one of first signs Symptoms include loss of mental capacity including memory loss, decline in intellect, poor judgment, poor social skills and abnormal emotional reactions Not part of the normal aging process More than 60 diseases and illnesses can cause dementia such as reduced blood supply to the brain or toxins such as alcohol Alzheimer's disease is a common form of dementia SYMPTOMS It is first increasingly harder to remember people and events (especially recent ones) Find it difficult to think about and process information They may misplace things or be unable to do everyday tasks such as eating, dressing, driving or taking care of himself/herself Display strange or uncharacteristic behaviours Become easily upset or confused about time and place
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Be unusually aggressive or suspicious Have trouble speaking clearly, jumbling and confusing his or her words Have problems understanding what others are say and then gradually lose the ability to communicate through written language.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE An irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain and kills brain and nerve cells, causing severe cognitive, mental and behavioral decline. Most common form of dementia and symptoms usually appear after the age of 65 however early onset can occur in ones 30’s It is the 4th largest cause of death and impacts on 25% of those over 85 years old and with an aging population this is only going to increase Physical changes occurs 10-‐20 years before AD is presented SYMPTIOMS In the other ages the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease can be very subtle. However, it often involves gradual, severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention disordered thinking and depression (my cat Anna talks delicately)
Other objects may include: Persistent and frequent memory difficulties especially of recent events Vagueness in everyday conversation Apparent loss of enthusiasm for previously enjoyed activities
Taking longer to do routine tasks Forgetting well-‐known people or places Inability to process questions and instructions Deterioration of social skills Emotional unpredictability Order of memory loss
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The earliest symptom is usually impaired declarative memory where the patient has difficulty remembering events from the day before, forgets names and has difficulty finding the right word when speaking. (dolly (declarative) never (names) wins (words) round (repetition) robins (recognising)
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Next, the patient might repeat stories or questions, and eventually will fail to recognise familiar people and family members.
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It eventually leads to the death of the patient which usually occurs 4-‐8 years after diagnosis but may make over 20 years.
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Effects of Alzheimer's disease on the physiology of the brain include: Beta-‐amyloid protein plaques (abnormal clusters of dead and dying nerve cells, the products of which have accumulated around sticky molecules of beta-‐amyloid protein. In Alzheimer's it has been transformed into a form that is toxic to the brain and unable to be metabolized. Neurofibrillary tangles (insoluble, twisted structures caused by the build-‐up of protein and plaques within nerve cells that clog up the brain. In healthy brains tau helps memory traces stay formed but in areas where tangles are forming, tau collapses into twisted strands called tangles which means that the tracks can no longer stay straight and they fall apart and disintegrate. Atrophy (wasting away) of brain tissue (especially deterioration of the hippocampus and eventual general brain shrinkage from cell death. At death, the brain of an Alzheimer's patient may have lost up
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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to 50% of its weight). This is caused as nutrients and other essential supplies can no longer move through the cells, which eventually die. Destruction of neurons involved in production of some neurotransmitters, especially acetylcholine which is necessary for cognitive functioning and is a memory transmitter
Chapter 10 -‐ Strengths and Limitations of forgetting
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OVERVIEW Forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus Retrieval failure theory including tip-‐of-‐the-‐tongue phenomenon
Interference theory Motivated forgetting as informed by the work of Sigmund Freud including repression and suppression
Decay theory
Forgetting
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Forgetting is defined as the inability to retrieve information previously stored in long-‐term memory, rather than the total disappearance of that memory. Info stored in long term memory is relatively permanent BUT difficulties retrieving can occur This is in contrast to an organic form of forgetting such as amnesia, which has been caused by brain damage. Forgetting is sometimes beneficial.
Implicit memories are retrieved automatically – requiring little effort or awareness. Some explicit memories are also automatically retrieved AVAILABILITY A memory may be no longer available because the physical memory trace has gone ACCESSIBILITY A memory may no longer be accessible if the right retrieval cue is not used ACCURACY Over time, Long term memory may be prone to errors and bias due to factors such as emotion and arousal
PSEUDOFORGETTING Sometimes cannot be forgotten if it was not encoded properly in the first place Pseudoforgetting: memory was never encoded or stored due to lack of attention Lack of consolidation: disruption to the physical changes to neurons during encoding.
Forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus •
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First person to perform research into forgetting (1885) Used a list of nonsense syllables for his research BUP, TOV etc. He was his own participant! He learn a list of nonsense syllables until he was able to recall all of them perfectly, and then tested his recall at various intervals to see how many he could remember. Shows that most forgetting occurs in the first 20 minutes then at a moderate rate for 1 hour Forgetting then occurs gradually for the next 31 days.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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FURTHER FINDINGS OF THE FORGETTING CURE Most forgetting occurs immediately after information has been learnt (steepest slop) More then 50% of the material is forgotten within the first hour Over learnt material will be retained in greater length and accuracy Complexity of information and IQ of learner does not affect rate of forgetting.
Retrieval failure theory •
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Theory proposed by Endel Tulving (1973) Also known as cue dependent forgetting that explains forgetting as an inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them. Must use the correct cue to retrieve from long term memory and the wrong cue will result in forgetting Happens with information that we are sure we know (is available), but just cant remember at that point in time (not accessible)
TYPES OF CUES RETRIEVAL CUES are mental prompts or reminders that assist in recollection later on May be created deliberately or implicitly or both and can be a range of formats including: Context dependent cues are cues that related to the environment in which the memory was encoded State dependent cues are the cues that related to the emotional or physical state we were in at the time of encoding.
ENCODING SPECIFICITY How we encode information will determine ability to retrieve later on A good retrieval cu is similar to the original encoding of information Might need to make a conscious and deliberate effort to create good retrieval cues at time of encoding.
TIP OF THE TONGUE PHENOMENON A particular demonstration of the retrieval failure theory Knowing the thing you need to retrieve is almost in reach, but cant quite remember it, its on the tip-‐of-‐ the-‐tongue) Might know the letter of someone’s name Might know if its long or short Might know where you saw them last WHAT TIP OF THE TONGUE DEMONSTRATES Memory is stored in a complex fashion (not always localized in one spot/sequence) Cues are needed for effective recall, and we intentionally search for cues to help us T.O.T increases as we age T.O.T provides evidence for retrieval failure theory (the information was available but not accessible due to inadequate retrieval cues), but possibly also interference theory (the information is available but is blocked by interference from similar sounding material)
Interference theory •
An explanation of why an available memory trace has become temporarily inaccessible
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Interference theory refers to difficulties in retrieving information from memory, caused by the obstruction from other information
The individual may experience confusion with the information it wants to remember and other information stored in long-‐term memory. Proposes that one set of information in the memory competes with another set of information Interference theory occurs most strongly when two sets of information are similar in nature.
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE Occurs when previously leant material inhibits our ability to encode, store and retrieve new similar material Pro=forward. Interference occurs ‘forwards’ old interferes with new. Learn Othello Learn Macbeth Misquote Othello in your performance of Macbeth.
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE When newly learn information inhibits our ability to retrieve similar previously stored information. Retro= Backwards. The interference is backwards. New interferes with old. Learn Othello Learn Macbeth Misquote Macbeth in your performance of Othello
Motivated forgetting •
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Occurs when a person has a reason to forget. These memories are still stored in Long Term Memory they are just difficult to retrieve Usually occurs when memory is painful or traumatic From the work of Sigmund Freud, includes suppression and repression
SUPRESSION A conscious refusal to access memories which are available in Long Term Memory Eg. A person might chose to no longer think about or acknowledge details about a car accident that killed another driver. They may say they cannot remember, but they are choosing not to.
REPRESSION When painful memories are unconsciously pushed into an inaccessible part of the mind An individual has no recollection or knowledge of being sexually abused as a child Freud would say repressed memories cannot be brought into conscious awareness without a trigger from an event or experience
Decay Theory •
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Decay theory suggests that memory traces in the brain will fade over time through lack of use, and become unavailable Memory is a physiological process and is based on the idea that when a memory is laid down there is a physical or chemical trace of the experience in the brain. Trace will naturally fade as time passes, unless strengthened through repeated use. • Cannot remember how to solve polynomial equations a year after intense use in Year 12 methods
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
Theories
Strengths
Retrieval Failure
-‐Cues will often trigger a memory -‐Other theories also have explanations for forgetting (ie T.O.T -‐Tests that have cues result in better recall. and decay/interference) -‐Remembering things is gradual (support
Limitations
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
for being stored in different places Interference Seems plausible theory
Replicated in lab settings Face validity (personal experiences)
-‐Experimenters have used tests of recall that are prone to interference Measured with recall tests-‐ prone to interference Real life info utilises semantic memory as well-‐ not likely to happen when not isolated
Motivated forgetting
Appears to have happened to individuals
-‐Hard to test empirically (ethics) as some of these memories may be traumatic Validity?
Potential
for implanted memories or influenced memories (see Loftus) witnesses not available once memories come to light Lack of experimental research, and unlikely to be able to ethically do so
Decay Theory
-‐Memory is a neural process so forgetting should be aswell -‐ Studies of hippocampus have shown a pattern of rapid then gradual decline of neural pathways -‐Memories are lost from sensory and STM via decay-‐ why not LTM too?
-‐Not yet successfully shown through research -‐Unable to account for sudden recollection of events with available cues -‐Elderly people can remember memories from early childhood despite not regularly visiting those over the years
-‐Procedural memories do not fade in this way
Chapter 11 -‐ Manipulation and Improvement of Memory OVERVIEW – Measures of retention including the relative sensitivity of recall, recognition and relearning – Use of context dependent cues and state dependent cues – Mnemonic devices including acronyms, acrostics and narrative chaining – Effect of misleading questions on eyewitness testimonies including the reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftus
Measures of retention •
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Retention is looking at how much and how well we keep information in our memory Three measures of are: Recall Recognition Relearning RECALL Recall requires the individual to remember the information with minimal cues to assist retrieval Free recall is when participants can recall as much information in any order Serial recall is when participants must recall information in the order that it was presented in Cued recall is when various prompts are used to assist retrieval
RECOGNITION Refers to the identification of correct information among a list of other pieces of information More accurate than recall
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CUED RECALL AND RECOGNITION Recognition would be to pick out the correct items from a list of items Cued recall might be to use other cues to aid remember
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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RELEARNING Learning something again that has been previously been committed to memory Easier than learning it for the first time Particularly related to procedural memories but still the case for all other aspects of memory Riding bike, playing an instrument after a long time.
SAVING SCORES When you relearn something, it takes less time than the original learning A savings score compares the time taken to learn with the time taken to relearn the information ‘time’ could also refer to number of trials
Always give answer in percentage. eg. We can say that ____ % of the time/trials taken to learn the list has been saved.
Most sensitive (How much stimulation you would need to activate the memory) • Relearning • Recognition • Cued recall • Free recall Least sensitive •
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Mnemonic Devices
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Mnemonic devices are techniques for improving or enhancing memory There are three main VERBAL mnemonic devices
Mnem
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Type
Definition/ description
Example with words
Encoding phase
(How do you put the words into your memory)
Retrieval phase (How do you recall the words)
Narrative Chaining
Involves linking otherwise unrelated items to one another to form a meaningful sequence or story. Works well for normal and also for impaired memory Helps to remember things in order (serial recall)
GRANDMA ran over the BRIDGE because there was a CHOCOLATE cake on the path
You are using the words that you need to remember in a story or a sequence and you are connecting them with other words from the memory.
You would recall/visualize the whole story (cue) and then pick out the target words from the story
Acronym
Pronounceable words formed from the first QANTAS letters of a sequence of words. EFTPOS UNICEF ANZAC
Creating a word where each letter is based on the first letter from the target word
Remember the acronym, using the letters as a cue to remember the target word that starts with each letter.
Acrostic
Verbal association are made by constructing phrases, rhymes, poems or sentences using the first letters of the information to be remembered. Each word acts as a retrieval cue for recall of specific related information
Creating a sentence where the first letter of each word is taken from the first letter of each of the target words.
Remember the sentence and then, using each first letter as a cue, remember the target words.
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Every Good Boys Deserve Fruit
Never Eat Soggy Weetabix
Make use of information already stored in LTM, and make the information more elaborate-‐ more info stored not less
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The additional information makes it easier to locate and retrieve through enhanced LTM organisation
Devices based on elaboration, encoding or rehearsal strategy
State and Context Cues •
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The encoding specificity principle states that the associations formed at the time of encoding new memories will be the most effective memory retrieval cues If we try to retrieve information under the same conditions we were in at time of encoding, we will be more successful These include the learners external environment (context) and their internal environment (state)
CONTEXT DEPENDENT CUES (EXTERNAL) Environmental cues in the specific situation where a memory was formed will act as retrieval cues or triggers to access memories formed in that context The context is the external environment at the time of encoding Sights Sounds Smells Temperature Relevance for own study? What about for eye-‐witness testimony and investigation of a crime?
STATE DEPENDENT CUES Cues associated with an individuals internal physiological or psychological state at the time of encoding or learning Happy/Sad Intoxicated/Sober Calm/Stressed
If we encode when happy, tend to remember happy memories, vice versa with sad Helps explain why sometimes it is hard to remember in exam – anxious state versus calm state while encoding.
