Life in the Ancient Greco-Roman Civilization

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Life in the ancient Greco-Roman civilisation Reference Notes
(A) Introduction to the ancient Greco-Roman civilisation
✦
✦
✦

The ancient Greco-Roman civilisation was the first civilisation to appear in Europe and was called the Cradle of Western Civilisation.
It developed from the civilisation of the Aegean region around 3000 BC.
The ancient Romans conquered Greece in 146 BC, and learned many of the ways of the ancient Greek civilisation, then developed their own civilisation in 753 BC.

(B) The ancient Greek civilisation (Elected topic)
(1) Origins of the ancient Greek civilisation
(a) The Minoan civilisation (around 3000-1450 BC)
(i) The Minoans lived on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea from about 3000 BC.
(ii) We call them Minoans after their king, Minos.
(iii) They traded with the ancient Egyptians and the people living in the
Fertile Crescent; they knew how to write, make pottery and jewellery, and build palaces. They developed their own civilisation which we call the Minoan civilisation.
(iv) The Minoan civilisation ended when the Mycenaeans, from Greece, conquered Crete in about 1450 BC.
(b) The Mycenaean civilisation (around 1450-1100 BC)
(i) Mycenae was located in southern Greece.
(ii) We call the people who lived there, the Mycenaeans, after the city they lived in.
(iii) Through trade with the Minoans, the Mycenaeans learnt the Minoans' writing and ways of life; the Mycenaeans also they knew how to use metal and make pottery. Their civilisation is called the Mycenaean civilisation. (iv) The Mycenaeans were a warlike people and had a strong army, but
Mycenaean civilisation ended when the Dorians conquered Mycenae in about the 11th century.

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Additional information: The Trojan War (1194-1184 BC)
(1) Why the war started
(a) A prince of Troy (a city in Asia Minor) called Paris met a very beautiful woman named Helen in the Greek city of Mycenae.
(b) Helen fell in love with Paris and Paris took Helen back to Troy.
(c) This made King Agamemnon of Mycenae very angry because Helen was his brother's wife.
(d) Agamemnon led an army to attack Troy and bring back Helen in 1194 BC.
(e)

This started the Trojan War.

(2) How King Agamemnon took Troy
(a)

For ten years, the Greek soldiers could not defeat the Trojans.

(b) They decided to trick the Trojans.
(c) They built a big wooden horse and some of their best soldiers hid inside this horse. (d) They left the horse outside Troy and pretended to go away.
(e) The Trojans thought they had won the war, so they pulled the wooden horse into the city.
(f)

While the Trojans were celebrating their victory, the Greek soldiers secretly climbed down from the horse and opened the city gates.

(g) The Greek soldiers waiting outside defeated the unarmed Trojans easily and took the city.
(h) Troy came under Greek rule.
(3) Is the Trojan War a historical event or a myth?
(a)

Many people think that the Trojan War was a myth, and not a historical event.

(b) Myths are stories handed down from the past.
(c)

Yet some evidence has been found to prove the truth of this event.
(i)

Firstly, a Greek poet named Homer (

) wrote two poems about 500 years

after the war.
(ii)

These two poems — the Iliad (

) and the Odyssey (

) —

described why and how the Trojan War took place between the Mycenaeans and the Trojans.
(iii) Secondly, a German archaeologist unearthed the city of Troy in Turkey in
1868.
(iv) This discovery at least proves that Troy really existed some 3200 years ago.
(v)

Thirdly, the Turkish people have built a huge wooden horse in the place where they believe the war was once fought.

(vi) If you go there, you can still see this huge wooden horse.

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(2) The rise and development of Greek city-states
(a) Rise of city-states
(i) A city-state was formed by a city and its surrounding lands, and had an independent government and army.
(ii) City-states arose because
❖ the Greek peninsula was divided by many mountains that made transport and communications difficult.
❖ the ancient Greeks were made up of different tribes. It was difficult for their different ideas and cultures to be unified as one.
(iii) The strongest and famous city-states were
❖ Athens
– The city lay on the south eastern coast of the Greek peninsula.
– It was the first state in the world to have democratic rule.
– Male citizens of Athens aged 20 or above could join the assembly. – Farming, fishing, making pottery and trading were the main ways of making a living.
– The Athenians promoted education.
– Athens was the richest of the city-states in ancient Greece; it had the strongest navy, and there were many temples and open-air theatres. ❖ Sparta
– This was an inland city-state in the southern Greek peninsula.
– It was ruled by two kings, and did not have democratic rule.
– Farming was the main way of making a living.
– Sparta promoted war and sports, so its people were all very good fighters.
– Sparta did not build temples and open-air theatres but it won many prizes in the Olympic Games.
Additional information: God of Sparta
Ares was a patron god of Sparta. He was the god of war, battles, warriors, and also of fearlessness in battle.

