Philosophy of religion

This unit aims to give a brief overview of the Greek influences on religious philosophy by focusing on the two leading thinkers of the classical period: Plato and Aristotle. These thinkers are vastly different in many respects but have each been hugely influential and have helped to shape western philosophy in the past 2,500 years.
The specific topics covered are:
Plato’s analogy of the cave as presented in Book 7 of The Republic.
Plato’s concept of Forms and the Form of the Good.
Aristotle’s ideas about cause and purpose, as presented in his Metaphysics.
Aristotle’s views on the Prime Mover.
The following teacher notes link directly to the OCR specification, the OCR scheme of work (SOW) and the AS Philosophy and Ethics student book to provide complete support throughout the delivery of the specification.
Links to the CD-ROM resources are provided throughout and worksheets to support the activities follow these teacher notes as well as further exam support in the extended Exam Café.

Introduction to the course
A good way of introducing this module might be by a general discussion considering why people may or may not believe in God. This can then be linked to the first two units, which examine the respective importance of Greek and Judaeo-Christian thought. Each seeks to uncover the ultimate truth about God and reality. They do this via reason and revelation respectively, although this is something of an over-simplification.
An introduction to philosophers and philosophy might be useful both in order to check students’ prior knowledge upon starting this course and to consider what it means to be a philosopher . The Monty Python argument sketch and/or the ‘Top Hat’ chapter within Sophie’s World (both extracts are available on the CD-ROM) are both good resources from which to start.
Plato: the analogy of the cave
(lesson plan page 20, student book pages 10–13)
Starter
There are various ways to introduce the story of the cave: if available, a clip from a film such as The Matrix or The Truman Show may help to convey the idea of having false perceptions of what is real. Alternatively, or additionally, a guided role-play whereby students enter a darkened room and have to imagine that they have always lived in shadows may be an interesting activity, depending on the layout of the room, the group – and health and safety!
Development and resources
Once students have read through pages 10–11 of the student book and are familiar with the general idea that Plato is seeking to convey, Worksheets 1.1–1.3 can be used to consolidate learning. The CD-ROM includes a visual representation of Plato’s cave which will help to illustrate the concept to students (‘Plato’s Cave’).
Discussion of different interpretations of the cave will be useful. Some sources may suggest a religious interpretation of the analogy (a conversion) but this is not what Plato intends. The main areas to focus on are epistemology (what is knowledge and how is it known?), metaphysics (the nature of reality), ethics (what is truly good – the Forms) and politics (how should society be organised?).
Worksheet 1.1 enables a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of Plato’s cave analogy and can be used in conjunction with the activity on page 13 of the student book. This worksheet also enables students to get a feel for the use of dialogue in philosophy, which is Plato’s method.
Differentiation
More able students may find it interesting to read Plato’s original text, which is available on the CD-ROM (‘Plato’s Republic’). There is also an additional extract from Republic available on the CD-ROM outlining Plato’s views on society and the philosopher-ruler.
Worksheets 1.1–1.3 can be completed in pairs to enable students to support each other. A more able group may be able to turn worksheet 1.3 into a full essay on the merits of Plato’s analogy, but this may not be possible for all students at such an early stage in the course.
Plenary
There are various ways to round off the topic. The card-sorting exercise contained in worksheet 1.2 or a video clip (if they have not already been used) may consolidate learning. There is a modern recreation of the story of the cave by some students on the CD-ROM. A fun quiz that goes over similar ground to the worksheets may also be useful as a tool of formative assessment. The end of topic quiz on the CD-ROM (‘Chapter 1 quiz’) contains several Plato questions.
The concept of the Forms
(student book pages 14–17)
Starter
One way of approaching this topic is to have a stimulus question on the board as students arrive: ‘Can you step into the same river twice?’ This can then lead into discussion of Heraclitus’ idea that everything is changing.
Development and resources
The Forms are a tricky concept for many students. In addition to the material contained on pages 14–17 of the student book, explain how, essentially, Plato accepts that everything around him changes but believes that there are some constants. The Forms, like the concepts of mathematics, are necessary truths.
One way of approaching this with students is by giving them pictures of several different chairs (or other items) and asking what they have in common. This may enable students to consider what ‘chair-ness’ is. The PowerPoint® on the CD-ROM (‘Forms and the Good’) gives a range of images and some possible discussion points. This is further complemented by the activity on page 15 of the student book, whereby students look at different breeds of dog and then write down the essential qualities of a dog.
In order to check students’ understanding of this tricky concept, give them words that describe particulars and invite them to suggest words for the Forms.
The PowerPoint® on the CD-ROM (‘Forms and the Good’) helps to explain the relationship between the Form of the Good and the other Forms. It also links back to the analogy of the cave and may be useful in consolidating learning and showing that Plato’s ideas are all connected.
