A Person You Admire or Respect

Linguist : A person who studies linguistics
How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar ?

1. Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive that means ( linguists are interested in what is said not what they think ought to be said ) 2. they describe all aspects of language but don’t prescribe rules of correctness . 3. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary not the written . 4. Linguistics doesn’t force languages into a Latin-based framework , and they are trying to set up a universal framework and there is no reason to be alike the grammar of Latin or the grammar of any other languages .
Phonetic : the study of human speech sounds .
The scope of linguistics
Phonetics : studies the production and perception of speech sounds.
Phonology : studies the sound system of a particular language.
Syntax : words order. Studies how words combine by form grammatical sentences.
Semantics : the study of meaning in language.
Pragmatics : is the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context.

Linguistic context : is discourse that precedes a sentence to be interpreted and situational context is knowledge about the word.
Contextual linguistics : is that realm where linguistics interacts with other disciplines.
Such as:
Psycholinguistics : the study of language and mind.
Sociolinguistics : the study of language and society.
Applied linguistics : the application of linguistics to language teaching.
Computational linguistics : the use of computer to simulate language and its working.
Philosophical linguistics : the link between language and logical thought.
Historical linguistics: the study of language change

Compare between synchronic and diachronic studies of language?

Synchronic : studies a language at one point in time but with different places .
Diachronic : studies a language structural changes over period of time in One place but different times .

QUESTION
Define linguistics and linguist . and why there is a tendency to change this term into linguistician?
Linguistics : is the scientific study of human language , including subjects such as phonology , morphology , syntax , semantics, sociolinguistics , and psycholinguistics.
Linguist : is the person who study linguistics .

there is a tendency to change this term into (linguisticion) to differentiate it from the other meaning of ) linguist ( which refers to the person who speaks number of languages .

Q / Why linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive ?
Linguistics is purely descriptive :
The linguistics seek to clarify trying to chart future language directions.They are interested in what is said not what they thing ought to be said . they study the ways human use systems to communicate through language
Descriptive grammarians describe and analyze what speakers of language say .
Traditional grammar is prescriptive.
They prescribe what people should say rather than describe what they do say. They put asset of rules governing the use of language they tell speakers what they should say .Speech versus writing

Q / Why do traditional grammar regard the written from as primary?
The written form is more permanent than the spoken one .It is difficult to cope with fleeting utterances before the invention of sound record.Of course, linguistics agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable
Q / Why doesn't linguistics force language into a Latin base framework, while traditional grammarians do ?
Traditional grammarians assume that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit While linguists are opposed to the nation that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all the others. They are trying to set a universal framework The scope of linguistics.

Part three:

Nineteenth century ( historical linguistics ) :

before the 19th century all western world was interest to philosophers like the Greek philosophers Plato And Aristotle , and Plato was the first who tried to distinguish between nouns and verbs . ( Sir William Jones )
1786 the year which many people regard as the birthdate of linguistics , Sir. William pointing out that :

* Sanskrit , Greek , Latin , Celtic and Germanic all had structural similarities and these languages must spring from one common source
Sir. William Jones discovery fired the imagination of scholar for next hundred years , and

( young grammarians ) : in the mid – 19 century Darwin published his famous Origin of species and putting forward the theory of evolution and that attempt to chart evolution of language alongside theory of evolution of species , this emphasize of language change let to show group of scholar nicknamed ( Young Grammarians ) they are claimed that language change is regular and any word of given dialect , one sound changes into another , the change will effect in all other occurrences .
For example in the old English the word "chin" was pronounced "kin" , this change from "k" to "ch" affected all other sounds which occurred in the beginning of word ( " e " or " r " ) .
For Example : chicken , child
The influence of 19th century was strong until now days .

Early to mid – 20th century ( Descriptive linguistics )

in the 20th century is the shifted from language change to language description single language at one particular point in time , linguistics began to focus on describing single language at one particular point if time .

( Ferdinand de Saussure ) he is the father of modern linguistics , he dead without having any written on general linguistics but his student collected his lecture notes together and publishes under the title ( course in general linguistics ) . 1. All language item are essentially inter linked . 2. Suggest that language was like a game of chess that means each item is defined by its relationship to all the others . 3. His insist that language is a carefully built od interwoven elements initiated the era of structural linguistics .

Structural linguistics : it means the recognition that all language is patterned system composed of interdependent elements
Misunderstandings of the term " Structural linguistics " arias because the label " Structuralist " because is often attached to the descriptive linguists who worked in usa between 1930-1960

Leonard Bloomfield : was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States , Bloomfield considered:

1. that linguistics should deal objectively and systemically with observable data . 2. he interested in the way items were arranged than in meaning 3. he concluded the weak point in language study and will remain so until human knowledge advances very far beyond its present state .
Bloomfieldian era : it’s the name of the period when the European linguists working during this period , during this time large numbers of linguists focus on descriptive grammars of unwritten languages this involved : 1. finding native speackers of language concerned and collecting sets if utterances from them . 2. analyzing the main utterances by studying the phonological and syntactic patterns of the language . discovery procedures : a set of principles which would enable a linguist to discover in foolproof way the linguist units of an unwritten language .
Chomsky
Optimality theory : is a new major theory wich suggests that there no fixed bounds on language .
Corpus linguistics : the study of computerized data bases for linguistic research .