Eye Witness Testimony •
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Memory is not a copy of reality. Top of the tongue shows us that recall is not always 100% accurate and that there are gaps Memory reconstruction involves remembering past events and features of these events and putting together during recall. EWT requires people who have been witness to a crime to give a personal account of the event Is it always accurate?
RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES Often we are constructing a memory based on quick observations, not always proper encoding Memory reconstruction is remembering past events and features and putting them together during memory recall Experiences, expectations, beliefs, ideas and mood help construct and reconstruct memory, particularly in times of high stress Misinformation can be implanted and made to seem real Each time a false memory is revisited it can change, it can also become more ‘real’
LEADING QUESTIONS Leading questions can influence a memory. As leading question is phrased in a way so as to suggest an answer or lead to the desired answer by directing the witness towards the response desired by the questioner
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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For example: Did you see the broken headlight vs did you see a broken headlight? How tall is the basketball player vs how short is the basketball player?
Loftus and Palmer •
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Showed participants video of a car accident and then interrogated them as if they were witnesses t a rime Participants were asked ‘how fast the car was going when they _____ each other?’ In the space words with increasing links to ‘speed’ were placed for the various IV conditions One week later they were asked ‘did you see any broken glass in the accident?’ There was no glass present P value indicated that false information can influence the participants memories CONCLUSIONS ABOUT EWT Participants form a memory when they view something for the first time When they revisit the memory, they may be influenced by the new information supplied after the event People are unable to tell that the information has come from two different sources (source confusion) Recall is a reconstructed or altered version of
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Covering consciousness and memory Consciousness
Chapter 2 -‐ States of Consciousness
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OVERVIEW
Concepts of normal waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness including daydreaming and alcohol-‐induced, in terms of levels of awareness, content limitations, controlled and automatic processes, perceptual and cognitive distortions, emotional awareness, self-‐control and time orientation
Consciousness
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The awareness of objects and events in the external worlds, and of our own existence and mental experiences at any given moment The experience is personal selective, continuous and changing. Consciousness as a construct Consciousness is a psychological hypothetical construct, because it is a phenomena that cannot be directly observed or measures Researchers can make assumptions about different levels of consciousness, but each individual will have a different construct of consciousness and experiences within consciousness States of consciousness Consciousness can be though of as operating on a continuum from a high level of consciousness or awareness through to the point of being unconscious (being totally unaware) The more aware we are of our thoughts, feelings, perceptions and surroundings, the higher the level of consciousness.
The level of awareness of internal events and external surroundings is known as a state of consciousness (SOC) Continuum of awareness Complete lack of awareness -‐-‐> coma -‐-‐> sleep -‐-‐> hypnotised -‐-‐> meditation -‐-‐> day dreaming -‐-‐> normal waking consciousness -‐-‐> shock/stress -‐-‐> focused task -‐-‐> drugs -‐-‐> total awareness
Awareness •
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Relates to how conscious or aware you are of internal and or external events The continuum of awareness can highlight different levels of alertness Normal Waking consciousness (NWC) occupies the alert to awake zone Altered State of consciousness (ASC) can occupy both reduced and heightened senses of awareness Normal waking consciousness (NWC) The states of consciousness you experience when you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions from internal events and the surrounding environment.
It is relatively organized, meaningful and clear and you experience a real sense of time and place
It creates your reality and provides a baseline from which to judge other states of consciousness Altered state of consciousness (ASC) Changes to normal states of consciousness to the extent that there are noticeable or marked differences in mental functioning Can occur naturally or be induced Involves "distinct changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity... shifts in perceptions, emotions, memory, time sense, feelings of self-‐control, thinking and suggestibility"
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Two main types: Day dreaming, alcohol induced. Day dreaming Occurs when attention is shifted to internal, private thoughts, feelings and imagined scenarios Considered as an Altered State of Consciousness (ASC) because experiences of many things are markedly different to when in NWC Often occur during automatic processes, or when bored Includes a low level of awareness of outside world perceptual and cognitive distortions, fewer content limitations (however we still are in control over the content they may just be less organised with more bizarre thoughts) etc. Daydreaming are a normal part of life and are associated with good mental health and stability and by studying them they can offer an insight into our personality, motives and concerns. Alcohol Induced Alcohol is a psychoactive drug (affects brain and nervous system) that is a depressant (slows nervous system down). It impacts on a persons level of consciousness In high doses, alcohol depresses the N.S so much that it slows down vital processes -‐ Blackouts -‐ Coma -‐ Death Alcohol is consumed on purpose to alter ones state of consciousness The degree to which on experiences ASC may depend on amount, gender, tolerance, height and weight. Self control and bodily control are usually lower, often have poor judgement, emotional outbursts, memory problems and reduced reaction times. Content limitations may also be affected where they may find it hard to think or have all these amazing ideas.
Characteristics of Consciousness Time Orientation Self Control Emotional Awareness Cognitive Distortions Perceptual Distortions Awareness Automatic and controlled Processing Content Limitations
Content limitations The amount of control that you have to limit what you pay attentions (attend) to and the content of the things you focus on) Content may be highly limited, focused, structured and logical (NWC) or free, bizarre and illogical (ASC) During ASC tasks that require selective attention may be impaired. It can also be very difficult to divide attention, even between automatic processes. Attention Relates to the information that you are actively processing, either consciously or outside your conscious awareness -‐Can be selective or divided -‐Can be focused on internal or external environments -‐Can be shifted consciously or unconsciously SELECTIVE ATTENTION Is a content limitations during NWC
It is used when we are focusing on one aspect of a stimulus at expense or exclusion of others, thus creating content limitations
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Can be helpful or not helpful DIVIDED ATTENTION The capacity to attend to and perform two or more activities at the same time One successful when tasks are those which require little mental effort OR When you are very competent at both of the tasks It is much harder when the tasks are complex of require more conscious effort. Automatic processes Requires little awareness, take minimal attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities We are conscious of what is occurring in both instances Needs to be simple or familiar tasks and often turn into procedural memories. Controlled processes Activities that require full awareness, alertness and concentration to reach some goal This interferes with other on-‐going actives As we become more skilled at a task, some of our responses may become more habitual or automatic Perceptual and cognitive distortions The degree of awareness and efficiency of our perceptions and cognitions. Perception is the process of organising sensory input and making sense of it, such as visual perception. During NWC our perceptions are usually clear and rational. Cognition is a term related to mental processes such as memory, problem solving, language and reasoning. During NWC we have a sense of reality, our thoughts are usually rational, clear and meaningful so we are capable of cognitive (problem solving, analysis, reasoning etc) Emotional Awareness The experience of emotion, control over emotion and understanding of appropriateness of emotions Self-‐Control The ability to regulate and maintain appropriate or acceptable behaviours in the correct contexts. Includes the control of inhibitions and level of suggestiveness in terms of regulating behaviour Time Orientation The ability to correctly perceive time and the speed at which time is passing.
Chapter 3 -‐ Methods of Studying Consciousness
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OVERVIEW Methods used to study the level of alertness in normal waking consciousness and the stages of sleep: Measurement of physiological responses including electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph (EMG), electro-‐oculargraph (EOG), heart rate, body temperature and galvanic skin response (GSR) The use of sleep laboratories, video monitoring and self reports
Devices
Device Name
Abbreviation
Definition
Electroencephalograph
EEG
A device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain
Electro-‐oculargraph
EOG
Device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the muscles around the eyes
Electromyograph
EMG
Device that detects amplifies and records the electrical activity and body muscles
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Electrocardiograph
CANT USE Device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical ABBREVIATION IN THE activity of the heart muscles EXAM
(ECG, EKG)
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Galvanic Skin Response
CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM
(GSR)
A device that detects a change in the resistance of skin to an electrical current (measures the electrical conductivity of the skin.) – relates to how much someone is sweating BUT does not measure sweat Increased activity of the sweat glands leads to higher electrical conductivity or lower resistance across the skin)
Body Temperature
Thermometer (degrees)
A device that measures the core body temperature of an individual.
HELP FUL HINTS
D.A.R.E to remember
These devices: D-‐Detecting A-‐Amplify R-‐Records E-‐ Electrical activity
GRAPH VS GRAM Graph – Device you use to measure Gram – Picture/output you would see
WHY USE DEVICES Most of what we know about an individuals state of consciousness is inferred from: The information provided by the person Their behavior (observations) Physiological changes that can be measured Various devices are used to measure physiological responses, which can tell us what state of consciousness someone is on. These reading should be taken with precautions though
Electroencephalograph (EEG) •
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An EEG is a device that detects amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain These are displayed in the form of brainwaves It measures the electrical activity of the brain It uses electrodes on the outside of the skull in a symmetrical pattern The resulting ‘pictures’ are called ‘ electroencephalograms’ Useful in indicating changes to states of consciousness including when they fall asleep, what state of sleep they are in and if they are REM or NREM
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AMPLITUDE AND FRQUENCY Amplitude (peaks and troughs): how high and low the wave is (indicates the level of voltage within the electrical impulses) Frequency: how fast, how close together the wave it (measured in hertz which are how many vibrations per second)
BRAINWAVES
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Brainwave
Description
Typical during
Beta
High frequency, low amplitude
NWC, Alert, active anxious, REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep Eyes are open and person is awake and alert.
Alpha
Reasonably high frequency (not as high Awake but very relaxed, meditate state, drowsy, as beta) daydreaming, about to fall asleep Low amplitude (not as low as beta) Eyes are often closed
Theta
Medium frequency and mixed amplitudes
Delta
A steady pattern of low frequency and Deep sleep. Stages 3 and 4 high amplitude
Stages 1,2 and 3 of sleep
B.A.T.D elta B –Beta (present when brain is busy) A – ALPHA (occur when we are almost asleep) T-‐ THETA = Truly asleep (appear in three stages (1,2,3)) D-‐ DELTA = occurs during deep sleep (4)
Electromyograph (EMG)
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Device
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called an electromyogram Electrodes are attached to the skin above the muscles (usually chin for sleep studies) Helps to determine if awake, NREM or REM sleep stages.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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When awake, the EMG readers can vary between moderate and high depending on the activity. During sleep, the activity is low during NREM and virtually non-‐existent during REM sleep except for the occasional twitching
Electro-‐oculargraph (EOG) •
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Device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity in the muscles around the eyes (DARE) The recorded pattern is called an electro-‐oculargram and it measures the voltage as the eyes move and rotate in their sockets There is one recorded for each eye Use to determine is in NREM or REM sleep. When awake our eyes make move rapidly (if searching for a friend in a busy room) or very slightly (when staring out a window) POLYSOMNOGRAM A polysomnogram is a chart that displays simultaneously recorded data that is continuously moving Useful to determine what stage of sleep someone is in, by looking at patterns of EEG, EOG and EMG all at one. It takes training to read it accurately as large quantities of data are produced each night.
Electrocardiograph (EKG) •
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CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM A device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the heart muscles (DARE) Heart rate is recorded which is measured in beats per minute (bpm) Higher heart rate = exercise, drugs, emotional Lower heart rate = drowsy, meditation, NREM sleep it is slow and regular and there is a gradual decrease through the stages Irregular heart rate REM, can end up faster than normal and even reach levels seen when carrying out strenuous exercise
Galvanic skin response (GSR) •
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CANT USE ABBREVIATION IN THE EXAM A device that detects a change in resistance of skin to an electrical current (measures the electrical conductivity of the skin) Increase in arousal à more sweat secreted à increase in electrical conductivity of the skin OR à Decrease in resistance of skin to electrical current. As the skin becomes more moist (through perspiration), its electrical conductivity increases. In NWC, GSR can vary depending on activity (increases when emotional or exercise, decreases when relaxed or cool) In sleep states, GSR is usually lower than NWC In REM, GSR can vary markedly from low to moderate
Thermometer •
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A devices that measures the core body temperature of a person in degrees Celsius
Our body temperature peaks in the mid-‐afternoon and reaches its lowest point in the early hours of the morning (only drops by about 1 degree) Body temperature is linked to alertness and fluctuations in temp can lead to drowsiness. It is predictable and there is little variation in daily rhythm when awake, varies in ASC, eaches its lowest in NREM and during REM it is not regulated so it drifts towards the temperature in the surrounding environment.
Sleep laboratories •
Sleep lab may be used for research or to treat a sleep disorder and provide them with a deeper insight into sleep.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Devices (such as those already studied) are used simultaneously to monitor and record patterns from sleeping person Video monitoring and self-‐reports are often used in conjunction with the measurement of physiological changes Room resembles a bedroom, but patient is hooked up and monitored from another room. Data is recorded when asleep and when awake
ADVANTAGE Has the physiological devices to measure sleep Controlled environment (i.e. noise, temperature) providing a constant for all participants.
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DISADVANTAGE Uncomfortable when being hooked up to the wires which may be frightening for some patients
Poorer night sleep as the patients may be woken up at certain intervals, making it hard to enter a normal sleep cycle Artificial environment so sleep may be harder to come by.