The worksheet on the CD-ROM (‘Arguments about the Forms’) details some possible responses to, and criticisms of, Plato’s concept of the Forms. Together with the information contained in pages 14–17 of the student book and the suggested structure in the Exam Café at the end of this unit, this worksheet assists students in considering the strengths and weaknesses of Plato’s ideas.
Differentiation
Worksheet 1.4 could be an individual or paired activity depending on the students in the group. Less able students may just be directed to gather two arguments for and two arguments against the Forms. More able students may be able to use the information to produce a model essay if they finish the sheet. Alternatively, if students have got the hang of Socratic dialogue, a fun way to assess learning could be by the production of such a dialogue.
Plenary
Students could consolidate their learning by producing an ideas map or spider diagram showing their knowledge of Plato’s concepts.
Introduction to Aristotle
(student book pages 18–19)
The best way to introduce Aristotle is via his relationship to Plato; although influenced in some ways by his teacher, he takes an opposing view on several topics. Raphael’s painting ‘The School of Athens’ (included on page 19 of the textbook) gives a good illustration of this. Note the significance of the gestures being made. Plato points upwards: truth is ‘up there’ in the realm of the Forms. Aristotle is the scientist and points downwards: truth is observed empirically within this world. Pages 18–19 of the student book contain a detailed commentary on the background and meaning of Raphael’s painting which provides a valuable starting point for studying Aristotle.
Cause and purpose
(student book pages 20–21)
Starter
Students could be invited to think of and draw an object (for example, a statue of a singer or footballer). Alternatively this could be done on the board by the teacher. Discuss what causes it to be as it is. How does it change? Aristotle answers this by recourse to the four causes: material, efficient, formal and final.
Development and resources
Pages 20–21 of the student book demonstrate Aristotle’s idea of the four causes by applying them to a particular object: a table. Students should then complete the activity on page 20 whereby they apply Aristotle’s four causes to contrasting objects of their own choice. This activity is supported and extended by worksheet 1.4, which ensures consolidation of the material covered.
It is worth taking time during this activity to clarify Aristotle’s aim of explaining the world around him and how things progress and change. Unlike Plato, who sees change as a problem and posits an unchanging reality beyond this world, Aristotle sees this world as the only reality that requires explanation. Hence, for Aristotle ‘form’ is simply the characteristics of an object, not an ideal standard that is beyond this world.
Differentiation
The final question on worksheet 1.4 will stretch students by asking them to link Aristotle’s theory on cause with the Ethics units: for example, Aristotle’s idea that everything has a final cause or purpose was influential in helping Aquinas develop Natural Law ethics.
Plenary
A good five minute plenary that requires no organisation would be to split the class into two teams and get them to challenge each other by pointing to something in the room and seeing if the other team can give its four causes.
The Prime Mover
(student book pages 22–23)
Starter
One way to link to the previous topic is to ask: ‘what is the explanation of movement and change in the universe as a whole?’. For Aristotle, the ‘chain’ has to stop somewhere. Hence he argues for an unmoved mover. The quote from Metaphysics on page 22 of the student book may also serve as a useful stimulus. Students can discuss whether it is logical for something to come from nothing. You may wish to remind them of the discussion when you look at the Cosmological Argument.
Development and resources
Aristotle’s God is unlike the Judaeo-Christian concept. It lacks personality and interaction with the universe and moves things by attracting them to itself. One creative way of conveying this concept for more active learners would involve moving the desks and getting students to ‘orbit’ and move towards a blindfolded student in the centre of the room. This may aid visualisation.
Worksheet 1.5 reinforces learning on the Prime Mover. Students should be able to work through this with the help of pages 22–23 of the student book. It is worth pointing out that the various properties that Aristotle attributes to the Prime Mover all follow logically. The Prime Mover cannot change, he/it is the end (as in purpose) of all movement and change. This means that there is no potential: the Prime Mover is 100 per cent actual, i.e. .completely perfect. This logically leads on to a lack of awareness of the world.
One example to use might be that if the Prime Mover knew of the world and saw you fall over, he might be moved with compassion (a change!). Certainly what he knew of you would change. Hence Aristotle reasons that the Prime Mover cannot possibly know of the world. He would have to think only about perfect things: i.e. thought and himself. Furthermore, because physical matter changes, the Prime Mover cannot be made of physical matter.
Differentiation
One way of breaking down question 2 on worksheet 1.5 might be to provide some definitions for the key terms and ask students to match them up. More able students may be able to write a more extended answer to question 6 and get beyond the notion that there is no point in praying to the Prime Mover. A comparison to the Judeo-Christian idea of God could be written. Alternatively this could be a discussion point for the class.
Plenary
A good end of topic strategy is the Plato or Aristotle card-sort in this pack (worksheet 1.6). This may help to clear up confusion and check understanding.
