Weak Phonological Representations Explain Children's Reading Difficulties
Eileen Geoghegan
Discuss the extent that weak phonological representations can explain children’s reading difficulties.
Word Count 1503
The aim of this essay is to see if weak phonological representations contribute to reading difficulties within children and see what factors can have an impact before deciding whether this alone can be a reason and cause, relating to developmental dyslexia in children. This paper will also evaluate alternative explanations, for example, looking at what impact the environment may have with regards to developmental dyslexia throughout the home and school. It will look at biological explanations, which could also be an explanation as it relates to the brain. Research will also be looked …show more content…
at to see if it shows any Causal relationships between phonological awareness and early reading ability.
Children between the ages of nine – twelve months old will starts to say certain words like dada and mamma and one will find that dada is typically the first word that a child will say as "da" is a much easier sound to produce than "ma”(Martin, Carlson & Buskist 2010). A toddler from around 18 months onwards begins to learn more variety of sounds, words and letters, as they get older and start school it is then that their vocabulary will grow more extensively as their communication skills will continue to increase as they learn phonics at school which helps with their language and speech, therefore, help them with their reading, writing and spelling abilities (Martin, Carlson & Buskist 2010)
Certain cognitive elements are needed and therefore, it is essential for the development of strong reading skills, the ability to decode words into speech and the capacity to understand spoken language.
However, children who struggle to read are the ones who are struggling with either decoding or language interpretation or even both (Cain 2010). Before a child is able to read and follow any of the words that are presented in front of them, they must be able to understand language. Phonological representations are taken to mean the encoding of speech sounds and word recognition and the ability to perceive and manipulate the sounds of spoken words. Language is made up of phonemes, rimes, and syllables which are the basic units of speech. Furthermore, if a child has not gotten the phonics in place then that will affect their ability to read properly as they cannot hear the beginnings and ends of the words. They therefore, struggle with the syllables within the words and find it hard to differentiate between different sounds. (Goswami & …show more content…
Bryant1994)
Much research has been done concerning different aspects of phonological awareness in order to find if there is actually any causality that phonological representations plays any role with regards to reading difficulties in children. By looking at longitudinal studies, it is harder to identify if indeed there is a relationship between phonological awareness and reading as there could be a third unmeasured or unknown causal factor that could affect both variables which would reflect on the results (Bryant & Goswami 1987). However, Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, (1998) found measures of phoneme recognition and phoneme deletion were strongly correlated with achievement in both spelling and reading at the end of the first year at school. Similarly, Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams, & Stuart, (2002) found that both their measures of phonemic awareness were highly significant concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading ability when the effects of age, spoken vocabulary and initial word reading ability were partialled out (Muter et al 1998; Hulme et al 2002). Furthermore relating to a recent study by Torgesen et al (1999) he provided hour upon hour of individual reading to 12% of children who he believed were at the most risk of reading failure. Due to this intervention the children within that study achieved high score that they maintained from second grade to fourth. (Hulme & Snowling, 2009).
There are many other factors that need to be considered that relate to weak phonological representations, and not just accepting that all children that have problems regarding language and reading are dyslexic. Many children and adults throughout society have learning disability factors, which can have an impact, regarding the development of reading apart from developmental dyslexia. A child who has signs of aphasia or dysphasia has a learning disability towards language whereby, it involves problems with parts of speech as well as the meaning of words (Martin, et al 2010). They could also have problems with spoken language skills, Auditory processing disorder which impacts their ability to read, write and spell and Visual processing disorder which affects their reading comprehension. Some children even suffer with Irlen syndrome, which affects how, the brain interprets visual information whereby, it prevents a person from reading effectively and with efficiently.
Nevertheless, in 1995 research by Morton & Firth looked at other characteristics that could be a basis for dyslexia. They came up with three levels that could explain the underlying cause of developmental dyslexia, they are Biological, Cognitive (which relate to weak phonological representations) and behavioural. The biological aspect of what is the underlying cause of developmental dyslexia is the most difficult to interpret as it looks at the language areas within the brain. Phonological deficit hypothesis can be another reason towards reading difficulties as dyslexics have limited specified phonological representations. (Hulme & Snowling 2009). Research has found that problems within the left hemisphere of the brain are generally associated with the process of language. Over the years, it has been said that neurological difference and brain structure occurs between dyslexic children and non-dyslexic children (Reiter et al 2005). Additionally Brunswick et al. (1999) also saw that dyslexic young adults showed less brain activity than the non-dyslexic adults even though they had similar IQs. Likewise Nicolson et al. (1999) also found that stimulation within the cerebellum was significantly lower in dyslexic readers than normal readers as cerebellar dysfunctions affect the learning of any new skills (Martin, et al 2010).