Video Monitoring •
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Sleep labs will often use video monitoring to observe the patient without interrupting their sleep Video monitoring can also be done in the patients own home, allowing a more natural environment The recording can be watched at any time Often used alongside physiological measurement
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AVDANTAGE Lasting record can watch back at any time Good for observations of actual behavior
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DISADVANTAGE Limited information on its own as it doesn’t provide the body's physiological data or what the participant is feeling/experiencing Infra-‐red camera less detailed Limited in that observations of behavior may be subjective and open to different interpretations
Self reports •
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Self reports are statements and answers to questions made by patients themselves concerning their psychological experience (thoughts, feelings and behaviours) in relation to their sleep. Might be questionnaire, diary entry, interview Might tough on quality of sleep, waking patterns, dreams and physiological responses Limitations: subjective, requires conscious awareness, difficult to compare across people, hard to remember all details/accuracy in the morning, may be lying.
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ADVANTAGE Gives the perspective of what the individual experiences
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DISADVANTAGE Subjective open to individual interpretation as they may not remember, they may not be telling the truth or leave out important information or the researches may interpret it inaccurately Difficult to communicate and compare with others
Chapter 4 -‐ Sleep as an ASC OVERVIEW •
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Sleep as an altered state of consciousness Purpose of sleep Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep including rapid eye movement (REM) and non-‐ rapid eye movement (NREM) stages of sleep
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sleep •
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Sleep is a natural occurrence and each day/night we have a period of sleep and of being awake. The sleep/wake cycle is an example of a circadian rhythm.
Circadian rhythms are biologicalrhythms that occur approximately once every 24 hours.
Sleep as an Altered State of Consciousness •
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Sleep can be viewed as an ASC because it differs remarkably from normal waking consciousness When you sleep you lose a lot of awareness of yourself and your environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASC Level of awareness We have very little, awareness of our external environment when we are asleep. At times, we may incorporate what is happening around us into a dream or we may suddenly be woken from a deep sleep by something highly personally relevant Other times, equally intense but less meaningful stimuli do not awaken us. We even know the location of the edge of the bed so we can avoid falling off. ATTENTION CONTENT LIMITATIONS When we sleep, we relinquish conscious control of our thoughts so we have fewer content limitations. Everyone dreams and the dreams we remember tend to be weird or bizarre. The contents of our dreams tend to be much broader and deeper than our thoughts in normal waking consciousness. PERCEPTUAL AND COGNITVE DISTROIONS Our attention to sensory stimuli is lowered during sleep, including our perception of pain.
Our thoughts are more likely to be disorganized and unrealistic during our dreams and we remember little upon awaking. EMOTIONAL AWARENESS Our emotions can be more or less intense or flattened during sleep. A nightmare can make us feel very scared and a good dream can make us feel terrific. There is also some evidence that sleep can help us deal with our emotions SELF CONTROL Our ability to maintain self-‐control, including monitoring our own behavior, is lowered during sleep. For instance, we may snore, dribble on our pillow, grind our teeth or sleep-‐talk during our sleep. TIME ORIENTATION CONTROLLED AND AUTOMATED PROCESSESS Performing other tasks is probably impossible. It is interesting to note that most sleepwalkers, known as somnambulists, usually carry out routine, automatic processes when they sleepwalk.
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Two theories of why we need to sleep Survival Restorative
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SURVIVAL (ADAPTIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY) THEORIES OF SLEEP One theory is that sleep enables us to survive and be successful in the environment Sleep is an adaption that depends on The need to find food: Animals that need to graze for hours, such as cows, sleep less.
They sleep less because they need to find more food to survive. The vulnerability to predators/how safe it is: sleep is used as an opportunity to stay quiet and undetected by predators. Large animals that are exposed sleep less. Small animals that can hide sleep more. Humans sleep during the night when their vision is not as good so they are more vulnerable to predators or danger
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The need to conserve energy: sleeping reduces metabolism, and is used by hibernating animals to survive periods with low food levels.
CRITISIZIMS OF SURVIVAL THEORY
The assumption that sleep is very useful but not essential. This theory does not explain why we must have sleep. All species sleep, despite the amount of food (abundant or scarce) or danger they are in. (Restorative theory does this better). Not getting enough sleep – sleep deprivation – can have fatal consequences the assumption that sleeping is a way to hide safely from predators. For animals that are highly preyed upon, sleeping can be dangerous.
The loss of awareness during sleep makes the animal very vulnerable to predators and unlikely to be able to respond to danger.
RESTORATIVE THEORIES OF SLEEP According to these theories, sleep allows us to recharge our bodies and recover from the physical and psychological work dyring the day. Sleep replenishes the body and prepares it for action the next day Looks after the physical health of the body States that activities that are more physically demanding should increase sleep: Marathon runners sleep 90 minutes more for two nights after their race and double their deep sleep ‘Take out the rubbish’ – allows clean up of cellular waste products Sleep enhances mood
Mood regulating hormones activated during sleep that influence your mood and emotions Sleep activates growth hormones
Sleep increases growth hormone levels, which helps control metabolism and regulate energy which is why children and adolescents need more sleep as they are still growing Sleep increases disease immunity Sleep is a natural medicine, strengthens immune system andimmune cells that fight disease and infections are produced during sleep. We are more prone to heart disease if we sleep too much or too little as well. Sleep increases alertness Keeps minds alert, attentive and focused the next day so when we don’t get enough sleep we tend to be more easily distrated. Sleep consolidates memories Sleep assists with the consolidations process so improves your memory of things that occurred during that day CRITISIZIMS OF RESTORATIVE THEORY The assumption that more sleep is needed to recover when we are physically active. Unless we partake in extreme physical activities (such as a 100 km marathon, there is little evidence but even then we only need 10 minutes more sleep.
People who do little exercise, including people who are disabled or confined to bed, should sleep less, but there is no evidence: bed-‐ridden people show sleep patterns that are similar to those of normally active individuals. The assumption that the body rests during sleep. The brain is active during sleep. Increased blood flow and energy expenditure occurs during REM sleep and this slows down the synthesis of proteins, assisting the body in getting ready for the next day
Characteristics of sleep •
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Sleep compromises of a number of different but predictable stages Different stages can be measured with physiological changes Hear rate, brainwave patterns, body temperature, eye movement, muscle tension, blood pressure, respiration and hormone release.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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During sleep we shift between non-‐rapid eye movement stages (NREM 1-‐4) and rapid eye movement (REM) stages On average, we go through one full cycle every 90 minutes (ultradian rhythm) Most adults will have 4-‐6 cycles a night. The amount of time spent in REM increases and the amount in NREM decreases as the night progresses We spend 80% of the night in NREM
ULTRADIAN RHYTHM A biological rhythm that is shorter than 24 hours The NREM/REM cycle is an example of it
Stages of sleep •
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STAGE 1 Brief stage, lasting around 5 minutes for most people (ranges from 30 seconds to 10 minutes) It is a very light sleep from which we can be easily awakened. If this happens, we often think we haven't been asleep at all. Sometimes called the presleep stage. Alpha waves begin to be replaced by slower (lower frequency) and larger (higher amplitude) theta waves. Our eyes roll slowly, our muscles relax, and heart and breathing rate decreases. Includes: Hypnogogic jerks (hypnogogic state)
HYPNOGOGIC STATE The relaxed state that is entered during the transition from being awake to being asleep. During this state, we may experience hallucinatory images, such as flashes of light and vivid images.
HYPNOGOGIC (HYPNIC) JERKS Involuntary muscle twitches that cause us to jolt -‐ are common.
Often considered to be part of Stage 1 NREM sleep.
STAGE 2 -‐ NREM The point at which true sleep begins and we spend about 20 minutes in stage 2 sleep in our first NREM/REM sleep cycle.
Fairly easy to be woken up at this stage. If we are woken, it is likely that we still won't believe we were asleep. Includes sleep spindles, k-‐complexes and theta waves Older people tend to wake more often in the night and their sleep contains fewer sleep spindles.
Our eyes stop rolling, our muscles become further relaxed, and breathing and heart rate continues to decrease. Stage 2 sleep accounts for about 50 per cent of our total sleep. SLEEP SPINDLES Common in stage 2 Short bursts of rapid brainwave activity that represent a mechanism that helps the brain to 'switch off' its responses to sensory stimuli, thereby keeping us asleep K-‐COMPLEXES Common in stage 2 A single sudden high amplitude wave and occur about once a minute in stage 2.
Sometimes they occur following a sleep spindles episode but can also be triggered by environmental stimuli, such as a door closing or someone calling your name.
STAGE 3 -‐ NREM A brief transitional stage that marks the start of deep sleep (slow wave sleep).
Become less responsive to external stimuli and more difficult to awaken (feel very groggy and disorientated) Slower (lower frequency) and larger (higher amplitude) delta waves become more common. These replace theta waves and occur between 20 and 50 per cent of the time.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Eyes do not move, our muscles are relaxed, and heart and breathing rates continue to become slower and more regular. Night terrors can occur
STAGE 4 -‐ NREM Deepest sleep, it is extremely difficult to wake someone in his sleep. (fast asleep, sleeping like a log)
Level of conscious awareness is very low, we can still be sensitive to certain stimuli, such as a baby crying or a smoke alarm. In the first NREM/REM sleep cycle, we spend about 30 minutes this stage (about 1 hour after first falling asleep) Brainwave patterns consist of regular, slow and large delta waves for more than 50 per cent of the time. There is no eye movement, little, if any, muscle activity and heart and breathing rates are at their slowest and most regular during sleep. While body temperature follows a circadian cycle, during NREM, it drops slightly, being lowest in stage 4 sleep. Night terrors can occur NIGHTMARES Unpleasant and upsetting dreams associated with feeling of helpless terror that occur during REM sleep. Little physiological changes and little movement Often awaken during or immediately after and usually remembered Experience more often by children than adults and by twice as many females as males NIGHT TERRORS Extremely frightening episodes associated with sheer terror and often screaming that occur during stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep Breathing is usually rapid, heart rate increases and involves violent body movements Wake but usually fall asleep again quickly and generally cant be remembered. Experiences more often in young children
REM SLEEP Also known as paradoxical sleep as the body can appear calm on the exterior (virtually no muscle activity) but other bodily systems and the brain are highly active, having many features that are similar to being awake. Beta waves, very frequent and shallow peaks and troughs. Random fast with beta like peak and sawtooth waves. On average, we enter the REM stage approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep. The first cycle of REM sleep might last only a short amount of time (10 minutes), but each cycle becomes longer. REM sleep can last up to an hour as sleep progresses. There are repetitive bursts of rapid eye movement, and heart rate, blood pressure and respiration increase and fluctuate. Body temperature tends to match the surrounding environment and genitals are aroused. There is no muscle tension and they are very relaxed to the point of almost being paralysed
Easy to be woken up from and tend to remember dreams when woken during it. Dreaming usually occurs during REM with the most bizarre, longest, strangest one being the final one.
HYPNOPOMPIC STATE The period between being asleep and waking up, a time when the brainwaves are predominantly alpha waves.
Vivid images (hypnopompic images) are often seen during this phase.
MUSCLE ATONIA OR CATAPLEXY The paralysis of your muscles (except for the occasional twitching during REM sleep
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HYPNOGRAM Graph that plots sleep cycle
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Stage 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM. After the first NREM/REM cycle, we often skip stage 1 sleep and enter stage 2 sleep again. We then descend through stages 3 and 4 before returning via 3 to 2 to REM sleep.
Stages 3 and 4 sleep typically only occur during the first two cycles of NREM/REM sleep
Sleep patterns also change with age. Newborns spend about 16 hours per day sleeping, with about half of this time in REM sleep. Adults sleep for about 8 hours, with about a quarter of this in REM sleep. By the age of 60 years, very little time, if any, is spent in stage 4 sleep with sleep lasting for about 6 hours, still with 20-‐25 per cent in REM sleep.
Chapter 5 -‐ Sleep deprivation
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OVERVIEW The effects of total and partial sleep deprivation: Loss of REM and NREM sleep Sleep recovery patterns including amount of sleep required, REM rebound and microsleeps Sleep-‐wave cycle shifts during adolescence compared with child and adult sleep including delayed onset of sleep and need for sleep
Sleep Deprivation •
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Going without sleep, partially or totally for a short or long period of time Effects of sleep deprivation depend on the amount of sleep loss and the period of time over which is occurs Effects are temporary until individual is able to sleep
Randy Gardner •
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Total sleep deprivation 264 hours, 11 days without sleep His health, thoughts, feelings and behaviors were recorded.
SYMPTOMS Still capable of completing complex task for a short period of time. But unable to do simple tasks well. Delusions (thoughts, famous sportsperson) Hallucinations (street sign was a person) Mood changes (grumpy and short tempted)
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Slurred speech Difficulties concentrating
Short term memory difficulties Finger tremors
LONG TERM SIDE EFFECTS Afterwards he slept for almost 15 hours Within a few days his sleep patterns returned to normal He did not have to catch up on all the sleep missed NO LONG TERM SIDE EFFECTS FOR A SHORT PERIOD OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION
Non Human studies •
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It is unethical to conduct an experiment on the effects of sleep deprivation on humans as it can lead to death but non-‐human studies offer a lot of information. A study on rats who were not allowed to sleep died within 33 days while those who did sleep remained in good health. However it was hard to determine if the death was due to sleep deprivation or stress related illness or health issues such as the overheating of the body.
