What Is Pompeii's Economy

Ancient History – Cities Of Vesuvius
James Polley
Ancient History – Cities Of Vesuvius
James Polley

Ancient History – Cities of Vesuvius
Question 1
Economy
Ancient economies are seen in two different perspectives; a modern economy, with money making strategies and exploits, and the local economy idea where local needs where satisfied with limited resource exploitation and technological development. Whatever type of economy the cities of Vesuvius were though, it is clear that large amounts of wealth was being obtained through various means.
Archaeologists have pinpointed out many pieces of evidence found. It has been estimated that there were around 600 privately owned shops in the city, around 200 public eating and drinking houses,
as well as graffiti evidence that a major mixed market was held on a weekly basis in the Forum. A Table of Measures which is a stone table with 12 bowl-shaped depressions designed to hold liquid or dry substances in volumes corresponding to the weights and measures of the Roman standard has been discovered in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. This table would have been used during the mixed market, where a city official would have supervised the weighing and measuring of goods. Money and lending was an important part of commercial life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. In Pompeii, 150 carbonised wax tablets containing the receipts of loans, rent payments and other business transactions have been found.
The economy of Pompeii and Herculaneum is considered to be primarily agricultural.
Herculaneum operated on a much smaller scale than Pompeii, consisting of mostly a fishing village. Although this idea has been set with very limited area of Herculaneum being excavated due to the difficulty of excavating. Pompeii’s economy is primarily due to the wealthy families’ abundance and control of land. Seneca states about the abundance of sheep, leading Walter Moeller to publish a very influential text on the study of the wool and textile trade in Pompeii and how it played a significant role on Pompeii’s economy. This idea has thus been challenged by Dutch scholar Willem Jongman claiming anachronism by Moeller due to his extensive knowledge of late medieval textile cities in northern Europe. Instead Jongman suggests that the grain crops were much more important, which supports Strabo’s geographical description of the area as being able to wield four crops a year. Therefore agriculture played a large part on the economic prosperity of the cities of Vesuvius, whether it being textiles and wool or grain
farming.
Besides agricultural items, there were many other large economical industries aswell. An export which Pompeii was extremely famous for was garum with one of the most influential families involved in it, the Umbricii. Robert Curtis noted that twenty-eight percent of fish sauce containers from Campanian sites come from his shop. There were quite an abundance of fullers found throughout the site of Pompeii. A fuller was used to cleanse clothes with an alkaline solution, ammonia from stale urine, being stomped on in large basins. Pompeii had twenty-eight bakeries with many of them excavated. This abundance was due to grains being the primary food of consumption.
Religion
Our collection of sources form the cities of Vesuvius are very useful but are very scarce. Firstly this is due to much of the site being unexcavated (especially Herculaneum), the panicked state in which the city was left, the destruction from the eruption itself and various looting that had taken place. Therefore our knowledge of religion in the area is both by estimation of religions followed and through the use of the scarce evidence, revealing how people in Pompeii and Herculaneum worshipped both publicly in religious buildings and privately in their homes.
Many temples have been excavated in Pompeii, representing many different religions, but in Herculaneum due to the difficulty of excavating few have been found. Due to the geographical location and being port cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum came into contact with many other cultures than just Romans. Many foreign religions and cults came to Pompeii and Herculaneum from Egypt and through various places around the Mediterranean. The religious buildings that have been excavated have not been all of one religion but of a variety. For instance one of the larger Temples in Pompeii was for an Egyptian god, Isis. On the Temple of Isis there is an inscription commending the rebuilding of the temple to a child of six years old who therefore was given the right to enter the city council for free. Thus the temple of Isis must have been a significant and well worshiped religion as a reward would not have been handed out so easily as well as there being a fairly large Egyptian populace. Another large religious building that was unearthed was the temple of Apollo. This gives us evidence of a large Greek population in the city as well. Although there were all these foreign gods’ temples, the predominant temple was that of Jupiter, a Roman god, which was situated in the forum. Therefore the various physical evidence collected by the temple structures supplies us with information on the various importance and size of the religious followings and it is apparent that foreign cult worship was widely accepted within Pompeii and Herculaneum and therefore people had the choice to practice their own set of beliefs.