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(b) The Persian Wars
(i) The Greek peninsula was mountainous, so it did not have enough land or food.
(ii) The ancient Greeks began to develop colonies along the coasts of the
Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea.
(iii) In the 5th century BC, the Persians attacked ancient Greece. This later gave rise to the 10-year-long Persian Wars (490-480 BC).
(iv) Within this 10-year period, there were several famous battles.
❖ The Battle of Marathon (490 BC)
– The Persian army attacked the Athenian army at Marathon.
– Athens defeated Persia without the help of Sparta in this battle.
❖ The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC)
– In 480 BC, the Persians invaded the Greek city-states again.
– The Persians occupied Athens and burnt down its Acropolis.
❖ The Battle of Salamis (480 BC)
– The Athenian navy defeated the Persian navy at Salamis.
– In the end, the Athenian army drove away the Persians.
(3) Life in the Greek city-states
(a) Government
Ancient Greek city-states had different government systems, including
(i) monarchy: a king rules the city-state and the throne is passed from father to son.
(ii) oligopoly: the state is ruled by a small group of people that are mostly the nobility or the wealthy.
(iii) democracy: the state is ruled by the people, and all matters are decided by the people.
(b) The structure of society
(i) Most people who lived in ancient Greek city-states were freemen and enjoyed many rights (e.g. the power to vote and to own land).
(ii) Slaves were at the bottom of the social structure and were not protected by the law.
(c) Livelihood
(i) Most of the ancient Greeks were farmers. They grew wheat, grapes and olives, and kept livestock.
(ii) Some of the ancient Greeks living along the coasts fished along the
Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
(iii) The ancient Greeks were also great craftsmen, and they had the skills for making fine pottery, sculptures, patintings and jewellery.
(iv) Ancient Greeks merchants would even go to palces as far away as Egypt and the Middle East to trade their goods.

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(d) Religion
(i) The ancient Greeks worshipped many gods.
(ii) A city-state would also worship a particular god as its own special guardian. (iii) The anciet Greek city-states regularly held the Panathenaic Festival to celebrate the birth of Athena, and the Olympic Games were held every four years to honor Zeus.
(e) Sports
(i) Most city-states held sports games to honor and entertain the gods.
(ii) The most famous of these was the Olympic Games.
(iii) Only male citizens were allowed to take part in the ancient Olympic
Games. Sports events included the long jump, long distance running, boxing, wrestling and chariot racing.

Additional information: The Olympic Games
❖

The ancient Greeks held the first Olympic Games in 776 BC in Olympia in southern
Greece, to honor Zeus.

❖

Athletes from different Greek city-states would take part in the games, which were held every four years.

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It was a condition of entry that athletes should be Greek citizens and should complete naked in the games.

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The Olympic Games were stopped in 394 because the Roman government regarded the games as pagan and many athletes cheated in the games.

❖

The Olympic Games were reintroduced in Athens in 1896.

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The Olympic Games held after 1896 were called the modern Olympic Games while before that, those held between 776 BC and AD 393, were called the ancient Olympic
Games.

❖

In 2004, the Olympic Games were held in Athens once again. To commemorate this special occasion, the International Olympic Committee lit the Olympic flame in
Olympia and rewarded the victors with olive-branch crowns.

Lighting the Olympic flame in 2004

Victors were given crowns of olive branches, and medals

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Additional information: The programmes of the ancient Olympic Games
Day 1
1

Athletes and judges to take the Olympic Oath.

2

Running and boxing contests (boys).

Day 2
1

Chariot and horse races (morning).

2

Discus, javelin, jumping, running and wrestling (afternoon).