Sleep deprivation and partial sleep deprivation •
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Total sleep deprivation: going without sleep for more than 24 hours Partial sleep deprivation: getting some sleep within 24 hours but not enough (more likely to experience partial)
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SYMPTOMS OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS AFTER ONE DAY Cognitive difficulties Impairment of memory Difficulty paying attention and concentrating Difficulty processing information Difficulty thinking and reasoning and poor decision making Memory problems Imparied creativity Distorted perceptions Affective (feelings) disturbances Highly emotional, confusion, irritability, sadness Previously enjoyed activities seem boring Lack of motivation Feelings of fatigue Behavioral difficulties Slowed performance Clumsiness, injuries Risk-‐taking behaviour Reduced ability on simple, monotonous cognitive tasks More likely to believe they had performed better on a task than they actually did PSYCHOLOGICAL AFTER A FEW DAYS OF TOTAL SLEEP DEPRIVATION Depression Hallucinations Delusions Paranoia Hat phenomenon PHYSIOLOGICAL Hand tremors Drooping eyelids Difficulty focusing eyes
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Slurred speech Higher pain sensitivity Slower physical reflexes Headaches Lower energy levels NOTE: There is little change, if any in heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and body temperature Over an extended period of time it can lead to death (this is why it is unethical to test on human participants) Driving when sleep deprived increases the likelihood of an accident (24 hours without sleep is like driving with a BAC of 0.1 making you 7 more likely to crash than those who a BAC of 0.00
Chronic Sleep Deprivation
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Many people are chronically sleep deprived (not having enough sleep over an extended period of time), particularly with partial sleep deprivation Evidence showing a link between sleep deprivation and: Depression Hypertension Heart disease Diabetes Obesity Some forms of cancer Anxiety disorders Accelerated ageing Sleep disorders such as insomnia Heart burn
There is increasing evidence that chronic sleep deprivation is linked to cardiovascular diseases, mood disorders and immune deficiencies. Lack of sleep increases the levels of cortisol (a stress related hormone that interferes with immune functioning).
After several days of partial sleep deprivation there will be an effect on immunity which explains why people are more susceptible to colds in times where you are deprived. Increased levels of cortisol has also been linked to damage of the brain cells responsible for learning and memory. Chronic sleep deprivation is also linked to females shift workers having a higher risk of experiencing
reproductive problems, breast cancer than someone who a normal sleep patter.
Lack of REM and NREM sleep •
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REM effects Learning Memory (high level of brain activity helps to consolidate memories although this is still controversial) Ability to pay attention Mood (REM interupts the release of some neurotransmitters that affect mood) REMEMBER-‐ Restorative theory says we need to have sleep for these things! We use REM sleep for these functions (mind). However it is still important for physiological well-‐being NREM effects Interferes with restoring the body physically as during NREM growth hormones are released. Illnesses and diseases can become common REMEMBER – Restorative theory says we need to have sleep for these things! We use NREM sleep for these functions (body).
However it is still important for psychological well-‐being
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sleep recovery patterns •
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SLEEP DEBT The accumulated amount of sleep loss from insufficient sleep We do not have to sleep all the hours back to overcome sleep deprivation
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REM REBOUND The recovery of REM sleep immediately following a period of lost REM sleep by spending more time than usual in REM sleep. Some will fall into a REM cycle very quickly (60 sec) The person is more likely to remember their dreams after experiencing REM rebound as they have been in REM more. REM rebound can have implications for people coming off drugs that limit or prevent REM (alcohol, nicotine, anitidepressants) as they report having more vivid dreams or nightmares which is quite distressing and can even lead to the resumption of the drug.
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MICROSLEEPS A very short period of drowsiness or sleep that occurs while a person is apparently awake due to being sleep deprived EEG pattern similar to early NREM Normally occurs when doing a simple monotonous task Loss of conscious awareness and often doesn’t recall of events occurring during the micro sleeps Micro sleeps assist us in overcoming or preventing sleep deprivation and usually last 3–15 seconds however having short sleeps or powernaps can help prevent micro sleeps
How much sleep do we need? •
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How much sleep we need is very much dependent on Genetics, lifestyle and age GENETICS RELATED Family members may have similar sleep needs but specifically identical twins Females tend to need more sleep than males LIFESTYLE RELATED Lifestyle influences sleep needs Work habits: stress levels and cognition levels Social habits and physical activity levels Culture: some societies have a ‘siesta’ culture Season: Summer = less sleep needed
Winter= more sleep needed AGE RELATED Young children need more sleep, and adults less, in order to perform at their best. AGE
AMOUNT OF SLEEP
Newborns (1-‐2 months)
14-‐18 hours
Infants (3-‐11 months)
13-‐16 hours
Toddlers (1-‐3 years)
12-‐14 hours
Preschoolers (3-‐5 years)
11-‐13 hours
Children (5-‐12 years)
10-‐11 hours
Teens (13-‐17 years)
9-‐10 hours
Adults (18 and up)
7-‐9 hours
Sleep/wake cycles
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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OUR SLEEP/WAKE CYCLE Our bodies are attuned to a sleep/wake cycle that revolves around night and day.
This regularcycle, an example of a circadian rhythm, is determined by an internal body clock which runs close to a 24.2 hour cycle or even longer (up to 25 hours), especially in brightly lit rooms.
This means that our natural sleep/wake cycle is slightly longer than 24 hours and explains why it is easier to fall asleep slightly later rather than earlier at night. Sunlight readjusts this time difference with sensors in your eyes and back on your knees informing the brain to adjust its internal body clock and go to sleep or stay awake
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ADOLESCENT SLEEP WAKE CYCLE Teenagers need more sleep than adults (and sometimes children) Ideally this would be 9-‐10 hours a night Many do not get this, particularly with early school starts and other thing such as homework, family commitments, social life, electronic devices, television, playing sport Teenagers also experience a shift in their normal sleep wake cycle during their adolescent years This returns to normal adult patterns once adolescent period is finished (about 19-‐21 years) SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFT Adolescent sleep wake cycle shift means that their ‘body clock’ is out by about two hours and they also need slightly more sleep than children and adults Your parents may tell you to go to bed at 10pm but to you it still feels about 8pm This cycle shift is due to the regulation of sleep/wake hormones called melatonin and cortisol MELATONIN Melatonin, causing ‘sleepiness’, is secreted by the pineal gland The signal to secrete begins when it is dark and wen your temperature is dropping Light prevents melatonin secretion and therefore prevents sleepiness Many shift workers will end up on melatonin tablets to help regulate their hormone levels allowing them to get some sleep during the day Have trouble waking up? Flood your room with light first thing, replace alarm clock for a light up alarm clock Have trouble sleeping? Make sure your room is free from lights, even little ones like ones from phones and computers.
Chapter 6 and 7 -‐ The interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure and Studies of cognitive processes
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OVERVIEW
• The interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure including: – Roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic), and autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic) – Roles of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex in the control of motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory processing in humans; primary cortex and association areas – Hemispheric specialization: the cognitive and behavioral functions of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, non-‐verbal versus verbal and analytical functions Contribution of studies to the investigation of cognitive processes of the brain and implications for the understanding of consciousness including: – Studies of aphasia including Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia – Spatial neglect caused by stroke or brain injury – Split-‐brain studies including the work of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
The nervous system •
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Composed of billions of interconnected neurons Complex combination of neurons that helps our brain to understand what is happening inside and outside of our body Organized into different branches.
The central nervous system •
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Compromises of
Brain Spinal cord System of nerves (over 100 billion) Receives information from the Peripheral Nervous System Transfers information to the Peripheral Nervous System
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BRAIN Organizes integrates and interprets information from within and outside the body
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SPINAL CORD It enables the brain to communicate with the rest of the body by conveying messages from the brain to the Peripheral Nervous System and from the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
The upper section of it is responsible for communication between the brain and the upper parts of the body The lower section is responsible for the lower parts of the body such as legs, toes and feet Transmits sensory information to the brain Transmits motor information from the brain
Peripheral nervous system •
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The entire network of nerves located outside the Central Nervous System Messages are detected from sensory organs, internal organs and muscles including information from the outside world (such as environmental temperature and sensation on the skin via sensory neurons) and from the inside world (such as aches and pains) and sent to the CNS Transmits sensory information to the spinal cord Transmits motor information from the spinal cord
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SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Transmits messages from the sensory receptors to the Central Nervous System Controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles Does this via the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
S.A.M.E. Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Controls the functioning of the body’s internal organs and glands by being responsible for the communication
of information between then and the CNS Is mainly self regulating – happens involuntarily and then feedback is provided to the brain. This occurs so
that the organism has the cognitive resources to pay attention to other matters Divisions Sympathetic Parasympathetic SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TIP-‐ S for stress Division of Autonomic NS In times of stress activates Nerves Glands Visceral muscles To help us cope/survive the threat and prepares the body for fight or flight Cool, pale skin, sweating dilated pupils, dry mouth, breathing rate
Organ
Function
Parasympathetic NS
Sympathetic NS
Pupils
Regulates the amount of light entering the eye
Contracts/constricts
Dilates (expands)
Salivary glands
Digestion
Increases salivation
Decreases salivation
Heart
Pumping blood
Slows heart rate
Accelerates heart rate
Bronchioles of lungs
Breathing
Contracts/constricts
Dilates
Stomach
Digestion
Increases contractions
Decreases contractions/inhibits
Pancreas
Blood sugar secretion
Stimulates pancreas
Inhibits pancreas
Tear glands
Provides moisture to eyes
Stimulates tear glands
No effect on tear glands
Liver
Produces bile to aid digestion, maintains blood sugar (glucose) level
Decreases the release of glucose
Increase the release of glucose
Gall bladder
Stores bile
Stimulates the release of bile
Inhibits the release of bile
Adrenal glands
Secretes the hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin
Inhibits hormone secretion
Stimulates hormone secretion (increased HR , BR, blood pressure, relaxation of intestinal muscles)
Bladder
Urine storage
Increases contractions
Relaxes
Intestine
Digestion
Increases contractions
Relaxes
Genitals
Reproduction
Stimulates erection
Stimulates ejaculation
Sweat glands
Regulates temperature
Decreases production of perspiration
Increases production of perspiration
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Arousal
Overall state of alertness and activation of an individual. Stimulation of the senses/thought processes.
At times we can be very aware of our physiological arousal. Heightened arousal when sympathetic NS is activated
Fight or Flight An automatic reaction of the sympathetic NS Helps the body to prepare to face a threat or run for it Adaptive response that occurs in response to a real or imagined threat Maximize our chance of survival Physiological arousal These days a threat might be a stressful situation ie, Exam or oral presentation
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Tips -‐ P for PEACE Autonomic Nervous System Helps the body to function efficiently by maintaining automatic day-‐to-‐day functions known as homeostasis Restores a state of calm Effects the same organs and glands as the sympathetic nervous system but has the opposite effect
The brain
The cerebral cortex •
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Largest area of the brain that covers the cerebral hemispheres which is only 3mm thick but contains billions of neurons (70% if the brains neurons) It looks like a walnut because the surface is convoluted and has many folds, groves, valleys (sulcus) and bulges (gyrus) which is so that the surface area and volume of the cortex is large enough to contain the number of neurons and blood vessels necessary) It is much larger in proportion to body mass compared to other animals which is the point of difference between humans and animals in terms of intellectual functioning so animals with a larger surface area have a higher intellectual brain ability. 2 cerebral hemispheres – left and right Each hemisphere is connected by the corpus callosum – a bundle of nerve fibers Each hemisphere is divided into four areas or cortical lobes which is clear due to the deep groves (central fissure) It allows you to undertake a range of tasks both simple, detect the difference between pieces of information, understand the meaning
Frontal Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Each lobe controls a different range of behaviors and functions
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX Involved in the integration of the information between the motor and sensory areas and higher-‐order mental processes including decision making, thinking, planning, initiating movement analysis, synthesis and language.