The most supportive piece of evidence relating to household golds and worship are the Larariums. Over three hundred have been found in Pompeii and many in Herculaneum as well. They are primarily situated in the atrium of a home yet some have also been found in shops aswell. Larariums usually depicted varius guardian spirits who were associated with crossing or entry. This is further supported by the Lararium in the food shop. Further evidence of house gods’ worship is the discovery of small god like figurines in bed spaces which the owners slept with, which shows the guardian aspect of the house gods, used to protect them when the owners slept.
Tombs and the proper burial of the dead was very important to the Romans. This is due to the belief that if a person did not receive a proper burial the spirit of the deceased would return to haunt the living. There is many pieces of evidence on the burial practices of the Romans and people of Vesuvius, including the tomb of Mamia, which was a large public tomb where the body had been cremated and the ashes were placed inside. This tells us of the lack of scared for the dead by having tombs so frequently seen and the possibility of grand honours bestowed upon people who died in the form of a public tomb.
Social Structure
Men
Men include the populace, local elite and the senatorial elite. Members of the Roman senatorial class who visited the area were the senatorial elite such as former Consul Cicero and Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balcus. The local elite were the families who were wealthy land owners and traders who dominated the local government. The populace consisted of freeborn males who held the right to vote. Freedmen were people who were freed by their masters and were eligible to pass down citizenship rights to their children whilst still not being a citizen. Joanne Berry believes there was also evidence of hierarchical separation within the men, saying that spatial separation is evident from Pompeii’s theatre seating plan with the elite in the front and less important further back, “behind them sat the free citizens; then came the freedmen, slaves and women.”
Women
The amount of useable evidence on women in the cities of Vesuvius is limited. Evidence on women is usually taken from places where women would have predominantly used such as houses, temples, paintings. The limitations of art pieces are that they are largely interpretive and stained by the authors own context or gender. We also have evidence of various statues and memorial graves relative to women who achieved great things.
Women in Ancient Roman times were declared as citizens yet they could not engage in certain male activities such as, voting and holding office. This limits our knowledge of them due to the lesser importance to major events. Although women had no power within politics, it is not to say that women had no power at all. Women were eligible to buy and sell property, manage the families’ funds and acted politically with 14.5% of electoral graffiti being done by women. Well known women range from the elite such as Eumachia, who inherited her father’s successful textile industry and provided at her own expense a building on the forum, and in Herculaneum, statues of the wife and daughter of Nonius Blabus reside in the Basillica.
Evidence portrays the everyday life of men in Campania as being fairly relaxed and without stress of various traditions. In the case of women, the lack of evidence has caused historians to assume that women were able to gain an education if they supplied the sufficient money. Women could be involved in jobs, but it usually coincided with what the husband’s job was, and was more like a partnership to help their husband than having their own profession. It is also well too note that women could engage in buying and selling of goods yet they could not become lenders of money.
Slaves
There is very limited evidence of slaves due to their insignificant role on the society and importance to free people, although historians’ knowledge of how slaves were treated throughout ancient times gives them a fairly sound understanding. We see evidence of the insignificance of slaves in art, where slaves are depicted as half the size of other freedmen. Although Professor Antonio De Simone believes that by implying this generalisation towards the slaves, we are taking away from the true social understanding. It is worth noting that this is also supported by the artworks where people are depicted trusting slaves to help them and even walk them home whilst drunk. Slaves engaged in a wide variety of duties that included the household items such as nannies and cooking but could also play a role as a personal assistant as evident by Scaurus’ garum being run by three of his former slaves. Slaves who were set free could also then own slaves. When a slave is too be set free from its master it is given a brief ceremony, manumission..