Day 3
Foot races and sacrifice of oxen to the god, Zeus.
Day 4
Boxing, wrestling and racing in armor.
Day 5
1

Winners to parade to the Temple of Zeus.

2

Crowning of winners with wreaths (

3

Feasting and celebrations.

) of olive tree branches.

(4) Decline of the Greek city-states
(a) The Peloponnesian War
(i) From 461 to 429 BC, Athens was ruled by Pericles.
(ii) Pericles turned Athens into a center of art and learning, and this period was later known as the Classical Age of Greece.
(iii) Because of the success of Athens, Sparta led an allied force and attacked
Athens in what is now known as the Peloponnesian War.
(iv) Athens was finally defeated by the Spartans, and the Classical Age of
Greece came to an end.
(b) Rule of Philip II
(i) In 359 BC, Philip II, the King of Macedonia, began an active expansionist policy. (ii) In 338 BC, Philip II conquered the Greek peninsula.
(iii) He was killed two years later and his son Alexander (later to be known as Alexander the Great) become the King of Macedonia.
(c) Rule of Alexander the Great
(i) From 334 to 323 BC, Alexander the Great further expanded the already large empire, by conquering territories including Persia, Egypt, and northern India.
(ii) Unfortunately, he died while still young, in 323 BC in Babylon.
(d) End of the ancient Greek civilisation
(i) During the 2nd century BC, Macedonia came into conflict with Rome.
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(ii) Macedonia was finally conquered by Rome in 168 BC.
(iii) In 146 BC, the Romans conquered the entire Greek peninsula.
(5) Legacy of the ancient Greek civilisation
(a) Democracy
(i) The government of Athens was elected by the people. Athenians also invented the secret ballot and the jury system.
(ii) These additions greatly affected the future development of democracy.
(b) Art and architecture
(i) The ancient Greeks liked to use marble and bronze to make lifelike sculptures. (ii) They built temples with tall stone pillars.
(iii) Many modern buildings have been influenced by the Greek architectural style.

Additional information: The Acropolis of Athens
This picture shows the archaeological site of the
Acropolis of Athens. The acropolis was the most important place in the city-state, and was on the top of the hill. This minimised the chance of being attacked. (c) Language and writing
(i) Ancient Greek writing is made up of 24 letters.
(ii) Many present-day scientific and mathematical units and symbols still use ancient Greek letters.
(iii) Many European languages originated from ancient Greek.
(d) Literature and drama
(i) The ancient Greeks wrote masterpieces of literature, such as The Iliad and The Odyssey written by Homer; Aesop's Fables written by Aesop and
The Histories by Herodotus, and so on.
(ii) Ancient Greek drama was divided into comedy and tragedy. The dramas were mainly about daily life, the gods, heroes, and kings.
(iii) The ancient Greeks built many open-air theatres which were semicircular in shape.
(iv) Most theatres nowadays are still built according to this design.
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(e) Mathematics and science
(i) There were many great mathematicians and scientists in ancient Greece.
(ii) Pythagoras discovered Pythagoras' Theorem; Euclid made important breakthroughs in geometry; and Archimedes invented a screw that could transfer water from low-lying areas to higher ground.
(iii) Hippocrates was called the ‘Father of Medicine’ because he set up among other things a moral code for doctors that is still used today.

Additional information: Hippocrates (460-377 BC)
He is the founder of medicine with his belief that illness had a physical and rational explanation. He rejected the views of his time that illness was caused by the disfavor of the gods and other supesstitions.

(f) Philosophy
(i) ‘Philosophy’ means ‘the love of wisdom’, in which knowledge is persued through thinking and observation.
(ii) There were many famous philosophers in ancient Greece, including
❖ Socrates (469-399 BC)
– Socrates encouraged open discussion, in order to encourage people to pursue knowledge.
– He was sentenced to commit suicide for dishonoring the gods and spreading wrong ideas in 399 BC.
❖ Plato (428-347 BC)
– Plato was a student of Socrates.
– He opened a school in Athens where he encouraged his students to think independently, through discussions.
❖ Aristotle (384-322 BC)
– Aristotle was the best student in plato's school and became the private teacher of Alexander the Great.
– He was the first person to classify knowledge. He developed many special studies and theories in logic.