FRONTAL LOBE
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Location: The largest lobe which occupies the part of the brain behind the forehead General Functions: initiating motor movements, enabling higher mental functioning involving learning and memory, speech and language, planning, judgment, problem solving, aspects of personality and emotions Damage to frontal lobe may result it inability to learn from experiences and make more mistakes in planning because they lack foresight PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX Location: At the back (posterior) of the frontal lobe. Function: Neural messages from the motor cortex are EFFERENT and leave the brain (‘E’ like the word Exit) The primary motor cortex is; Contralateral Right hemisphere controls the movement on the left side of the body Left hemisphere controls the movement on the right side of the body Inverted Neurons that control the movement of body parts at the top of our body are located at the bottom of the motor cortex Neurons that control the movement of body parts at the bottom of our body are located at the top of the motor cortex Proportion of the brain Parts of the body that are required to make the finest/controlled movements – take up much more space than other areas in the body (homunculus) NOT the biggest parts but the most space. Damage to the primary motor cortex Inability to move that part of the body Often due to stroke Nothing wrong with that part of the body
BROCA’S AREA (LANGUAGE) Location: Left frontal lobe (95%), near the bottom of the primary motor cortex (L for language, L for left) Function: It is responsible for the production of clear and articulate speech (movement for speech as it controls the muscles associated with language), involved in understanding complex grammatical structures, production of speech that follows the rules of grammar. Damage to the Broca’s area Broca’s Aphasia Is a language disorder caused by damage to Broca’s area
Broca’s Aphasia
Or expressive aphasia
Location of the brain damaged
Left frontal lobe near motor cortex
Language difficulties
Difficulties with the production of speech (motor skills) Difficulties expression themselves in words or sentences, grammatical difficulties
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
as it often lacks syntax Some patients cannot speak at all Difficulty in writing Fluency of speech
Non-‐fluent slow, deliberate and effortful
Level of understanding
Ability to understand written and spoken language is largely unaffected
Level of awareness
Patients are aware that they have aphasia
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ASSOCIATION AREAS Apart from the primary motor cortices, 75% of all of the Cerebral Cortex is made up of Association areas. In the frontal lobe, association areas are responsible for most complex and mental functions and it includes the Brocas area Including planning, estimating, personality, attention control of emotions and emotional expression, judgments and applying knowledge. ‘Executive’ role in thinking, feeling and behaving Damage to the association areas causes Personality change Impaired judgement
Case study
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Phineas gage. A metal pole went through his frontal lobe Once was regarded as the most efficient and capable foreman After incident, his mind was radically changed. He was fitful, irreverent, swearing, impatient.
PARIETAL LOBE Location: behind the frontal lobe at the top of the brain Function: Responsible for processing touch and sensation and locating the body in space. Specialized to receive bodily sensations. The right parietal lobe enables a person to perceive three-‐dimensional shapes and designs.
The left parietal lobe has a role in reading, writing and performing mental arithmetic. PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX Location: At the front (anterior) of the parietal lobe Function: Responsible for processing touch, temperature, pain and sensation. Neural messages coming to the somatosensory cortex are afferent (‘A’ like the word ARRIVE) The primary somatosensory cortex is; Contralateral Right hemisphere process the sensations such as touch pressure and temperature from the left side of the body Left hemisphere processes the sensations such as touch pressure and temperature from the right side of the body Inverted Neurons that processes sensations from the body parts a the top of our body are located at the bottom of the somatosensory cortex Neurons that processes sensations from the body parts at the bottom of our body are located at the top of the somatosensory cortex Proportion of the Brain Parts of the body that are the most sensitive take up much more space than other areas in the body (homunculus) **think about where would you NOT want to be hit These body parts have more nerve endings (ie. Tongue) and therefore get more cortical space
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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ASSOCIATION AREAS Association areas integrate information about our body and position in space Perceive your own body in your surroundings Perceive where things are located in the environment Left parietal: reading writing performing mental arithmetic Right parietal: seeing objects as complete Damage to Primary Somatosensory Cortex Inability to receive sensations from a part of the body Often due to stroke Phantom limb where you still receive sensations but the limb is no longer there Spatial neglect SPACIAL NEGLECT Location: posterior part of the right parietal lobe is damaged This often follows stroke or other brain damage Can results in the person systematically ignoring or neglecting all stimuli on the left side of their world (remember contralateral processing) They are not blind or visually impaired, they can see but they do not acknowledge or attend to the stimuli This can even occur in memories where they only remember the right visual field information Often unaware they even have the problem The reason isn’t fully understood but there is a clear link to the parietal lobe and our ability to pay attention and be consciously aware of objects our environment and our own bodies (spatial awareness) The location and extent of damage influences the degree of neglect (severe to mild) The sufferer may experience significant daily difficulties, or none Trying to rehabilitate a person who isn’t even aware of their problem is really tricky
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OCCIPITAL LOBE Location: the back of the brain Function: Almost exclusively concerned with vision. Receives visual info, interprets colour, shape and distance PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX
Location: At the posterior of the visual cortex Function: Responsible for processing visual information Information in the left visual field is cast onto the right side of each retina and is processed in the right hemisphere. Information in the right visual field is cast onto the left side of each retina and is processed in the left hemisphere Damage to primary visual cortex Person is unable to process visual information; there is nothing wrong with their eyes. Degree of damage will impact on the degree of vision lost Ie. Hemianopia
ASSOCIATION AREAS Have an important role in vision Work to select, organize and integrate visual information Interact with other association areas in frontal parietal and temporal lobes to integrate visual information Responsible for recognition of objects and memory for objects and items Damage to association areas Difficulty recognizing objects Eg. See different parts of a dogs body but cant put it all together
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sperry’s Study •
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SPLIT BRAIN STUDY Corpus Callosum A bundle of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemisphere together and allows for communication to occur between the two hemispheres (back and forth) Extremely invasive Patients underwent an operation that severed their corpus callosum which prevented communication between the two hemispheres on a higher cortical level. They are still connected at the subcortical (deeper) level but the cerebral hemispheres are now seperated Although the left and right hemispheres sides look the same, they have slightly different functions however they did not seem to have any major side effects and subsequently personality and behaviour in most cases appears normal. Tachistoscope (Joe) Person told to focus eyes on the central dot Image flashed for a short period of time to the far left or right This ensures it is shown to only one visual field, not both This transfer the visual information to only one hemisphere not both The experiments suggest that the left and right hemispheres have different language skills with the left brain(the interpreter) being responsible for constructing theories and relationships between perceived events, actions and feelings.
‘KEY’ on brain drawing.
Object is on the right visual field Transferred to the left side of EACH retina Processed in the left hemisphere
Could they say what it was?
YES Because the information is processed in the left hemisphere which controls language
Could they pick it up?
Yes with their right hand only Because the left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body The information cannot travel to the right hemisphere as the corpus callosum has ben severed so they can only pick it up with their right hand
Could they draw it?
Yes with their right hand only Because the left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body The information cannot travel to the right hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only pick it up with their right hand.
‘RING’ on brain drawing.
Could they say what it was?
No Because the information is processed in the right hemisphere which does not control language The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed
Could they pick it up?
Yes with their left hand only Because the right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only pick it up with their left hand
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Could they draw it?
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Yes with their left hand only Because the right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body The information cannot travel to the left hemisphere as the corpus callosum has been severed so they can only draw it with their left hand.
TEMPORAL LOBE
Location: At the side of the brain, near the ear Function: Processing auditory information, hearing sounds, language comprehension, facial recognition and memory. Eg. To understand speech or listen to music Damage to the right temporal lobe may lead to inability to recognise songs, faces or paintings PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX Location: At the top of the temporal lobe Function: Responsible for the processing of auditory information received from the ears Damage to the auditory cortex If it is damaged, people may experience forms of deafness ASSOCIATION AREA Part of the temporal lobe is connected with the hippocampus – encoding of long term memories Emotion Visual recognition (faces) Appreciation of music Damage to association areas
Damage to the right temporal lobe can also result in inability to recognize faces (memory link) called prosopagnosia. May also lead to being able to hear something but being unable to locate that item in space Hippocampus damage: difficulties consolidation new memories WERNICKES AREA (LANGUAGE) Location: Left temporal lobe (L for language, L for left) Function: This area is responsible for interpreting/comprehending the meaning of language and words Used to understand both written and verbal language
It locates words from memory to express a particular meaning and creates a coherent and grammatically correct speech and writing Damage to Wernicke’s area Wernicke’s Aphasia (language disorder) WERNICKES=WEIRD speech
Wernicke’s (receptive) Aphasia
Location of the brain damaged
Left temporal lobe near parietal lobe
Language difficulties
Difficulty understanding written and spoken language Difficulty producing written and spoken language that makes sense to others Inappropriate or made-‐up words can be used There is partial or complete loss of the ability to recall names (anomia). The person may have trouble finding and using the right words
Fluency of speech
Very fluent but makes no sense
Level of awareness
Patients are unaware that they have aphasia
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Hemispheric Specialization •
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Refers to the fact that the left and right hemispheres of the brain have some specific functions that exist predominately the those hemisphere While hemispheres have a particular specialization, it is important to remember that they work together and complement each other in their functions. They communicate with each other through the corpus callosum that connects the two.
Left Hemisphere (L for language, logic)
Right Hemisphere
MOTOR FUNCTION • Controls movement in the right side of the body
• Production of speech
MOTOR FUNCTION • Controls movement in the left side of the body
SENSORY FUNCTION
• Receives sensations from the right side of the body
SENSORY FUNCTION • Receives sensations from the left side of the body
PERCEPTUAL FUNCTION • Comprehension of language (written and spoken).
PERCEPTUAL FUNCTION • Recognition of faces
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Recognition of patterns • Processing spatial information
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS (VERBAL AND ANALYTICAL) • Analytical thinking
• Logical reasoning • Mathematics • Sequential processing • Writing
• Reading
• Fine details • Serial behaviours and behaviours (taking it in turns, reading, writing).
TREE
COGNITIVE FUNCTION (NON VERBAL) • Musical ability
• Detection and expression of emotion • Spatial ability-‐ design, movement, dance • Making a meaningful whole. • Appreciation of art • Thinking globally or holistically FOREST
Remember that you always use your whole brain eg. When dancing, you are not only using the right hemisphere you are using your left as well
Comparison of NWC and ASC
Characteristic and Definition
Level of Awareness Awareness relates to how conscious or aware you are of internal and or
Normal Waking Consciousness (NWC) The states of consciousness you experience when you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions, from both your internal and external environment.
Experience a clear sense of time, place
(ASC) Daydreaming Daydreams occur when attention is shifted to internal, private thoughts, feelings and imagined scenarios. Often occur during automatic processes, or when bored and includes a low level of awareness of outside world.
(ASC) Alcohol Induced A psychoactive drug is a chemical substance that affects nervous system and brain activity.
They impacts on consciousness and alter thoughts, feelings, perceptions and behaviours.
Occupies the alert to awake zone Awake and generally aware of internal and external events. A good sense of
Is decreased compared to NWC. Most often, level of awareness is lowered during an altered state as you are
Alcohol significantly decreases a persons level of awareness both internally and externally. They have difficulty
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
external events.
The continuum of awareness can highlight different levels of alertness
place, time and reality.
thinking of other things rather than focusing on what is happening in your surroundings.
concentrating and attending to one thing and will be easily distracted.
Controlled and Automatic processes Automatic requires little awareness, take minimal attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities Controlled Activities that require full awareness, alertness and concentration to reach some goal
Able to perform controlled and automatic processes, within normal limits. Attention is focused or highly selective and can be divided between tasks.
Usually less able to perform controlled processes and automatic processes. Usually less control over attention, which may be highly selective, but less able to be divided between tasks. This is because you aren’t concentrating on the task you should be doing.
May be less than in NWC. Usually less constrained or controlled, with reduced ability to process information but fewer limitations on content. The mind processing in the brain is slower and therefore it takes longer to reach the goal.
Content limitations The amount of control that you have to limit what you pay attention (attend) to and the content of the things you focus on
May be highly limited, focussed or structured More constrained and controlled. Can selectively process different parts of what is in consciousness.
Free, bizarre and illogical The amount of control you have is decreased which makes selective attention difficult. Content limitations is also decreased
Free, bizarre and illogical May be more or less than in NWC. Usually less constrained or controlled, with reduced ability to process information but fewer limitations on content.
Perceptual and cognitive distortions Perceptions (including of pain) are The degree of awareness and efficiency realistic and normal. Effective control of of our perceptions and cognitions memory processes: storage and retrieval. Thought processes are organised and logical.
Perception (including pain) may be altered, might not be as good as you are focusing on other things. Memory processes may be disrupted or distorted: storage and recall may be more fragmented or less accurate as you are being distracted. Thought processes are disorganized and less logical.
Perception (including pain) may be altered. Senses/feeling/emotions re experienced as stronger and more vivid or are suppressed and blurred. There can be a loss or detachment from a persons sense of self and hallucinations can occur. Cognitive distortions: Individuals may lose touch with reality. Information processing is also distorted so thinking may be illogical and non-‐sequential, and difficulties in problem solving and recall may be experienced.
Emotional awareness The experience of emotion, control over emotion and understanding of appropriateness of emotions
More aware of emotions, e.g. more or less affectionate, aggressive, anxious. Good daydreams can enhance mood but negative ones may depress your mood. They also may flatten our response to emotional situations in the real world
Less control of emotions, e.g. more or less affectionate, aggressive, anxious. More susceptible to it as they aren’t as in control of their behavior. Depending on the type of personality and behavior when the person is drunk or how much alcohol is consumed, can change the emotions.
Self-‐control More control over actions and The ability to regulate and maintain movements, e.g. you are able to make appropriate or acceptable behaviours in yourself walk in a straight line. the correct contexts.
Includes the control of inhibitions and level of suggestiveness in terms of regulating behaviour
Less control over actions as you are thinking of other things and your body might be doing things unintentionally.