Question 2
In the case of Pompeii and Herculaneum new technologies are constantly being utilised and created to help understand or preserve items. Advances in papyrus reading technology, studying of human remains, x-ray analysis techniques and volcanology research have all contributed to understanding the larger picture of the cities of Vesuvius.
Over the last twenty years, advances in photography and now digital imagery have greatly improved the study of papyri. “The first digital scanner that the University Library owned was purchased to begin experimenting with the digital capture of papyri,” explains Gagos. He explains how due to the volcanic activity the papyri has been “carbonised”, preserving it but leaving it black and extremely difficult to read due to the mere fragility, even whilst being protected by casing. Professor Richard Janko agrees with this saying how, “Over the last 20 years, new technologies have been brought into use to help scholars who examine pieces of papyri. The development of multi-spectral imaging and even Photoshop technology have made it possible to read many of these documents.” In 2000-2001 a team at Brigham Young University used digital multi-spectral imaging with a set of narrow band filters to determine which spectrum the ink reflects most from the background. The resulting photos were extremely sharp and revealed new letters which were currently not visible. Further technology has been taken aboard with the use of particle accelerators. Therefore new technological advances in the study of Papyri have helped historians uncover more information, not only about the cities of Vesuvius, but the Roman period.
New technologies have given rise to new information based on the abundance of human remains found at the sites. With the discovery of Pompeii, came the discovery of many skeletal pieces which were just stored away until the latter part of the 20th century when research on them began. Through the use of documenting and computer storage researchers can compare past examples with the newly found specimens to determine various features. Sara Bisel, an American physical anthropologist and archaeologist who specialised in the analysis of ancient bones, was invited to work in Herculaneum in 1982, to preserve newly found skeletons. The research by Bisel on dozens of skeletons has provided information about their height, whether they were well nourished, types of diseases and whether the person did manual work for a living. The state of a woman’s pelvis enabled her to determine age and the number of babies she had. An examination of teeth could indicate whether the person had various diseases and oral hygiene. The research by Bisel has guided artists in fleshing out physical features and portraying how the different people may have looked in the time.
Estelle Lazer also used statistical investigating on various bones remaining from the sites along with x-ray technology, ultimately establishing various percentages on the makeup of the population and the health of the people. She researched over three hundred skeletons of disarticulated bones that were stored in the Sarno Baths. Although she was not able to completely reassembly the body parts to perfection, she has been able to create detailed notes on parts such as the teeth, bones and joints and as a result we are able to ascertain that a large number of residents of Pompeii lacked any sort of dental hygiene. Lazer continued her research, leading the first ever x-ray analysis of one of the human remains casts. This ‘Lady of Oplontis’ had a healed fracture in her left radius consistent with a broken arm from a fall. The injury had healed irregularly and demonstrated arthritic change. These breakthroughs has led researchers to understand various medical practices of the time.
Volcanology has improved tremendously over the past fifty years, shedding new light on the stratigraphy and pumice evidence of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The American vulcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson studied the volcanic deposits at Pompeii and Herculaneum with the focus of his research on the timing and nature of the eruption in 79AD. The study of the skeletal remains and the way they lay in the strata provided key material for his investigation. The account by Pliny the Elder gave geologic information as to what was happening first at Pompeii and later at Herculaneum. They correlate with data made possible by new vulcanological concepts developed in the 1970s and thoroughly researched and tested since the eruption of Mount St. Helens in the USA in 1980. Each phase of the eruption deposits a stratum with a characteristic range of grain sizes. So using his data saved from other eruptions Sigurdsson was able to pinpoint the surges based on the grains left behind. Therefore technological advances in volcanology are able to give historians data to pinpoint various events and timings relative to the eruption.
Advances in technology are making the understanding of the cities of Vesuvius in more depth. With the future advances in the papyrus reading technology, the research on human remains, x-ray science and volcanology the cities of Vesuvius still have a lot of information to share.