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Additional information: Socrates (469-399 BC)
Socrates was one of the greatest philosophers in ancient Greece. He encouraged people to develop their own independent thinking. However, he was ahead of his time as most people were still very conservative. As a result, he was accused of corrupting the youth and interfering with the religion of the city-state. He was charged with this as a crime, and finally sentenced to death in 399 BC.

(C) The ancient Roman civilisation (Elected topic)
(1) Origins of the ancient Roman civilisation
(a)
(b)
(c)

Historians believe that the people living on the Italian peninsula were the ancestors of the Romans.
In about the 8th century BC, the city of Rome began to develop from gradual beginnings. The people living in the city were called Romans.
In 650 BC, the Etruscans conquered Rome, the Romans learned ancient Greek writing, architecture and art from the Etruscans. Roman developed their own civilisation. (2) The Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
(a)

(b)

The setting up of the Roman Republic
In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Etruscans and set up the Roman
Republic.
The Punic Wars
(i) By the 3rd century BC, the Romans had conquered the whole Italian peninsula. (ii) In the same period, the Phoenicians had built a large empire; the center of which was Carthage.
(iii) For the control of the Mediterranean Sea, Rome and Carthage fought in what is now known as the Punic Wars, between 264 and 146 BC.
❖ The First Punic War (264-241 BC)
The Romans won in the end, and captured Sicily.
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❖

(c)

The Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
–
Hannibal attacked Rome with 100,000 men whom he bought into Italy through Spain, and won several battles, but was eventually defeated.
–
Carthage was then forced to pay reparations, and cede Spain to the Romans.
❖ The Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
Rome finally defeated Carthage and burnt down the city.
Rule of julius Caesar
(i) In 59 BC, Caesar became consul and ruled Rome with another consul.
(ii) From 58 to 49 BC, Caesar led the Roman army in battle and defeated
Gaul, Germania and Britannia.
(iii) Caesar's enemies were jealous of him, and they started a civil war to overthrow Caesar. In the end, he ended the civil war.
(iv) After the civil war, the Senate elected Caesar to be Consul for life. That enabled him to rule like a king.
(v) Caesar's enemies were afraid that he would destroy the Republic. In 44
BC, they plotted together and killed him.
(vi) After Caesar's death, his adopted son Octavian, and Caesar's friend
Anthony, rose to power and ruled the republic together.
(vii)In 31 BC, Anthony broke with Octavian and attacked his army with the help of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Octavian defeated Anthony and
Cleopatra, and went on to become the ruler of both Rome and Egypt.

Additional information: How Caesar was murdered on 15th March, 44 BC in Rome
On the morning of 15th March when Caesar was murdered, one of his friends had warned him that his enemies would kill him. But Caesar thought that nobody would dare to kill him.
Later in the day, Caesar went to the Senate to attend a meeting. He was surrounded by a group of people. Some of them were his closest friends. These people pretended to argue with him. Suddenly, they struck at him with their daggers (

). There were as many as 23

dagger strikes to his back.
Some 60 men took part in the murder. The leader was a man called Marcus Brutus (
). The murderers struck at Caesar more or less at the same time. They did not want a single person to be responsible for Caesar's death.
Caesar did not say anything after being struck with the daggers. He fell to the ground and died. Although he died quickly, no one dared to come close to see if he was really dead.
His dead body was taken away by three slaves. This ended the story of one of the greatest rulers in ancient Rome.

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(3) The Roman Empire (27 BC-AD 476)
(a)

(b)

(c)