However, it does not show other accounts that are unrelated which are common to many dyslexic children and adults, problems such as limitations within their short-term memory and visual processing (Snowling, 2000). Research found that while dyslexics have normal memory space, for visual information they do have problems with their short term memory hence remembering fewer verbal items than, that expected for their age especially on test assessment for number span tasks where the numbers have to be recalled in a start and end order (Snowling, 2000). However, preliminary studies proposed that dyslexics were not inclined to phonetic confusability as the remembrance of rhyming words and non-rhyming words were reported to be as good as one another, as well as remembering similar numbers. However, interpretation of these results cannot be of accuracy due to the relationship that normal readers and dyslexic readers performed at different levels on the memory tasks. (Snowling, 2000).
Furthermore, the environment in which children are around on a daily basis can also play a vital role with regards to their processing skills. Children who come from low incomes families may find that they do not have the resources in order to read to their children or additionally it could be that they are too busy working and unable to engage with their children (Nunes, & Bryant, 2009). Families with lower IQ levels may feel that they do not have the knowledge or experience to support their children with basic language skills, or they come from impoverish backgrounds where their families may have been uneducated. Whereby, higher income families, may be more at an advantage therefore, able to engage a lot more freely as they are likely to come from better backgrounds where education was easier for them. Evidence does show consistent findings that language input provided by lower socioeconomic status (SES) parents does differ than the language input provided by middle to upper income parents (Phillips, & Lonigan, 2005). Whilst Baker and colleagues found 90% middle income families read to their children compared to 52% of lower income families. (Phillips, & Lonigan, 2005)
On the flip side of the coin, the school environment is different from that of the home environment as children are taught, speech, reading and writing everyday as part of the curriculum. In Schools uses phonics literacy in order to help children pronounce and spell out words, distinguish between sounds at the beginning and ending of a word, manipulate sounds within a word to create new words as well as identify and produce rhymes and that will identify those who have difficulties within their language whereby those individuals will get the extra support that is needed to improve their phonological skills. (Nunes, & Bryant, 2009).
In conclusion, children who are deprived of verbal stimulation within the first few years of life could find they may be severely compromised within their ability to understand language in which they have considerable difficulty acquiring everyday language later. Basic reading problems emerge when understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words become difficult. Problems occur when there is an inability to grasp the meaning of words within reading comprehension as well as phrases, and paragraphs. The problems that can arise within reading difficulties are signs of not being able to recognise letters and words, general vocabulary skills, understanding words and ideas as well as reading speed and fluency. Children will however, continue to benefit from the introduction of new vocabulary, semantics, and linguistic rules therefore, benefiting from the effects of education and other environmental stimulation which will continue throughout childhood.
References
Bryant, P.E., & Goswami, U. (1987). Phonological awareness and learning to read. In J. R. Beech, & A. M. Colley (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to reading (pp. 213–243). Chichester: Wiley.
Cain, K (2010).
Reading development and difficulties. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell
Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. (2003). Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read. Journal of Cognition 91 (2004) 77–111
Goswami, U. & Bryant, P. (1994). Phonological Skills and Learning to Read (essays in developmental psychology). East Sussex: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd..
Hulme, C., Hatcher, P. J., Nation, K., Brown, A., Adams, J., & Stuart, G. (2002). Phoneme awareness is a better predictor of early reading skill than onset-rime awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82, 2–28.
Hulme, C. and Snowling, M. (2009). Developmental disorders of language learning and cognition. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell
Martin, N. G. Carlson, R. N. & Buskist, W. (2010). Psychology, (4th ed). England: Pearson Education Limited.
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Taylor, S. (1998). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 3–27.
Morton, J. & Frith, U. (1995). Structural approaches to developmental psychopathology. In: D.Cicchetti & D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp.357-390). New York: Wiley. Vol
1.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J., Berry, E.L,. Jenkins, I.H,. Dean, P. & Brooks, D.J. (1999) Association of abnormal cerebellar activation with motor learning difficulties in dyslexic adults. In Martin, N. G. Carlson, R. N. & Buskist, W. (Eds). Psychology, (4th ed). England: Pearson Education Limited.
Nunes, T & Bryant, P. (2009). Children’s Reading and Spelling: Beyond the First Steps. West Sussex: Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Philips, B. M., & Lonigan, C.J. (2005). Social correlates of emergent literacy In M.J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.) The science of reading: A handbook. (pp 173-188) Oxford: Blackwell.
Reiter, A., Tucha, O., & Lange W. K (2005) Dyslexia , 2, ( pp 116–131). Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Vol 11
Snowling, M. J. (2000). Dyslexia (2nd ed.) Oxford: Blackwell
Discuss the extent that weak phonological representations can explain children’s reading difficulties.