Usually less control over actions and movements, e.g. not able to make yourself walk in a straight line. Less control over emotions and thoughts but greater susceptibility to suggestion may decrease self-‐control. Can cause people to behave in a way they wouldn’t usually including taking more risks
Time orientation The ability to correctly perceive time and the speed at which time is passing.
Clear sense of time: e.g. the passage of time, including past, present and future.
Distorted ‘sense’ of time, e.g. time may Distorted ‘sense’ of time, e.g. time may appear to speed up as you are thinking of appear to speed up or slow down other things. depending on how much alcohol the person has consumed.
Memory
The brain actively stores information in memory and retrieves information from memory. Individuals are able to remember experiences and information processes in this state.
Perceptions (including of pain) are realistic and normal. Effective control of memory processes: storage and retrieval. Thought processes are organised and logical.
Continuity in memory is disrupted, creating gaps or blackouts. It is often difficult to remember because information ahs not been processed into memory due to cognitive disruptions.
Memory
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Chapter 8 –Models for Explaining Human memory
OVERVIEW – Atkinson-‐Shiffrin’s multi-‐store model of memory including maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, serial position effect and chunking –Levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart – Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-‐spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer -‐ Organisation of long-‐term memory including declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory, and semantic network theory
Intro to Memory-‐ the Basics •
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Most acknowledge that memory has three basic processes, and these are sequential
These include encoding, storage and retrieval • Encoding is the process of changing the information into a form that can be stored in memory. (the type of encoding effects ability to be recalled.) • Storage is the process of keeping the information in the brain for later retrieval (stored in different ways, eg. semantic network theory) • Retrieval is the process of getting information back from memory so that we can use it again (relies on using the right cues)
Atkinson-‐Shiffrin's Multi-‐Store model of memory •
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Most common model, proposed in 1968 Describes three stores of memory • Sensory memory: a very brief memory store. Information enters from all the senses. • Short-‐term memory: a limited store of actively conscious memory • Long-‐term memory: A store of info virtually limitless in capacity. Needs to be retrieved to be brought back into conscious awareness. These levels are separate but work together to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve information.
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SENSORY MEMORY Info received by sense organs from the environment If it is attended to (paid attention to) it is transferred to STM. If we don’t pay attention, info is lost forever as it is not processed Sensory memory has an unlimited capacity but only a brief duration Purpose of brief duration is that it stops us from being overwhelmed by too much info. Acts like a filter and allows us to perceive world as smooth and ongoing. The information, if not attended to, is briefly stored in its raw form before the traces fade or decay Two examples of sensory memory include our visual sensory memory, called iconic memory, and our auditory sensory memory, called echoic memory. ICONIC Visual sensory memory 0.3 seconds duration (fades rapidly) (0.3 rhymes with see) Unlimited capacity
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Still shots presented quickly seen as 'moving' For example: Wave sparkler around and read image ECHOIC Auditory sensory memory 3-‐4 seconds duration (fades) (4 rhymes with au-‐ditory) Unlimited capacity Explains why we can ask someone to repeat what they have said, but then give them the answer before they repeat
SHORT TERM MEMORY Where information is actually used and manipulated (stored acoustically) It allows us to retain for long enough to use it in that given moment Duration of 12-‐30 seconds (provided there is no interference) Capacity of 5-‐9 items (7 plus or minus 2) When capacity is reached, new info can only enter short term memory if old info is displaced (lost) Susceptible to interference, displacement and possibility of decay Attention and rehearsal will help store info in LTM It also holds and manipulates information being retrieved from long term memory
REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES CHUNKING Chunking is the grouping together of items that can then be remembered as a chunk. These are stored as a single unit
The capacity of STM is still 5-‐9 UNITS Chunking can increase the capacity of information able to be stored in STM Think about how you remember a phone number Chucking is more effective when the chunks themselves have their own meaning in LTM, eg. There are 356 days in a year, you were born in 1997 MAINTEN ANCE REHEARSAL If you rehearse the information in short term memory you increase chances of retaining the information This does not add meaning or link to long term memory better, just holds it in place longer If we repeat something often enough, transfer to long term memory is possible otherwise, if it stops, the info will be lost 12-‐30 seconds later Methods of maintenance rehearsal could be verbal (saying things out loud or in your head) and non verbal (visualizing or imagining how it feels)
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LONG TERM MEMORY Information is encoded and stored in long term memory for later retrieval Information is stored semantically (by meaning), and forms semantic networks. Virtually unlimited capacity and duration With appropriate cues, ‘forgotten’ things can be remembered. Forgetting is due to poor cues and not capacity limitations Long term memories are maintained because of the physiological changes to the neurons and their connections with other neurons.
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL Elaborative rehearsal is the process by which we give meaning to information and link it to other information already in memory by using effort If we think of two examples of concepts and link to other information as we go we tend to give more meaning and process information at a deeper level
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Salience, or personal relevance, also improves encoding An advantage of elaborative rehearsal is that its more likely to be retrieved because it is attached to more things Using mnemonic devices is one way of improving encoding.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT Gives evidence that Short term memory and long term memory are separate memory systems The serial position effect is a finding that immediate free recall (any order) is better for items at the beginning and end of the list than for items in the middle of the list. The words have to be similar in characteristics and significance to the learner in order for it to be accurately observed.
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TIPS FOR REMEMBERING GRAPH
Serial reminds you of cereal, what do you eat cereal out of? A bowl. The shape of the graph is like a bowl.
PRIMACY EFFECT The primacy effect describes superior recall for items at the beginning of a list compared to those in the middle This is because it is likely that the initial items received more attention and rehearsal and were transferred into LTM before the capacity of STM was full RECENCY EFFECT The Recency effect describes superior recall of items at the end of the list compared to those in the middle This is most likely because these words are remembered because they were read last and are still in short-‐term memory. Those with anterograde amnesia have good recency effects but poor primacy effects as they are unable to form new declarative memories ASYMPTOPE
On a graph, this shows the inferior recall for items in the middle of a list compared to those at the start or end of a list. Items are not stored in LTM or a displaced from STM
Criticisms to Atkinson-‐Shiffrin's Multi-‐Store model of memory •
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Does not adequately explain the interaction between the memory stores It does not show why the coding of the information changes between the different memory stores. Other researches state that it is a continuum rather than separate memory stores.
Craik and Lockhart: Levels of Processing •
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This model of memory storage is different as it suggests we have a continuous dimension of memory rather than specific storage units The memory dimension is relative to the way that memories are encoded and therefore how easily they can be retrieved
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The ‘deeper’ the processing the greater chance of being retrieved Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggested there are three levels at which we encode material STRUCTURAL Physical features of words
Upper, lower case, vowel, consonant, long, short, round or straight letters Shallow level of processing 20% of words recalled PHONEMIC Words are learnt by their sounds
Book, nook, took Moderate level of processing 50% of words are recalled SEMANTIC Words are learnt by their meaning and placed directly into our semantic networks Which fit in a sentence or which describe you Deep level processing 80% of words recalled
STUDY TIPS LTM is better when we process information semantically The more complex the processing, the stronger the memory, even within the same level of processing Personal relevance or salience has greater effect on recall Memory grows stronger the more it is elaborated upon and linked to things we already know well BEST ENCODING TIPS FOR STUDENTS Make sure you understand new information by restating it in your own words Actively question new information Think about potential applications and implications of the material Relate the new material to information you already know, searching for connections to make the new information more meaningful Generate your own examples of the concept especially from your own experiences
Baddeley and Hitch’s model of Working Memory
A more recent system of memory (2009) This is the active part of memory where the information that we are consciously aware of is actively ‘worked on’ in a variety of ways • We use information from sensory memory and long term memory and is like a mental workspace for what you are cognitively doing and working on RIGHT NOW 4 separate but interdependent aspects • Phonological loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Central executive • Episodic buffer
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP • Our verbal/auditory working memory that is active whenever we read, listen, speak or repeat works • Stores and rehearses about 7 items of speech information for about 2 seconds • It is a slave system-‐it does not make decisions, just follows orders. Sends and receives information to central exec when instructed to • Contains the phonological memory store and the articulatory sub-‐vocal rehearsal Phonological Memory Store •
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Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Helps us understand the meaning of a sentence by retaining the words from the start of the sentence to the end/ Can hold traces of speech-‐based or acoustic material for about 2 seconds unless it is maintained Articulatory sub-‐vocal rehearsal Mentally rehearse what you are going to say (sub vocal) Prevention of rehearsal results in rapid loss of information
Eg. Think about when you have to ‘introduce yourself’ at the start of the year.
VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD Our visual working memory where we temporarily store what we see Can use it to work on visual and spatial tasks and manipulate things in our mind It is a slave system. Sends and receives from central executive when instructed to. Stores and manipulates about 4 items of visual and spatial information at a time Eg. Drawing your bedroom layout from memory
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE Monitors, integrates and coordinates information received from these slave systems as well as information from Long Term Memory; making decisions, problem solving, planning, controlling =’thinking’. Puts together the sounds and visions of working memory and controls attention and enables us to perform mental manipulation on data Main Functions of central executive Intense Swearing Unit Inhibition -‐ aspect of attention, screening out irrelevant material Switching -‐ changing attention from one item to another Updating – Modifying items brought in from Long term Memory before recommitting them to memory (this allows a process of accommodation on the semantic network) Stores information for 18-‐20 seconds Is our ‘consciousness’ (our here and now)
EPISODIC BUFFER New sub-‐system of working memory model Explains how working memory interacts with Long Term Memory Seen as a temporary storage place that holds about 4 chunks of information and combines auditory and visual information from both slave systems, as well as connecting them directly to Long Term Memory Under the control of the central executive like the other areas It helps ‘file’ things away in Long Term Memory for proper storage, and retrieves ‘ files’ from Long term memory when information is needed
Working memory and Multitasking •
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Difference stores in working memory are fairly independent We can do two things at once if the stores are using different stores in working memory BUT only if we are good at both tasks Ie. Drive a car while recalling information relevant to a conversation with a car passenger is hard when you are leaning If stores are too much the same, task is also difficult
Ie. Talking on phone while listening to someone talk to you People who perform well on working memory tasks tend to show high levels of ability in such tasks as reading comprehension and even intelligence tasks and are likely to be better at understanding other people point of view.
Organisation of Long Term Memory
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Long term memory is usually divided into two systems – procedural memory and declarative memory Procedural memory is the how to’ – memory of skills, habits and actions Declarative memory is memory of facts and events. It is further divided into episodic and semantic memory.
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PROCEDURAL MEMORY Memory for skills habits and actions, operations and conditioned responses Very resistant to forgetting (ie. Hard to forget how to ride a bike) Seems largely unconscious Does not decline that much over time When learning a new task, a conscious and deliberate effort is often required. However after practice the knowledge retrieval becomes implicit.
DECLARATIVE MEMORY Involves the memory of facts, events and general knowledge. It is generally referred to as information associated with learning for school, reading, maths and higher order thinking which is associated with intelligence. TYPES OF MEMORIES Episodic Memory Episodic is about memories of particular events and is often autobiographical Retrospective memory includes memory of pasts events Prospective memory includes remembering to do things in the future Semantic Memory Semantic memory is memory for facts (things learnt at school, meanings of words), worldly or general knowledge
IMPLICIT VS. EXPLICIT Implicit Memory Memory involves unintentional remembering. It is unconscious and tends to be procedural or emotionally driven Role of Amygdala Includes classical conditioning and procedural memory Explicit memory Memory involves the conscious retrieval of memories. Involves declarative memories, recall and recognition. Role of hippocampus Includes episodic and semantic memory
OTHER TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY Flashbulb memories Emotional content Results in intense recall Activated amygdala at time of encoding Photographic (Eidetic) Memories
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Sharp, detailed visual
Images able to be recalled from Long Term Memory even after only viewing for a few moments
SEMANTIC NETWORK THEORY Collins and Quillian (1969) Information in Long Term memory is stored hierarchically according to particular concepts Each piece of information is called a node (item). The nodes link to other nodes. The closer the nodes, the stronger the link and the quicker the information will be retrieved Links are the lines showing the relationship between the nodes. In reality, links are physical, neurons that connect between where different memories are stored.
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OVERVIEW – The neuron in memory formation including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters – Role of the temporal lobe including the hippocampus and the amygdala – Consolidation theory – Memory decline over the lifespan – Amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
Chapter 9 -‐ Mechanisms of Memory formation
The neuron – Diagram
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Neurons
receive information from other neurons, process this information and then communicate it to other neurons. Neurons are generally comprised of three elements
Dendrites •
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The tree-‐like part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons Soma
The cell body of a neuron. It is the largest part of the neuron and controls metabolism and maintenance of the cell. Axon A nerve fibre in the neuron along which the electrochemical nerve-‐impulse is transmitted away from the soma and towards the cells that communicate
Neurons and Memory •
Memories are stored throughout the brain and linked together through neural tracts or pathways known as a memory trace.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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MEMORY TRACE A physical or chemical change that is believed to occur in brain cells as they store information during memory formation.
HOW DOES INFORMATION TRAVEL THROUGH THE NEURON? Information (in the form of a neurotransmitter) is received at receptor sites in the dendrites of a neuron, from here the message travels down the neuron through the axon and to the axon terminals This is called an electrical process
ACROSS THE SYNAPSE At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles and they travel across the synaptic gap.