Exam Café The Exam Café on pages 24 –27 of the student book and pages 28–31 of this PDR reinforces the skills needed to succeed at this course. The student book Exam Café contains some sample answers on Plato’s cave. In addition there are some thoughts on what makes AS harder than GCSE, including some comments from students. (It may be worth pointing out to students that the comments here are very close to the truth, only the names have been changed to protect the guilty!)
The Exam Café in the PDR gives a revision checklist and a possible essay structure for a very good part b) response on the forms. This can be used in conjunction with worksheet 1.4. As mentioned above, how this material is used may depend on the group. You may wish to modify the structure or content to make it more accessible for those who are struggling.
Lesson Plan: Introduction to Plato’s cave
Chapter 1: Lesson plan
Heinemann recognises that the teaching of this qualification will vary greatly from school to school and from teacher to teacher. With that in mind, this lesson plan is offered as a possible approach but will be subject to modifications by the individual teacher. Lesson length is assumed to be one hour.
Learning objectives for the lesson
Objective 1
Students to have knowledge of what happens in the analogy of the cave.
Objective 2
Students to understand what is represented by various aspects of the analogy.
Recap of previous experience and prior knowledge
Students have had 1–2 lessons giving a basic introduction to philosophy. They are aware that people have ideas and beliefs regarding reality and ultimate questions that may be based on reason as well as revelation. They may have some basic critical thinking training on how arguments work. The importance of both the Greek and Judeo-Christian strands in the history of thought may have been briefly mentioned.
Content
Time
Content
5 minutes
Remind students of introductory materials and explain the significance of Plato. Write A.N. Whitehead’s quote on the board: ‘The history of western Philosophy is a series of footnotes to Plato.’
20 minutes
Video clip: if available, show an extract from the film The Matrix, ideally from where Neo goes to work to where he is freed from the Matrix (an alternative film clip could be from The Truman Show). Invite students to explain the plot of The Matrix.
An alternative activity could be to get students to discuss Big Brother. What if the housemates had always been in the house and didn’t think there was anything outside the house? What might happen if one of them got out? Explain that Plato’s ideas are similar in that he believes that there is a deeper dimension to reality.
15 minutes
Introducing Plato’s cave: a visual diagram of Plato’s cave will be helpful on the interactive whiteboard (easily obtained on internet). Explain the condition of the prisoners and their view of reality; what would happen if one prisoner escaped? What happens when the prisoner leaves the cave and what happens upon re-entry?
A different way of doing this in a room with good blackout might be via guided role-play using a light (torch?) from the back of the room. Ask pupils to imagine they have lived all their life in this room and are chained so that they have to face forwards. Encourage students to describe their condition.
15 minutes
Student activity: students begin to work through worksheet 1.1 drawing and labelling a sketch of the cave and using the prompts to re-tell the story. Some more able students may wish to use the translation of the Republic, available on the CD-ROM.
This worksheet will be completed during the next lesson, after the card-sort activity in worksheet 1.2 and discussion of the meaning of the analogy.
Consolidation
Time
Content
5 minutes
Q & A to ensure students are clear on the story of the cave. This could be done via a round-robin where each student gives a portion of the story before handing over to another student until the story is completed. Explain that the next lesson will focus on the meaning and significance of the analogy of the cave.
1.1
Plato’s cave
1. Using the information on pages 10–13 of the textbook (and any other sources you may have), draw and label your own version of the cave.
2. Summarise the story of the cave in two or three paragraphs. You could use the following prompts to help you if you like (you will need to put them in order first):
a) They are unable to move their heads…
b) Gradually his sight adjusts…
c) Imagine a group of prisoners chained since birth.
d) He decides to return to the cave…
e) One of the prisoners is set free…
f) His ability to predict the shadows is diminished.
g) They threaten to kill him…
h) They believe the shadows to be real…
i) The sounds and shadows are made by…
3. Make a list of features of the story that are allegorical. (Use the glossary in the textbook if you cannot remember what an allegory is.) Produce a table showing the features and their meaning.
4. What is meant by ‘eikasia’?
Stretch and challenge:
5. In the story of the cave, Plato is summing up his philosophy. There are clues as to his views on metaphysics, epistemology and politics. Find out what these words mean then write two or three sentences explaining how the analogy of the cave links to each of these topics.
6. Below is a visual representation of Plato’s Divided Line. This directly precedes the analogy of the cave. Can you see why Plato has linked the two ideas?
KNOWLEDGE OPINION
(Intelligible realm) (Visible Physical Realm)
Dialectical Philosophy Mathematical Reasoning Belief Illusion
1.2
Plato’s cave: card-sort
Match the features to the correct description.
1. The prisoners
a) Our senses that cause us to accept all that we see and hear.
2. The cave
b) A copy of the Form of the Good; allows us to see the shadows.
