A Critical Review of Kelly’s Personality Theory in Personality Development

1. Introduction
Personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that gives both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior (Feist & Feist, 2008).
For centuries, philosophers, personality theorists and other thinkers have been trying to answer: what personalities are like, how personalities are developed, why different personalities are developed and how personalities can be changed (Pervin & Cervone, 2013). George A. Kelly, an American psychologist born in 1905 in Kansa, is one of those major contributors in the field of personality psychology (Warren, 1998). In this paper, I am writing to critically review George A. Kelly's perspective on personality. I will first review Kelly's philosophy of personality. Then, I will review major concepts of Kelly's theory. Finally, I will critically evaluate Kelly's theory and share personal reflection on writing this paper.
2. Kelly’s Philosophy of Personality
Kelly's philosophy is positioned between two classical schools of thought. Behaviorist suggests that behavior is shaped by environment, in other words reality (Skinner, 1953). Phenomenologist holds that the only reality is what people perceive (Combs & Snygg, 1959). Kelly assumes that reality do exists while people may construe it in different ways (Kelly, 1955). He refers this assumption to be "Constructive Alternativism" (Kelly, 1963).
3. Kelly’s Theory of Personality
Kelly believes that people construe and predict daily life events in different ways, and the ways of construction and prediction define personalities (Stevens & Walker, 2002). Most of Kelly's ideas are presented in his two-volume book titled The Psychology of Personal Constructs (1995). To review his theory systematically, I am going to categorize the concepts into five major questions that personality theorists asked (Pervin & Cervone, 2013). They are namely a.) "Structure" which concerns what personalities are like; b.) "Process" which concerns why people behave that way; c.) "Development" which concerns how personalities are developed over life course; d.) "Psychopathology" which concerns why some personalities are maladaptive and e.) "Change" which concern how personalities, especially abnormal personalities, can be changed.
3.1. Structure: What Personalities Are Like?
In describing what personalities are like, Kelly abandons the classical threefold division of psychological phenomena: cognition, affection and conation (Kelly, 1955, p.130). Instead, he formulates his own personality theory with a single structure named "Construct". In this section, let's review the concept of construct and some of its features.
3.1.1. Core Structure: Construct
Construct is defined as "a representation of the universe, a representation erected by a living creature and then tested against the reality of that universe" (Kelly, 1955, p.12). According to Kelly, people make sense of the world by formulating their own models. They interpret things happened around them and organize those interpretations to construe their own models of reality. These models are called "constructs" by Kelly.
3.1.2. Dichotomy of Construct
"All constructs follow the bipolar or dichotomous form" (Kelly, 1955, p.59). Kelly believes that people formulate constructs by distinguishing similarities and contrasts. For example, we find that some people are fat while some are thin; some objects are big while some are small; some events are exciting while some are boring. Theoretically, at least three elements are necessary to form a construct. Two elements are alike to form the similarity pole; and one element is unlike the other two to form the contrast pole.
3.1.3. Individuality of Construct
"Persons differ from each other in their construction of events" (Kelly, 1955, p.55). Kelly assumes that different people interpret the same world differently. People formulate their own construct to understand and explain daily life. For example, one person may distinguish "man" from "woman" which is related to gender difference; another person may distinguish "man" from "boy" which is related to maturity difference.
3.1.4. Organization of Construct
"Each person characteristically evolves ... a construction system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs" (Kelly, 1955, p.56). According to Kelly, people order constructs hierarchically to form personal construct systems. Some constructs are superordinate that subsume others. Some constructs are subordinate that are applied to more narrow and specific situations.
3.1.5. Choice of Construct
"A person chooses for himself ... a construct ..." (Kelly, 1955, p.64). Kelly believes that human being is autonomous. People are active in construing their world without "any special system of dynamics to keep it running" (Kelly, 1969, p. 89). By saying autonomous, it does not mean that people are conscious in using constructs. A construct may not be verbalized especially during childhood when language skills are not fully developed. Kelly refers these constructs to "preverbal" and "submerged" construct (Kelly, 1955, p. 459).
3.1.6. Range of Convenience of Construct
"A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only" (Kelly, 1955, p.68). Kelly suggests that each construct is applicable to a limited number of situations. No single construct can be applied to all events. Constructs may vary in their width of applicability. Some may be applied a wider number of situations while some are restricted to certain situations.
3.1.7. Experience of Construct
"A person's construction system varies as he successively construes the replications of events" (Kelly, 1955, p.72). According to Kelly, people validate and revise their constructs when they encounter new experience. When unexpected event happens that could not fit in current construct system, new construct may be added or old construct may be modified.
3.1.8. Modulation of Construct
"The variation in a person's construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs..." (Kelly, 1955, p.77). Kelly assumes that constructs have different room for changes. Some constructs are core to a person which cannot be changed easily. At the same time, other constructs are peripheral that is more permeable to modification.