This is now a chemical process Neurons never touch
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WHAT CHANGES OCCUR When a neuron is activated more than once, the presynaptic neuron increases the number of neurotransmitters it releases into the synapse This then prompts the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron to grow. They become more numerous and also grow towards the presynaptic neuron. They also became more sensitive to the neurotransmitters This then means that new synaptic connections are formed, making it easier for the message to travel from one neuron to another
Each time we access a memory or give a memory extra meaning, we strengthen the connection and the memory itself.
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LONG TERM POTENTIATION Repeated stimulation of a neural pathway tends to strengthen the likelihood of the neuron firing. Neurons that fire together, wire together
SPECIFIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS Research shows that memory is formed due to biochemical changes in the synapses in response to different neurotransmitters (chemicals) Some neurotransmitters help memory storage while others can disrupt it. It is known that memory is helped by the serotonin and acetylcholine neurotransmitters, as well as the hormone noradrenaline. Dopamine and Glutamate are heavily involved in learning, which is a ‘memory’ process as well.
Neurotransmitter
Effects
Acetylcholine
Memory and memory loss, learning Muscle movement Activates cerebral cortex REM sleep
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
Hippocampus Dopamine
Facilitates movement, attention, learning, reinforcement
Serotonin
Regulates mood Eating, sleep, arousal, pain
Glutamate
Necessary for the changes in the synapses that occur with memory formation
Hormone
Effects
Adrenaline
Triggers physiological arousal
Cortisol
Repairs the body
The Brain
MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBE •
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The Medial temporal lobe is the inner surface area at the base of and towards the middle (‘medial’) of the temporal lobe. This area included the hippocampus; the amygdala, which is next to and touches the hippocampus; and other cortical tissue. There is evidence that patients are likely to experience more verbal memory loss afterremoval of their l eft temporal lobe (language side) whereas patients with loss of their right temporal lobe are likely to have loss of non-‐verbal memory such as maze-‐learning.
CEREBRAL CORTEX Associated with the encoding formation and storage of long term declarative memories
FRONTAL LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Working memory Procedural memory Episodic memory
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Declarative memories for some forms of sounds, pictures and words/language
THE HIPPOCAMPUS The hippocampus is a medial temporal lobe structure that is crucial for long-‐ term memory formation (but not all long term memory types as after a period of time, a more permanent memory is formed or transferred to somewhere else in the brain for example in the cerebral cortex) There is one 3.5cm long, tubular and curved shaped hippocampus in each hemisphere however it is usually larger in women. Also connected directly with the frontal lobe, thalamus, and amygdala. ROLE OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS The hippocampus has a crucial role in forming or encoding new declarative explicit memories (semantic and episodic) but not in forming or retrieving implicit procedural memories
It is also responsible for difficult tasks that draw upon declarative memory eg. A child learning to spell unfamiliar words
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Its role in forming new declarative explicit memoires is sometimes referred to as consolidation, a process that involves strengthening of newly forming memories to enable their permanent storage. It also plays an important role in the relationship between emotion and memory including both the emotions that are generated by particular memories and memories that are triggered by emotions.
DAMAGE TO THE HIPPOCAMPUS: Could be damaged by; Psychological factors: stress, anxiety depression, PTSD (prolonged stress could lead to the shrinking of the hippocampus) Brain trauma: head injury Degenerative conditions: Alzheimer’s disease, herpes, encephalitis Surgical: Old fashioned treatment for epilepsy
Damage to the hippocampus does not seem to seriously affect storage or retrieval of procedural memories, but formation and retrieval of declarative memories is affected how ever they are not aware that they ever learnt the information Damage does not affect short-‐term storage or working memory in any significant way Provides evidence that Short Term Memory (or working memory) is different from long term memory and that the hippocampus is not involved in short term storage. Hippocampus transfers newly encoded memories to other cortical areas for storage. This could be areas of the frontal lobe cortex or temporal lobe cortex Damage to both hippocampi results in anterograde amnesia (difficulty encoding and recalling any new memories since damage occurred).
AMYGDALA The amygdala is a small almond structure (about 1.5 centimeters long) located behind the temple and next to and interconnected with each of the hippocampi in the medial temporal lobes. ROLE OF THE AMYGDALA The amygdala plays crucial roles in processing and regulating emotional reactions, particularly strong emotions such as fear and aggression. In particular, it is involved in the encoding and storage of declarative memories that have a significant emotional component (sometimes called emotional memories) Also highly specialized for remembering emotions shown on faces. More likely to remember events that produce strong emotional reactions One reason is that the amygdala attaches emotional significance is because when adrenalin is released it stimulates the amygdala which activates the hippocampus to encode and store the relevant memories The amygdala contributes to the formation of explicit declarative memories. This is apparent in a specific type of episodic memory known as a flashbulb memory. DAMAGE TO AMYGDALA Amygdala damage shows reduced ability to acquire conditioned (learned) emotional responses and to interpret or express a variety of emotions These individuals form conscious explicit memories involving details of the even but not implicit procedural memories that would enable them to produce the fear response.
CEREBELLUM Thought to be involved in Procedural memories, particularly motor skills Involved in the implicit process of remembering as skill as well as classically conditioned responses.
BASAL GANGLI Long term procedural (implicit) memory for movement
HOW ARE MEMORIES CONSOLIATED?
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
CONDITION
DESCRIPTION
Physical change •
(A
physical change must occur in the synapses) •
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Consolidation mostly happens through the hippocampus, which converts information from the short-‐term memory into permanent memory codes that are gradually stored in the long-‐term memory The short term memory changes the strength of the existing synapses in the brain, whereas long-‐ term memory involves the growth of new connections between neurons (Kandel 2001) Long-‐term memories are probably stored in the same areas of the cerebral cortex that were originally involved in processing the sensory input of the information (e.g. Visual information in the occipital lobe)
No Disruption •
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the process is disrupted, long term • memory is unlikely to form) •
There is a period where memories are less consolidated or ‘set.’ These memories are susceptible to alteration by new relevant information The process may be disrupted but a head injury, the amount of attention that is paid to the information, or the arousal level due to anxiety and alertness Information can be altered or completely lost during this process
Time •
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takes time)
Neural connections that have had more time to strengthen are less likely to be disrupted. This explains why head injury patients can still remember their names, family members and address but not remember the events that led to the head injury happenings. Researchers are still identifying the period of time it takes for consolidation to take place to the point where it is no longer vulnerable to disruption or change. Some research suggests that it is a process that can occur over a 30-‐minute period. Yet there is also evidence to suggest that it can take several years before some memories are permanently stored and no longer vulnerable to disruption or change.
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KEY THINGS A physical change occurs There has to be NO INTERUPTION It takes a certain amount of TIME
Memory decline over lifespan •
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Natural to experience some memory difficulties as you age however it is not an automatic part of the normal ageing process Connected with the organically aging brain In the case of dementia and other degenerative disorders, decline is more rapid and impacts on functioning more seriously
NORMAL AGE-‐RELATED MEMORY DECLINE (ARMD) Functioning of the Central nervous system begins to slow down which may effect memory After age of 60, there is a reduction in the function of the pre-‐frontal cortex reduction which leads to deficits in working memory and episodic memory Decline in the bundles of axons (white matter) that connect different regions of the brain causing a disruption of the communication between the difference regions of the brain. There is a hypothetical loss of synapses in the hippocampus which leads to less connections between neurons and therefore a slower rate of learning and a more rapid of forgetting.
TYPES OF MEMORIES AFFECTED BY ARMD
LONG TERM MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY (DECLARATIVE) • Perform just as well as young people but it may take longer to encode and retrieve info. • It may take longer to learn the new material but if they are given enough time, they can learn just as well as young people • Implicit knowledge based memories (reading and spelling of familiar words) is not effected and is readily retrieved and used.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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EPISODIC MEMORY (DECLARATIVE) • Older people have autobiographical episodic memory decline • Prospective memory (remembering things to do in the future) is also affected. • Episodic memory is relatively stable but there is a sharp decline after middle age possible due to the fact that older people tend to talk more readily about their lives when they were younger rather than more recent personal events • May remember early events but not more recent • Higher performance for women in old age (only memory with gender difference) PROCEDURAL MEMORY • Procedural (implicit) memories not affected • ie. Opening a can, cleaning teeth, cooking a meal
SHORT TERM MEMORY • For simple tasks there is no difference with age and they can perform just as well on them (for example on remembering a list of numbers) • Newly learnt verbal information is most affected • Newly learnt visual information is less affected WORKING MEMORY • Perform more poorly than young people on complex working memory tasks • Eg. Difficulty repeating string of numbers backwards, doing several tasks at once or dividing attention without interference
• Pre-‐frontal cortex less active and less efficient over 60 yrs of age. • Implications for elderly drivers and their ability to navigate the roads safely?
MEASURES OF RETENTION-‐ARMD Older people have more difficulty in retrieving new information rather than encoding new information. While Recall declines with age, Recognition does not decline with age (even for the same pieces of information) Implications for memory research which has highlighted that you must choose the right method of retention when testing ARMD
MOTIVATION AND CONFIDENCE -‐ARMD Motivation: some loose interest in trying to learn and recall new things Those who actively try and learn new things into old age suffer less memory loss Testing on ‘word lists’ may be seen as not important and not actively try to achieve good results Confidence: some worry about capacity to learn new things and do not seek opportunities/make as much effort
Organic forms of forgetting •
Forms where memory loss occurs due to physiological/biological factors that cause damage to the brain and therefore interfere with its proper functioning.
Amnesia •
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Amnesia refers to the loss of memory due to any reason, and can be partial or complete, temporary or permanent
Might be caused by brain trauma and injury or degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s It includes specific types of amnesia: Anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
RETROGRADE AMNESIA The difficulty in recalling previously stored memories from before the person sustained the damage Retro meaning backwards: the memory loss is backwards in time Memory loss Is usually the period just prior to the injury but may be moments, days, weeks, moths or even years
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Oldest memories tend to be left unaffected Usually temporary, can be caused by a blow or knock to the head or a trauma such as a stroke and if this is the case memory loss usually shrinks with recovery however most immediate memories probably will never be recovered (consolidation disruption) Common with patients treated with ECT (Electroconvulsive shock therapy) When occurs in Alzheimer’s and dementia patients, lost memory is unlikely to be recovered.
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA The loss of memory only for information or events that occur after the individual has sustained the brain damage so they have the inability to encode, store or learn new memories. Antero means forward: the loss is forward in time Memory for events prior to damage usually remains This is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease where damage has occurred to the temporal lobe and hippocampus Usually results from damage to the hippocampus (particularly a part called CA1 which connects to the storage part for the cortex H.M had great difficulty forming any new long term declarative memories following his operation Did not remember names of his doctors Did not remember events that occurred just moments before.
Brain Trauma •
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Brain Trauma is an umbrella term that is used to describe any brain damage that impairs or interferes with normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily of permanently It refers to 'organic' or physiologically-‐based amnesia It is typically a partial and selective amnesia, total amnesia is extremely rare Accident resulting in injuring
Surgery Disease and infection Drug and alcohol abuse Seizure Malnutrition
Neurodegenerative Disease •
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A disease characterized by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue Neurons (neuro) gradually deteriorate (degenerate) and lose their function Typically age related, such as Alzheimer’s disease and dementia
DEMENTIA Dementia refers to a disorder affecting higher mental functions that is characterized by progressive decline, with memory loss one of first signs Symptoms include loss of mental capacity including memory loss, decline in intellect, poor judgment, poor social skills and abnormal emotional reactions Not part of the normal aging process More than 60 diseases and illnesses can cause dementia such as reduced blood supply to the brain or toxins such as alcohol Alzheimer's disease is a common form of dementia SYMPTOMS It is first increasingly harder to remember people and events (especially recent ones) Find it difficult to think about and process information They may misplace things or be unable to do everyday tasks such as eating, dressing, driving or taking care of himself/herself Display strange or uncharacteristic behaviours Become easily upset or confused about time and place
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Be unusually aggressive or suspicious Have trouble speaking clearly, jumbling and confusing his or her words Have problems understanding what others are say and then gradually lose the ability to communicate through written language.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE An irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain and kills brain and nerve cells, causing severe cognitive, mental and behavioral decline. Most common form of dementia and symptoms usually appear after the age of 65 however early onset can occur in ones 30’s It is the 4th largest cause of death and impacts on 25% of those over 85 years old and with an aging population this is only going to increase Physical changes occurs 10-‐20 years before AD is presented SYMPTIOMS In the other ages the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease can be very subtle. However, it often involves gradual, severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention disordered thinking and depression (my cat Anna talks delicately)
Other objects may include: Persistent and frequent memory difficulties especially of recent events Vagueness in everyday conversation Apparent loss of enthusiasm for previously enjoyed activities
Taking longer to do routine tasks Forgetting well-‐known people or places Inability to process questions and instructions Deterioration of social skills Emotional unpredictability Order of memory loss
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The earliest symptom is usually impaired declarative memory where the patient has difficulty remembering events from the day before, forgets names and has difficulty finding the right word when speaking. (dolly (declarative) never (names) wins (words) round (repetition) robins (recognising)
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Next, the patient might repeat stories or questions, and eventually will fail to recognise familiar people and family members.