Generative grammar : a grammar which consist of a set of rules which specify which sequences of a language is possible and which are impossible . It was Chomsky who initiated the era of generative linguistics.

Q / explain the word explicit when used in connection with grammars? a grammar is said to be perfectly explicit if it means advice which forms all the grammatical sequences of a language and none of the ungrammatical ones. Such grammar leaves nothing to the imagination. The rules of such grammar must be formed in such away that anyone would be able to separate the well-formed sentence from the ill-formed sentences even if they didn't know award of language concerned .

Morphemes : the smallest syntactic unit, it vary in size. A morpheme can not be cut up into smallest syntactic segments. There are two types of morphemes (free morpheme) which can occur by themselves as whole words. And the second one is
(bound morpheme) which must be attached with other such as ly , ed and bound morpheme are two types : inflectional , derivational.
Inflectional morpheme: these provide further information about an existing lexical item. Inflectional endings don't alter the syntactic behavior of an item and the word still fits into the same slot in the sentence. They come at the last in a word.

Derivational morphemes : which create an entirely new word. It cannot be added to inflectional. And the new word behave quit differently and fit into different slot in the sentence.

Phonologically conditioned allomorphs: the study of different phonemic shapes is known as (morph phonology)
. An allomorph is said to be phonologically conditioned when its form is dependent on the adjacent phonemes.

/-z/ , /-s/ , /-iz/ are all phonologically conditioned allomorphs of English plural morpheme. /-z/ occurs after voiced phonemes as in dogs. /-s/ occurs after voiceless phonemes as in cats. /-iz/ occurs after sibilants (hissing and hushing sounds) as in horses.
Lexically conditioned allomorphs: when its form seem to be a purely accidental one, linked to a particular vocabulary item. Words such as oxen, sheep , geese resent a problem. Although they function as plurals in the same way as cats, dogs, they are not marked as plural in the same way. Such lexical conditioned plural not follow any specific rule. Words such as oxen consider plural as cats because the fit in the same slot in a sentence.
The word geese the /i:/ replaces to the goose /u:/ this kind of morpheme called (replacive)
Word classes: words are classify into word class partly on account of their syntactic behavior, partly on the basis of their morphological form. For example ( verbs) can recognize as verbs since they occur after nouns and because they almost have inflectional ending (ed) for example:
Ali smiled
Ali hated history
Some times items which fit in the same slot in the sentence not refers to behave in the same way for example
Ali ate caviar
Ali ate well

They are different because Caviar (n.) well (adjective.)
It isn't easy to tell how many word classes a language contains.
According to the Latin grammars English has 8 parts of speech for example :
Nouns and pronouns are traditionally classified as separate parts of speech but they have a large similarities
Ali laughed, He laughed .
Words such as quickly and very classified adverbs but they behave differently
He ran quickly
He ran very..
Some word classes such as nouns and verbs are universal but others vary some language treat adjective as a type of verb, so-called (stative) verbs
In Chinese : Petronella happies.
In English : Petronella is happy
Part eight word meaning
1 - we shall concerned primarily with Content words such as . Zoo , apple rather than with Function words such as , That , which ...
2 - we shall be dealing only with straightforward descriptive meaning , and ignoring what is sometimes called Emotive meaning or Connotation eg, adolescent will take the meaning that someone between childhood and adulthood , but we ignor that some people use this word to refer that one is moody
3 - meaning is double-faced

Part nine 9

Pragmatics : is the branch of linguistics which studies those aspects of meaning which cannot be captured by semantic theory .
Paul Grice : is the father of Pragmatics , he emphasized that human begin communicate efficiently because they are by nature helpful to one another , he attempt to specify the principles which underlie this cooperative behavior and proposed four "maxims" or rules of conversation which can jointly be summarized as general principle .

Grice's Maxims 1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as much information as is needed, and no more. 2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence. 3. The maxim of relation, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion. 4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

The main problem with these Grecian maxims : * They are fairly vague . * The conclusions can be drawn are wide and numerous .

Discourse analysis : ?
Stylistics : : the study of linguistics and literature .

Part 10

the nation of a language

Sociolinguistics: the study of language and science they are try to analyze factors which led to diversity
* numerous soviet Jews regarded them selves as essentially Jewish , yet they speak Russian .
Speech community : group of people who consider that they speak the same language .

Dialect And Accent

Dialect

1. refers to far greater difference than mere pronunciation such as :
Lancashire dialect differs from standard British England in sound system .
.
2. Dialects are dying out due to the influence of education, radio and TV.

3. Is usually associated with a particular geographical area such as Geordie, Cockney dialects of English.

Accent 1. refers only to difference in pronunciation such as :
Scotsman and Londoner are likely to speak in English. 2. Number of local accents is still found in Britain.

Lingua Franca : its simplified language , which adopted as acommon mean of communication this can happened either naturally or result of language planning .
Language planning : is the educaton authority attempts to manipulate in the linguistic situation in particulare direction .

Pidgin and Creole

Pidgin : limited language system which arises to fulfill the essential communication among people with no common language .
Creole : it’s the language which arises from the intermarriage people whose only common language is the pidgin and it becomes the first language
Pidgin becomes creole : * Speech is speeded up .. * Syntax becomes more complex . * Extra vocabulary * creole becomes indistinguishable .