Word Count 1503
The aim of this essay is to see if weak phonological representations contribute to reading difficulties within children and see what factors can have an impact before deciding whether this alone can be a reason and cause, relating to developmental dyslexia in children. This paper will also evaluate alternative explanations, for example, looking at what impact the environment may have with regards to developmental dyslexia throughout the home and school. It will look at biological explanations, which could also be an explanation as it relates to the brain. Research will also be looked …show more content…
at to see if it shows any Causal relationships between phonological awareness and early reading ability.
Children between the ages of nine – twelve months old will starts to say certain words like dada and mamma and one will find that dada is typically the first word that a child will say as "da" is a much easier sound to produce than "ma”(Martin, Carlson & Buskist 2010). A toddler from around 18 months onwards begins to learn more variety of sounds, words and letters, as they get older and start school it is then that their vocabulary will grow more extensively as their communication skills will continue to increase as they learn phonics at school which helps with their language and speech, therefore, help them with their reading, writing and spelling abilities (Martin, Carlson & Buskist 2010)
Certain cognitive elements are needed and therefore, it is essential for the development of strong reading skills, the ability to decode words into speech and the capacity to understand spoken language.
However, children who struggle to read are the ones who are struggling with either decoding or language interpretation or even both (Cain 2010). Before a child is able to read and follow any of the words that are presented in front of them, they must be able to understand language. Phonological representations are taken to mean the encoding of speech sounds and word recognition and the ability to perceive and manipulate the sounds of spoken words. Language is made up of phonemes, rimes, and syllables which are the basic units of speech. Furthermore, if a child has not gotten the phonics in place then that will affect their ability to read properly as they cannot hear the beginnings and ends of the words. They therefore, struggle with the syllables within the words and find it hard to differentiate between different sounds. (Goswami & …show more content…
Bryant1994)
Much research has been done concerning different aspects of phonological awareness in order to find if there is actually any causality that phonological representations plays any role with regards to reading difficulties in children. By looking at longitudinal studies, it is harder to identify if indeed there is a relationship between phonological awareness and reading as there could be a third unmeasured or unknown causal factor that could affect both variables which would reflect on the results (Bryant & Goswami 1987). However, Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, (1998) found measures of phoneme recognition and phoneme deletion were strongly correlated with achievement in both spelling and reading at the end of the first year at school. Similarly, Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams, & Stuart, (2002) found that both their measures of phonemic awareness were highly significant concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading ability when the effects of age, spoken vocabulary and initial word reading ability were partialled out (Muter et al 1998; Hulme et al 2002). Furthermore relating to a recent study by Torgesen et al (1999) he provided hour upon hour of individual reading to 12% of children who he believed were at the most risk of reading failure. Due to this intervention the children within that study achieved high score that they maintained from second grade to fourth. (Hulme & Snowling, 2009).
There are many other factors that need to be considered that relate to weak phonological representations, and not just accepting that all children that have problems regarding language and reading are dyslexic. Many children and adults throughout society have learning disability factors, which can have an impact, regarding the development of reading apart from developmental dyslexia. A child who has signs of aphasia or dysphasia has a learning disability towards language whereby, it involves problems with parts of speech as well as the meaning of words (Martin, et al 2010). They could also have problems with spoken language skills, Auditory processing disorder which impacts their ability to read, write and spell and Visual processing disorder which affects their reading comprehension. Some children even suffer with Irlen syndrome, which affects how, the brain interprets visual information whereby, it prevents a person from reading effectively and with efficiently.
Nevertheless, in 1995 research by Morton & Firth looked at other characteristics that could be a basis for dyslexia. They came up with three levels that could explain the underlying cause of developmental dyslexia, they are Biological, Cognitive (which relate to weak phonological representations) and behavioural. The biological aspect of what is the underlying cause of developmental dyslexia is the most difficult to interpret as it looks at the language areas within the brain. Phonological deficit hypothesis can be another reason towards reading difficulties as dyslexics have limited specified phonological representations. (Hulme & Snowling 2009). Research has found that problems within the left hemisphere of the brain are generally associated with the process of language. Over the years, it has been said that neurological difference and brain structure occurs between dyslexic children and non-dyslexic children (Reiter et al 2005). Additionally Brunswick et al. (1999) also saw that dyslexic young adults showed less brain activity than the non-dyslexic adults even though they had similar IQs. Likewise Nicolson et al. (1999) also found that stimulation within the cerebellum was significantly lower in dyslexic readers than normal readers as cerebellar dysfunctions affect the learning of any new skills (Martin, et al 2010).