The setting-up of the Roman Empire
(i) After Anthony died, Octavian became the only ruler of the Roman
Republic. The Senate gave him the title of Augustus meaning ‘the great’.
(ii) To honor Caesar, Octavian called himself Augustus Caesar.
Height of power and decline
(i) The Roman Empire became strongest during the period between 27 BC and AD 180.
(ii) However, by the 3rd century, civil wars had broken out in the empire.
The Roman Empire became divided into the western and eastern empires. ❖ The Western Roman Empire
–
Its capital was Rome.
–
The empire was ruled by a German tribe called the Goths from
AD 476.
–
The fall of the Western Roman Empire marks the start of
Medieval Times in Europe.
–
We call the early Medieval Times the Dark Ages.
❖ The Eastern Roman Empire
–
Its capital was Constantinople (the new name for Byzantium).
–
We also call this empire the Byzantine Empire.
–
The Eastern Roman Empire kept up the Roman civilisation, as most of the rulers of the empire were Greeks.
–
In 1453, the Turks took Constantinople. This ended Medieval
Times and marks the start of Modern Times in Europe.
Life in the Roman Empire
(i) Government and society
❖ Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire and the seat of the central goverment.
❖ The Roman emperor divided the empire into provinces, and sent a governor to rule each of the provinces for him.
❖ Romans of the upper class, patricians, held the important posts in government and the army, while plebeians had the right to vote but enjoyed fewer rights.
❖ The Roman Empire was clearly divided into men and women, freemen and slaves, Roman citizens and subjects of the provinces.
❖ Commoners lived in small rooms in apartment blocks, while rich people lived in large houses called villas.
(ii) Transportation and buildings
❖ The Romans built a network of roads that expanded outwards from
Rome.
❖ They also built lighthouses along the shores to guide ships.
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Ancient Roman cities were well planned; we can still find the remains today:
–
government offices, temples and markets. These were located in the city center, or forum.
–
aqueducts and pipelines to bring water to the city.
–
houses with a sewage system.
–
entertainment facilities such as theatres for drama, a colosseum for gladiator fights and chariot races, and public bathhouses.
(iii) Trade
❖ There were many foreign merchants in Rome for trading. Roman merchants would also sell goods to other parts of the empire.
❖ Each Roman city had its own market, and the central government unified the currency in the empire to make trading easier.
❖ The government would send officials to patrol the market and protect the interests of consumers.
(iv) Religion
❖ The Romans believed in many gods; most of their gods were ancient
Greek gods with Roman names.
❖ The Romans also worshiped their emperor as god. However,
Christians believed in jesus Christ only, so the Roman emperors persecuted them.
❖ In 313, Emperor Constantine stopped this persecution and Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire in 395.
(v) Entertainment
❖ The Romans had a lot of free time.
❖ The Romans loved the following entertainment:
–
watching drama in theatres.
–
watching gladiator fights or chariot races in the Colosseum.
–
taking baths in bathhouses and chatting with friends.
(4) Legacy of the ancient Roman civilisation
(a)

(b)

The calendar
(i) A new calendar was introduced during Caesar's rule.
(ii) According to the new calendar, common years have 365 days, and every fourth year became a leap year, with one extra day.
(iii) There were twelve months in a year.
(iv) The seventh month, July, and the eighth month, August, are named after
Caesar and Augustus.
Language and numerals
(i) Romans spoke Latin.
(ii) Many present-day European languages have developed from Latin.
(iii) The Romans also invented a numeral system. We still use Roman numerals for special purposes in the present day.
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(c)

Laws
(i) Roman laws were strict and fair in order to protect citizens' property.
(ii) The laws ensured that citizens had the right to fair trial and appeal.
(iii) Many modern-day law systems are modeled on the Roman system of law. (d)

Art and architecture
(i) The Romans made many sculptures and paintings.
(ii) They learned from the ancient Greeks, and used bronze and marble to make statues of gods and other figures.
(iii) They also used colored stone and glass to make mosaic pictures.
(iv) Ancient Roman buildings had features such as columns, arches and domes.
(v) Ancient Roman art was very influential in the development of Western art.

Additional information: Mosaics
Mosaics are the art of arranging colored pieces of stone, glass and metal to make a picture.
They are used to decorate walls, ceilings and floors. A variety of materials such as marbles, shells, precious stones, jade, artificial glass and ceramic pieces can be used to make mosaics. Mosaics originated in Mesopotamia about 4000 years ago. The Sumerians were the first people to use mosaics for purposes of decoration. During the 1st-4th centuries, mosaics became more colourful and were popular among the ancient Romans. The art of mosaicmaking developed greatly during the Roman Empire. New techniques were introduced for making mosaics. The mosaics in Pompeii and Constantinople were regarded as masterpieces of the period. The popularity of Mosaics spread with the expansion of the
Roman Empire, and mosaics became a popular form of art around the world. Mosaics are known for their durability and colorful patterns.

A floor mosaic depicting an ancient

A window mosaic in a cathedral in

Greek theatre

Germany

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