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It eventually leads to the death of the patient which usually occurs 4-‐8 years after diagnosis but may make over 20 years.
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Effects of Alzheimer's disease on the physiology of the brain include: Beta-‐amyloid protein plaques (abnormal clusters of dead and dying nerve cells, the products of which have accumulated around sticky molecules of beta-‐amyloid protein. In Alzheimer's it has been transformed into a form that is toxic to the brain and unable to be metabolized. Neurofibrillary tangles (insoluble, twisted structures caused by the build-‐up of protein and plaques within nerve cells that clog up the brain. In healthy brains tau helps memory traces stay formed but in areas where tangles are forming, tau collapses into twisted strands called tangles which means that the tracks can no longer stay straight and they fall apart and disintegrate. Atrophy (wasting away) of brain tissue (especially deterioration of the hippocampus and eventual general brain shrinkage from cell death. At death, the brain of an Alzheimer's patient may have lost up
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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to 50% of its weight). This is caused as nutrients and other essential supplies can no longer move through the cells, which eventually die. Destruction of neurons involved in production of some neurotransmitters, especially acetylcholine which is necessary for cognitive functioning and is a memory transmitter
Chapter 10 -‐ Strengths and Limitations of forgetting
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OVERVIEW Forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus Retrieval failure theory including tip-‐of-‐the-‐tongue phenomenon
Interference theory Motivated forgetting as informed by the work of Sigmund Freud including repression and suppression
Decay theory
Forgetting
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Forgetting is defined as the inability to retrieve information previously stored in long-‐term memory, rather than the total disappearance of that memory. Info stored in long term memory is relatively permanent BUT difficulties retrieving can occur This is in contrast to an organic form of forgetting such as amnesia, which has been caused by brain damage. Forgetting is sometimes beneficial.
Implicit memories are retrieved automatically – requiring little effort or awareness. Some explicit memories are also automatically retrieved AVAILABILITY A memory may be no longer available because the physical memory trace has gone ACCESSIBILITY A memory may no longer be accessible if the right retrieval cue is not used ACCURACY Over time, Long term memory may be prone to errors and bias due to factors such as emotion and arousal
PSEUDOFORGETTING Sometimes cannot be forgotten if it was not encoded properly in the first place Pseudoforgetting: memory was never encoded or stored due to lack of attention Lack of consolidation: disruption to the physical changes to neurons during encoding.
Forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus •
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First person to perform research into forgetting (1885) Used a list of nonsense syllables for his research BUP, TOV etc. He was his own participant! He learn a list of nonsense syllables until he was able to recall all of them perfectly, and then tested his recall at various intervals to see how many he could remember. Shows that most forgetting occurs in the first 20 minutes then at a moderate rate for 1 hour Forgetting then occurs gradually for the next 31 days.
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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FURTHER FINDINGS OF THE FORGETTING CURE Most forgetting occurs immediately after information has been learnt (steepest slop) More then 50% of the material is forgotten within the first hour Over learnt material will be retained in greater length and accuracy Complexity of information and IQ of learner does not affect rate of forgetting.
Retrieval failure theory •
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Theory proposed by Endel Tulving (1973) Also known as cue dependent forgetting that explains forgetting as an inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them. Must use the correct cue to retrieve from long term memory and the wrong cue will result in forgetting Happens with information that we are sure we know (is available), but just cant remember at that point in time (not accessible)
TYPES OF CUES RETRIEVAL CUES are mental prompts or reminders that assist in recollection later on May be created deliberately or implicitly or both and can be a range of formats including: Context dependent cues are cues that related to the environment in which the memory was encoded State dependent cues are the cues that related to the emotional or physical state we were in at the time of encoding.
ENCODING SPECIFICITY How we encode information will determine ability to retrieve later on A good retrieval cu is similar to the original encoding of information Might need to make a conscious and deliberate effort to create good retrieval cues at time of encoding.
TIP OF THE TONGUE PHENOMENON A particular demonstration of the retrieval failure theory Knowing the thing you need to retrieve is almost in reach, but cant quite remember it, its on the tip-‐of-‐ the-‐tongue) Might know the letter of someone’s name Might know if its long or short Might know where you saw them last WHAT TIP OF THE TONGUE DEMONSTRATES Memory is stored in a complex fashion (not always localized in one spot/sequence) Cues are needed for effective recall, and we intentionally search for cues to help us T.O.T increases as we age T.O.T provides evidence for retrieval failure theory (the information was available but not accessible due to inadequate retrieval cues), but possibly also interference theory (the information is available but is blocked by interference from similar sounding material)
Interference theory •
An explanation of why an available memory trace has become temporarily inaccessible
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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Interference theory refers to difficulties in retrieving information from memory, caused by the obstruction from other information
The individual may experience confusion with the information it wants to remember and other information stored in long-‐term memory. Proposes that one set of information in the memory competes with another set of information Interference theory occurs most strongly when two sets of information are similar in nature.
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE Occurs when previously leant material inhibits our ability to encode, store and retrieve new similar material Pro=forward. Interference occurs ‘forwards’ old interferes with new. Learn Othello Learn Macbeth Misquote Othello in your performance of Macbeth.
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE When newly learn information inhibits our ability to retrieve similar previously stored information. Retro= Backwards. The interference is backwards. New interferes with old. Learn Othello Learn Macbeth Misquote Macbeth in your performance of Othello
Motivated forgetting •
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Occurs when a person has a reason to forget. These memories are still stored in Long Term Memory they are just difficult to retrieve Usually occurs when memory is painful or traumatic From the work of Sigmund Freud, includes suppression and repression
SUPRESSION A conscious refusal to access memories which are available in Long Term Memory Eg. A person might chose to no longer think about or acknowledge details about a car accident that killed another driver. They may say they cannot remember, but they are choosing not to.
REPRESSION When painful memories are unconsciously pushed into an inaccessible part of the mind An individual has no recollection or knowledge of being sexually abused as a child Freud would say repressed memories cannot be brought into conscious awareness without a trigger from an event or experience
Decay Theory •
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Decay theory suggests that memory traces in the brain will fade over time through lack of use, and become unavailable Memory is a physiological process and is based on the idea that when a memory is laid down there is a physical or chemical trace of the experience in the brain. Trace will naturally fade as time passes, unless strengthened through repeated use. • Cannot remember how to solve polynomial equations a year after intense use in Year 12 methods
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
Theories
Strengths
Retrieval Failure
-‐Cues will often trigger a memory -‐Other theories also have explanations for forgetting (ie T.O.T -‐Tests that have cues result in better recall. and decay/interference) -‐Remembering things is gradual (support
Limitations
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
for being stored in different places Interference Seems plausible theory
Replicated in lab settings Face validity (personal experiences)
-‐Experimenters have used tests of recall that are prone to interference Measured with recall tests-‐ prone to interference Real life info utilises semantic memory as well-‐ not likely to happen when not isolated
Motivated forgetting
Appears to have happened to individuals
-‐Hard to test empirically (ethics) as some of these memories may be traumatic Validity?
Potential
for implanted memories or influenced memories (see Loftus) witnesses not available once memories come to light Lack of experimental research, and unlikely to be able to ethically do so
Decay Theory
-‐Memory is a neural process so forgetting should be aswell -‐ Studies of hippocampus have shown a pattern of rapid then gradual decline of neural pathways -‐Memories are lost from sensory and STM via decay-‐ why not LTM too?
-‐Not yet successfully shown through research -‐Unable to account for sudden recollection of events with available cues -‐Elderly people can remember memories from early childhood despite not regularly visiting those over the years
-‐Procedural memories do not fade in this way
Chapter 11 -‐ Manipulation and Improvement of Memory OVERVIEW – Measures of retention including the relative sensitivity of recall, recognition and relearning – Use of context dependent cues and state dependent cues – Mnemonic devices including acronyms, acrostics and narrative chaining – Effect of misleading questions on eyewitness testimonies including the reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftus
Measures of retention •
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Retention is looking at how much and how well we keep information in our memory Three measures of are: Recall Recognition Relearning RECALL Recall requires the individual to remember the information with minimal cues to assist retrieval Free recall is when participants can recall as much information in any order Serial recall is when participants must recall information in the order that it was presented in Cued recall is when various prompts are used to assist retrieval
RECOGNITION Refers to the identification of correct information among a list of other pieces of information More accurate than recall
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CUED RECALL AND RECOGNITION Recognition would be to pick out the correct items from a list of items Cued recall might be to use other cues to aid remember
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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RELEARNING Learning something again that has been previously been committed to memory Easier than learning it for the first time Particularly related to procedural memories but still the case for all other aspects of memory Riding bike, playing an instrument after a long time.
SAVING SCORES When you relearn something, it takes less time than the original learning A savings score compares the time taken to learn with the time taken to relearn the information ‘time’ could also refer to number of trials
Always give answer in percentage. eg. We can say that ____ % of the time/trials taken to learn the list has been saved.
Most sensitive (How much stimulation you would need to activate the memory) • Relearning • Recognition • Cued recall • Free recall Least sensitive •
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Mnemonic Devices
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Mnemonic devices are techniques for improving or enhancing memory There are three main VERBAL mnemonic devices
Mnem
onic Devices
Type
Definition/ description
Example with words
Encoding phase
(How do you put the words into your memory)
Retrieval phase (How do you recall the words)
Narrative Chaining
Involves linking otherwise unrelated items to one another to form a meaningful sequence or story. Works well for normal and also for impaired memory Helps to remember things in order (serial recall)
GRANDMA ran over the BRIDGE because there was a CHOCOLATE cake on the path
You are using the words that you need to remember in a story or a sequence and you are connecting them with other words from the memory.
You would recall/visualize the whole story (cue) and then pick out the target words from the story
Acronym
Pronounceable words formed from the first QANTAS letters of a sequence of words. EFTPOS UNICEF ANZAC
Creating a word where each letter is based on the first letter from the target word
Remember the acronym, using the letters as a cue to remember the target word that starts with each letter.
Acrostic
Verbal association are made by constructing phrases, rhymes, poems or sentences using the first letters of the information to be remembered. Each word acts as a retrieval cue for recall of specific related information
Creating a sentence where the first letter of each word is taken from the first letter of each of the target words.
Remember the sentence and then, using each first letter as a cue, remember the target words.
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Every Good Boys Deserve Fruit
Never Eat Soggy Weetabix
Make use of information already stored in LTM, and make the information more elaborate-‐ more info stored not less
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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The additional information makes it easier to locate and retrieve through enhanced LTM organisation
Devices based on elaboration, encoding or rehearsal strategy
State and Context Cues •
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The encoding specificity principle states that the associations formed at the time of encoding new memories will be the most effective memory retrieval cues If we try to retrieve information under the same conditions we were in at time of encoding, we will be more successful These include the learners external environment (context) and their internal environment (state)
CONTEXT DEPENDENT CUES (EXTERNAL) Environmental cues in the specific situation where a memory was formed will act as retrieval cues or triggers to access memories formed in that context The context is the external environment at the time of encoding Sights Sounds Smells Temperature Relevance for own study? What about for eye-‐witness testimony and investigation of a crime?
STATE DEPENDENT CUES Cues associated with an individuals internal physiological or psychological state at the time of encoding or learning Happy/Sad Intoxicated/Sober Calm/Stressed
If we encode when happy, tend to remember happy memories, vice versa with sad Helps explain why sometimes it is hard to remember in exam – anxious state versus calm state while encoding.
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Memory is not a copy of reality. Top of the tongue shows us that recall is not always 100% accurate and that there are gaps Memory reconstruction involves remembering past events and features of these events and putting together during recall. EWT requires people who have been witness to a crime to give a personal account of the event Is it always accurate?
RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES Often we are constructing a memory based on quick observations, not always proper encoding Memory reconstruction is remembering past events and features and putting them together during memory recall Experiences, expectations, beliefs, ideas and mood help construct and reconstruct memory, particularly in times of high stress Misinformation can be implanted and made to seem real Each time a false memory is revisited it can change, it can also become more ‘real’
LEADING QUESTIONS Leading questions can influence a memory. As leading question is phrased in a way so as to suggest an answer or lead to the desired answer by directing the witness towards the response desired by the questioner
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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For example: Did you see the broken headlight vs did you see a broken headlight? How tall is the basketball player vs how short is the basketball player?
Loftus and Palmer •
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Showed participants video of a car accident and then interrogated them as if they were witnesses t a rime Participants were asked ‘how fast the car was going when they _____ each other?’ In the space words with increasing links to ‘speed’ were placed for the various IV conditions One week later they were asked ‘did you see any broken glass in the accident?’ There was no glass present P value indicated that false information can influence the participants memories CONCLUSIONS ABOUT EWT Participants form a memory when they view something for the first time When they revisit the memory, they may be influenced by the new information supplied after the event People are unable to tell that the information has come from two different sources (source confusion) Recall is a reconstructed or altered version of
Psychology Unit 3 Notes – Francesca Novy
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