However, it does not show other accounts that are unrelated which are common to many dyslexic children and adults, problems such as limitations within their short-term memory and visual processing (Snowling, 2000). Research found that while dyslexics have normal memory space, for visual information they do have problems with their short term memory hence remembering fewer verbal items than, that expected for their age especially on test assessment for number span tasks where the numbers have to be recalled in a start and end order (Snowling, 2000). However, preliminary studies proposed that dyslexics were not inclined to phonetic confusability as the remembrance of rhyming words and non-rhyming words were reported to be as good as one another, as well as remembering similar numbers. However, interpretation of these results cannot be of accuracy due to the relationship that normal readers and dyslexic readers performed at different levels on the memory tasks. (Snowling, 2000).
Furthermore, the environment in which children are around on a daily basis can also play a vital role with regards to their processing skills. Children who come from low incomes families may find that they do not have the resources in order to read to their children or additionally it could be that they are too busy working and unable to engage with their children (Nunes, & Bryant, 2009). Families with lower IQ levels may feel that they do not have the knowledge or experience to support their children with basic language skills, or they come from impoverish backgrounds where their families may have been uneducated. Whereby, higher income families, may be more at an advantage therefore, able to engage a lot more freely as they are likely to come from better backgrounds where education was easier for them. Evidence does show consistent findings that language input provided by lower socioeconomic status (SES) parents does differ than the language input provided by middle to upper income parents (Phillips, & Lonigan, 2005). Whilst Baker and colleagues found 90% middle income families read to their children compared to 52% of lower income families. (Phillips, & Lonigan, 2005)
On the flip side of the coin, the school environment is different from that of the home environment as children are taught, speech, reading and writing everyday as part of the curriculum. In Schools uses phonics literacy in order to help children pronounce and spell out words, distinguish between sounds at the beginning and ending of a word, manipulate sounds within a word to create new words as well as identify and produce rhymes and that will identify those who have difficulties within their language whereby those individuals will get the extra support that is needed to improve their phonological skills. (Nunes, & Bryant, 2009).
In conclusion, children who are deprived of verbal stimulation within the first few years of life could find they may be severely compromised within their ability to understand language in which they have considerable difficulty acquiring everyday language later. Basic reading problems emerge when understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words become difficult. Problems occur when there is an inability to grasp the meaning of words within reading comprehension as well as phrases, and paragraphs. The problems that can arise within reading difficulties are signs of not being able to recognise letters and words, general vocabulary skills, understanding words and ideas as well as reading speed and fluency. Children will however, continue to benefit from the introduction of new vocabulary, semantics, and linguistic rules therefore, benefiting from the effects of education and other environmental stimulation which will continue throughout childhood.
References
Bryant, P.E., & Goswami, U. (1987). Phonological awareness and learning to read. In J. R. Beech, & A. M. Colley (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to reading (pp. 213–243). Chichester: Wiley.
Cain, K (2010).
Reading development and difficulties. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell
Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. (2003). Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read. Journal of Cognition 91 (2004) 77–111
Goswami, U. & Bryant, P. (1994). Phonological Skills and Learning to Read (essays in developmental psychology). East Sussex: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd..
Hulme, C., Hatcher, P. J., Nation, K., Brown, A., Adams, J., & Stuart, G. (2002). Phoneme awareness is a better predictor of early reading skill than onset-rime awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82, 2–28.
Hulme, C. and Snowling, M. (2009). Developmental disorders of language learning and cognition. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell
Martin, N. G. Carlson, R. N. & Buskist, W. (2010). Psychology, (4th ed). England: Pearson Education Limited.
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Taylor, S. (1998). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 3–27.
Morton, J. & Frith, U. (1995). Structural approaches to developmental psychopathology. In: D.Cicchetti & D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp.357-390). New York: Wiley. Vol
1.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J., Berry, E.L,. Jenkins, I.H,. Dean, P. & Brooks, D.J. (1999) Association of abnormal cerebellar activation with motor learning difficulties in dyslexic adults. In Martin, N. G. Carlson, R. N. & Buskist, W. (Eds). Psychology, (4th ed). England: Pearson Education Limited.
Nunes, T & Bryant, P. (2009). Children’s Reading and Spelling: Beyond the First Steps. West Sussex: Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Philips, B. M., & Lonigan, C.J. (2005). Social correlates of emergent literacy In M.J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.) The science of reading: A handbook. (pp 173-188) Oxford: Blackwell.
Reiter, A., Tucha, O., & Lange W. K (2005) Dyslexia , 2, ( pp 116–131). Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Vol 11
Snowling, M. J. (2000). Dyslexia (2nd ed.) Oxford: Blackwell