3.1.9. Other Features of Construct
In addition to above, there are more features related to construct. Examples include fragmentation of construct (Kelly, 1955, p.83), sociality of construct (Kelly, 1955, p.95), and commonality of construct (Kelly, 1970, p.48). They are not described in details since they will not be referred to in following parts.
3.2. Process: why people behave as they do?
In explaining people's behavior, Kelly rejected traditional ideas like dynamics, drives, motivation, or force (Kelly, 1969, p.218). He postulates that "a person's processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events" (Kelly, 1955, p.46). In other words, Kelly suggests that people's behavior is guided by the way they see the future (Stevens & Walker, 2002). Let's take shopping behavior as an example. My sister uses a beautiful-ugly construct in buying clothes. In her experience, a beautiful dress makes her feel pleasant and attracts boys, while an ugly one just do the opposite. If she anticipates a new dress to be beautiful enough to catch other's eyeball, she will purchase it. That is how anticipation shaped a person's behavior.
3.3. Development: how personalities are developed over life course?
In explaining personality development, Kelly was never explicit about how growth and cultural factors influence personality (Feist & Feist, 2008). It is one of the limitations that Kelly's theory retains. Later researches try to extend the concept of "Experience of Construct" (see part 3.1.7.) over lifespan development. In other words, children continuously revise their construct system according to new experiences encountered during growth. In fact, age has been found to associate with the complexity of construct system (Loevinger, 1993).
3.4. Psychopathology: why some personalities are maladaptive?
Kelly defined psychopathology as "any personal construction which is used repeatedly in spite of consistent invalidation" (Kelly, 1955, p.831). He suggests that people feel anxious when they are confronted with experience beyond their construct system's "Range of Convenience" (see part 3.1.6). People also feel fear when new construct is added to their system. To avoid anxiety and fear, people may refuse to revise their construct system. In extreme case, persisting reluctance to change may lead to pathology.
3.5. Change: how personalities can be changed?
Based on Kelly's theory, personalities can be changed by altering people's construct systems. To achieve this goal, Kelly has developed a technique called "Fixed-role Therapy" (Kelly, 1955). In therapy, clients are invited to act out new roles in contrast of their personalities. The aim is to reconstruct their personalities thoroughly. In fact, researches have found this technique to be effective in a wide range of setting (Beail and Parker, 1991; Viney, Metcalfe & Winter, 2005).
4. Critical Evaluation of Kelly’s Personality Theory
To evaluate Kelly's theory systemically, I am going to categorize in accordance to five criteria of successful theory (Pervin & Cervone, 2013): Scientificity of Observation, Systematicness, Testability, Comprehensiveness, and Applicability.
4.1. Scientificity of Observation
A successful theory should be based on scientific observation. The scientificity of observation can be further divided into three criteria. Kelly's theory satisfies only two of them. Let's have a look one by one.
4.1.1. Tools for Observation
A successful theory should include a specialized tool for measurement. To access personal construct system, Kelly develops a tool named Role Construct Repertory test (Kelly, 1955). The test requires participants to compare three people. Words use to distinguish two similar people from the third people are recorded. This process is carried on for a number of times. At the end, therapists shall be able to sketch one's construct system. This technique has been found valid and reliable in numerous researches (Beail, 1985; Fransella and Bannister, 1997). Kelly's theory satisfies this criterion well.
4.1.2. Objectivity of Observation
A scientific observation should be free from bias. With the help of Role Construct Repertory test, Kelly's database can be obtained in an objective and reliable manner. Kelly's theory satisfies this criterion.
4.1.3. Size and Diversity of Observation
To account for social and cultural difference, psychologists should include samples of large size and diverse background in their researches. Although Kelly has an acceptable size of database, most of his research is based on college students who are relatively intelligent (Feist & Feist, 2008). This has limited the diversity of his database. Therefore, Kelly's theory only meets this criterion fairly.
4.2. Systematicness
A successful theory should be systematic. Kelly has organized his whole theory and applications into one book (Kelly, 1955). The concepts are logically presented as one fundamental postulation and eleven support corollaries. Key structures of theory are also carefully defined. Kelly's theory satisfies this criterion well.
4.3. Testability
A successful theory should be able to test by empirical evidence. Psychology theories are particularly difficult to be tested and Kelly's theory is no difference. The Role Construct Repertory test and Fixed-role Therapy have opened room for objective assessment and scientific evaluation. However, the fundamental postulation that personality is shaped by anticipation remains unable to be tested. Therefore, Kelly's theory does not meet this criterion.
4.4. Comprehensiveness
A successful theory should cover a wide range of important aspects in personality. Kelly's theory has been criticized to pay little attention to growth and development (we have discussed in part 3.3.). Kelly's theory has also been criticized to be "too cognitive" and overlook emotional aspect. Criticism comes from numerous theorists including Carl Rogers, an influential American humanistic psychologist (Rogers, 1956). On the other hand, it is argued that Kelly is only using different terms to deal with emotions (McCoy 1977). All in all, Kelly's theory only meets this criterion fairly.