Question 3
Excavations have developed a lot over time; from the idea of just digging down to find various artefacts to the present idea of conservation and protection of the entire site. The first excavators of the region would have been looters who were looking for artefacts who destroyed sites with their large tunnels and pathways. Some of these pieces have made their way to the museum yet many are still missing. Now with modern understandings of archaeology and technology, archaeology has changed for the better with a larger regard for preservation. Three archaeologists who made a large impact to the understanding of the cities of Vesuvius and its development are Giuseppe Fiorelli, Amedeo Maiuri and Vittorio Spinazzola.
Giuseppe Fiorelli worked on the sites from 1860 – 1875 as inspector of investigations from age thirty-seven. He was further given the job of director of Naples museum. He has been credited by one of the first people to have the influence of a scientific approach to archaeology. Fiorelli set up a systematic way to map the city and in time uncover it, the most professional and protective way possible. He did this by inventing the Fiorellian system which gave each building a number, for instance the Temple of Isis is VIII.7.28, when before they would have been known by their fancy names due to the items found in them. Along with the numbering of all buildings he also gave many of the streets names which are still in use, although not the originals given by the Romans. He took up the systematic task to excavate the site better than his predecessors by connecting up existing excavations through following the streets. He took extreme care when excavating the ruins going from top to bottom, whilst continuously making sure the walls will not collapse, destroying sites. What Fiorelli is most remembered for though is his technique of making casts of the bodies of the people killed in the eruption with plaster. These casts that have been made represent the attitude and thoughts of the people whilst they died in the eruption, making them very useful for archaeologists. These we later used for study through x-ray analysis. Overall Fiorelli made paramount contributions to the documentation on the cities of Vesuvius and the study of the people who lived in the cities.
Amedeo Maiuri was appointed the director of excavations at Pompeii, serving this position from 1924 – 1964 with his service on site for thirty-seven years. Maiuri conducted new excavations that improved our knowledge of both the current city state and the pre-existing ruins of an earlier pre-Roman city. From 1924 to 1941 he fully excavated the Via dell’Abbondanza. He also excavated the amphitheatre and sports field as well as the Villa of the Mysteries just outside Herculaneum. Its Frescoes are now some of the most famous works on the area. Maiuri’s also discovered the city walls and a large necropolis along the southern wall. Later, the land alongside the Via dell’Abbondanza was excavated to 1080 metres from the forum. The excavations that were conducted during the periods 1951 – 1961 have been criticised to have been done too quickly for tourism reasons, which has caused much of the structures to suffer from great decay. Maiuri also was the first to begin stratigraphic studies to develop an accurate timeline and sequence of the eruption. He created a cross section near the palaestra and amphitheatre due to the ground being undisturbed, making it possible to get the changes in land from the eruption. Therefore Amedeo Maiuri contributed greatly to the overall excavations of many of the great features of Pompeii and Herculaneum, although some of his methods late in his career have come into question.
Vittorio Spinazzola was director of the excavation from 1910 to 1924, who brought changes to the methods used in the cities in Vesuvius. Fiorelli’s proposed excavations of the blocks would be cancelled and the reconstruction and preservation of the streetscapes and buildings would be the new target. Alongside the preservation work, Spinazzola excavated a single street, restoring sites as he excavated. This resulted with the protection of various art pieces, wall advertisements and shops. Spinazzola found some his greatest discoveries using his street method finding many wealthy houses such as the House of the Cryptoporticus, the House of the Moralist and most famously, the Via dell’Abbondanza. Significantly, Spinazzola continued to add preservation to the sites he had unearthed by reconstructing various upper floor structures of the Via dell’Abbondanza. This is significant in the understanding of the sites as is showed how there had been balconies and loggias to give air to two story houses. It also adds to the information we have on the lifestyle of the people who lived in the cities of Vesuvius. The contributions made by Spinazzola and his systematic action of excavating and preservation revealed many new artefacts and information on the lifestyle of the people of the time.
Overall the contributions made by various archaeologists have all shed light onto new aspects of the cities of Vesuvius. Fiorelli made great contributions to the plan and structure of the city and also the study of the people that died in the disaster. Maiuri made many contributions to the overall excavation of the city and the stratigraphic evidence even though some of his methods have been frowned upon. Spinazzola’s use of systematic excavation proved very useful, finding many great pieces and shedding light onto the lifestyle of people living in the Roman times.

Bibliography 1. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005) 2. Mary Beard, Pompeii. The Life of a Roman Town (London, 2008), chapter 5 3. Felix Pirson, “Shops and Industries” in John J Dobbins and Pedar W Foss (Edd), The World of Pompeii (London, 2007), chapter 29 4. Dr Joanne Berry, ‘Work and Play in Everyday Pompeii Gallery’ in BBC History, 17 February 2011 5. Source 7: Inscription at the Temple of Isis, Pompeii 6. Source 16: A statue of Apollo from the Temple of Apollo at Pompeii 7. Alastair M Small, “Urban, suburban and rural religion in the Roman period” in John J Dobbins and Pedar W Foss (Edd), The World of Pompeii (London, 2007), p191. 8. Source 14: The thermopolium (hot food shop) of Vetutius Placidus, Pompeii 9. Source 12: “Seat tomb”. 10. Berry, Joanne. P 137 11. Frances Bernstein, “Pompeian women” in John J Dobbins and Pedar W Foss (Edd), The World of Pompeii (London, 2007), chapter 34. 12. "Roman Education". HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 2006. Web 13. Cameron, Kate, and Jennifer Lawless. Secrets of Vesuvius: unlocking the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum 14. Source 2: Pompeian painting depicting a banqueting scene 15. Forrest, Stephen, University of Michigan, Search and Discovery 16. Seales, W. B. Griffioen, J., Kiernan, K, Yuan, C. J., Cantara, L. “The digital atheneum: New technologies for restoring and preserving old documents.” 17. http://dianasancienthistory.wikispaces.com/file/view/Sara+Bisel+and+Estelle+Lazer+info.pdf 18. Alison E Cooley, Pompeii (London, 2003), Chapter 5: “The Politics of Archaeology” 19. Granger, Russel Pompeii: Excavations and Archaeologists, September 2005 20. Russel Granger, “Pompeii: Excavations and Archaeologists. Part 2” in Teaching History XXXVIII (2004)

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[ 1 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
[ 2 ]. Mary Beard, Pompeii. The Life of a Roman Town (London, 2008), chapter 5
[ 3 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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[ 6 ]. Fermented fish sauce
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[ 8 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
[ 9 ]. IBID
[ 10 ]. Dr Joanne Berry, ‘Work and Play in Everyday Pompeii Gallery’ in BBC History, 17 February 2011
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[ 12 ]. Source 16: A statue of Apollo from the Temple of Apollo at Pompeii
[ 13 ]. Alastair M Small, “Urban, suburban and rural religion in the Roman period” in John J
Dobbins and Pedar W Foss (Edd), The World of Pompeii (London, 2007), p191.
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[ 15 ]. Source 14: The thermopolium (hot food shop) of Vetutius Placidus, Pompeii.
[ 16 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
[ 17 ]. Source 14: The thermopolium (hot food shop) of Vetutius Placidus, Pompeii.
[ 18 ]. Alastair M Small, “Urban, suburban and rural religion in the Roman period” in John J
Dobbins and Pedar W Foss (Edd), The World of Pompeii (London, 2007), p191-192
[ 19 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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[ 40 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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[ 54 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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[ 58 ]. Alison E Cooley, Pompeii (London, 2003), Chapter 5: “The Politics of Archaeology”
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[ 62 ]. Alison E Cooley, Pompeii (London, 2003), Chapter 5: “The Politics of Archaeology”
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[ 71 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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[ 73 ]. Brian Brennen and Estelle Lazer, Pompeii and Herculaneum Interpreting the Evidence (Sydney, 2005)
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