4.5. Applicability
A successful theory should be able to put in practice. In fact, Kelly has devoted the entire second volume of his The Psychology of Personal Constructs (Kelly, 1955) on clinical application. He has developed a handful of techniques like Circumspection Preemption Control Cycle, Role Construct Repertory test and Fixed-role Therapy. Researches have found significant effectiveness in Role Construct Repertory test (Beail, 1985; Fransella and Bannister, 1997) and Fixed-role Therapy (Beail and Parker, 1991; Viney, Metcalfe & Winter, 2005). Kelly's theory satisfies this criterion.
5. Personal Reflection on Writing the Paper
For the sake of ease, I could have chosen some topics that I am familiar with for this paper. Now, I feel fortunate that I changed my mind. In exploring Kelly's theory, I am deeply fascinated and inspired. Here are three of my personal reflection.
5.1. Appreciation of Kelly's Talent and Critical Thinking
Kelly was born in the era of Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism (Wertheimer, 2011). Nevertheless, he discarded mainstream philosophy and brought up fresh ideas. He abandoned classical threefold of psychological phenomena and rejected the idea of dynamics. Instead, he came up with a new theory that lies between Existentialism and Phenomenology. Although Kelly's theory may not be the most influential one, his contribution to cognitive revolution is undoubted (Gaines & Shaw, 2003). I appreciate Kelly's exceptional intelligence and critical mindset which induce unconventional inspiration.
5.2. Resonance with Kelly's Theory
Kelly's theory resonate with me very much. As a social worker, I have worked with depressed and unmotivated clients. I feel that Kelly's postulation is right that interpretation and prediction guide one's behavior. For example, one of my depressed clients regards her husband's every actions to be hints of cheating on her. Even if the husband takes leave from work and patiently accompany her, she interpret him to be deceiving her trust. When I try to re-frame her believes, great anxiety and resistance is shown. In my opinion, it is unrealistic to expect a theory, including Kelly's one, to provide me with instant solutions for these cases. However, Kelly's theory has helped me a lot in organizing and presenting my assessment about these clients.
5.3. Suggestions for Improvement
Kelly's theory is commonly criticized by its limited attention to growth and development. In my opinion, Kelly's theory can complement other theories to be more comprehensive. For example, the formulation of construct may be influenced by significant childhood experience. By blending in elements of Frued's psychoanalysis or Erickson's psychosocial development, the causes of maladaptive development of construct system may be better explained.
6. Conclusion
According to Kelly, personality is shaped by our anticipation. We observe and interpret the world to formulate constructs. We then use constructs to predict events which in turns guide our actions. Kelly's theory is systemic and applicable, but it is only moderately scientific in observation, testable and comprehensive. Reference
Beail, N. (1985). Repertory Grid Technique and Personal Constructs. London: Croom Helm
Beail, N. and Parker, C. (1991). Group fixed role therapy: a clinical application. International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology, 4, 85-96.
Combs, A. W., & Snygg, D. (1959). Individual behavior: A perceptual approach to behavior. New York: Harper & Row.
Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2008). Theories of Personality Seventh Edition. Columbus, OH: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Fransella, F. & Bannister D. (1977). A Manual for Repertory Grid Technique. London: Academic Press.
Gaines, B.R. & Shaw, M.L.G. (2003) Personal Construct Psychology and the Cognitive Revolution. Cobble Hill: University of Calgary Knowledge Science Institute.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton.
Kelly, G. A. (1963). A theory of personality: The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
Kelly, G .A. (1969). The Psychotherapeutic Relationship. In B. Maher (Ed.), Clinical Psychology and Personality: The Selected Papers of George Kelly. New York. Wiley.
Kelly, G.A. (1970). A brief introduction to personal construct theory. In D. Bannister (Ed.), Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory (pp. 1-29). London: Academic Press.
Loevinger, J. (1993). Measurement in personality: True or false. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 1-16.
McCoy, M.M. (1977). A Reconstructioni of Emotion. In D. Bannister (Eds.), Issues and Approaches in Personal Construct Theory. London: Academic Press.
Pervin, L. A. & Cervone, D. (2013). Personality Theory and Research Twelveth Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rogers, C. R. (1956). Intellectualized Psychotherapy: Review of George Kelly’s "The Psychology of Personal Constructs". The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Contemporary Psychology, 1, 357-358.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Stevens, C. D., & Walker, B. M. (2002). Insight: Transcending the obvious. In R. A. Neimeyer & G. J. Neimeyer (Eds.), Advances in personal construct psychology: New directions and perspectives (pp. 39–79). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Viney, L.L., Metcalfe, C., & Winter, D.A. (2005). The effectiveness of personal construct psychotherapy: a meta-analysis. In D.A. Winter & L.L. Viney (Eds.), Personal construct psychotherapy: Advances in theory, practice and research, (pp. 347-64). London: Whurr.
Warren, B. (1998). Philosophical Dimensions of Personal Construct Psychology. London: Routledge.
Wertheimer, M. (1999). A Brief History of Psychology: Fifth Edition. New York: Psychology Press.