3. The chains
c) An illustration that the road to philosophical knowledge is hard.
4. The shadows
d) The Form of the Good, the highest Form, it enables knowledge of the other Forms.
5. The fire
e) Once we have knowledge it is difficult to adjust to the realm of opinions.
6. The escapee
f) The ordinary people in the everyday world.
7. The difficult ascent
g) This is the real world, the realm of the Forms.
8. The outside world
h) The person who becomes a philosopher.
9. The sun
i) The philosopher’s duty is to return and educate the others.
10. The return to the cave
j) Like Socrates, the philosopher will be ridiculed and mistreated.
11. The difficulty in adjusting to the darkness
k) The empirical world that we see and hear around us.
12. The persecution given by the other prisoners
l) The illusions that we experience: our sense data.

1.3
What Glaucon should have said
In Plato’s Republic, after the initial squabbles of chapter 1, the ‘dialogue’ settles into a familiar pattern of Socrates expanding on his ideas and other characters periodically expressing their agreement. It sounds a little like this:
Socrates: Blah blah blah blah-de-blah.
Glaucon: Of course.
Socrates: Blah blah blah blah-de-blah, and also blah-de-blah.
Glaucon: Quite right.
1. Read the made-up script between Glaucon and Socrates below. Write two or three paragraphs summarising the criticisms that can be given of the analogy of the cave. Use Glaucon’s ideas to help you.
2. Look up the technical terms in italics and write them down together with their meaning. You might also like to research the Divided Line and find out just why Plato is so keen on maths.
Director: Cut! Glaucon, you’re being too passive. What do you really think?
Glaucon: Well, now you come to mention it, there are a few tiny problems in your thinking.
Socrates: I always said I knew nothing.
Glaucon: You are a truthful man. For instance, whilst I accept that you make an interesting point regarding the differences between a priori knowledge and opinion gained from the senses, I can’t help feeling that these Forms, such as moral values, have no real connection to maths.
Socrates: Oh.
Glaucon: In fact your argument depends on two things.
Socrates: What things, kind Glaucon?
Glaucon: Firstly, that there is such a thing as moral facts and these can be known. In plain Greek, you think that there is such as thing as goodness. Moral relativists clearly deny this.
Socrates: Guilty as charged.
Glaucon: Secondly, you believe that only an elite few can work this out and that they have to go through maths and lose their grip on everyday life in order to do it. You may well be wrong on both counts.
Socrates: Ah yes, the divided line!
1.3
What Glaucon should have said (continued)
Glaucon: In fact, by skilfully using this abandoned time machine, I note that Hume and Ayer think that moral statements are just a demonstration of emotion. Maybe Thrasymachus* is right that we just decide what is right and wrong; the strong subduing the weak. Nietzsche will agree with him in 2000 years time. In fact, most people would say that knowledge of goodness is widespread and those who are ignorant of goodness can be both educated or uneducated. So you can be intelligent and immoral. And while I think about it, many saints and heroes throughout history have been not very well educated – for example, Mother Teresa – and, equally, many wicked people have been well educated. It would be strange to think that Adolf Hitler would have been a better person had he done more maths at school. Would you not agree? And another thing, how can philosophers rule if, as you admit, they don’t want the job?
Socrates: That’s an easy one; will you allow me to get a word in edgeways?
Glaucon: Yes.
Socrates: They will go back into the cave out of a sense of duty. They will know that it is the good thing to do. If you know what is right, you will do it. Secondly, philosopher rulers will be compelled to go back into society to rule.
Glaucon: But if they are meant to be the rulers, who is in a position to compel them? You do understand the idea of rulers don’t you?
Socrates: Yes.
Glaucon: They can’t compel themselves, can they? If someone other than the philosopher is in charge they may not want to compel the philosophers to take over. And as for your first argument, you seem to be assuming naively that knowing our duty automatically leads to us carrying it out.
Socrates: But the idea is otherwise ok?
Glaucon: No! Even if they do not kill the philosopher rulers, they will not take them seriously because they will find their ideas too removed from their own experience. You said as much in the simile of the ship. Therefore your idea appears to be wholly impractical. In fact, you are stereotyping and over-contrasting the ordinary person and the philosopher. We get your general point but you are massively over-simplifying it for your own ends.
* Thrasymachus was a character from chapter 1 of the Republic. He argued that whatever is in the interest of the strong is morally right.
1.4
Aristotle’s causes
Use your class notes together with the student book (pages 14–17) to help you with these tasks.
Aristotle on cause
1. What does Aristotle mean by ‘form’ and ‘substance’?
2. How does his use of the word ‘form’ differ from Plato’s?
3. Write a one sentence definition for each of Aristotle’s four causes.
Material cause:
Efficient cause:
Formal cause:
Final cause:
4. Complete the following table to check that you’ve got the idea! Think of three different objects and their four causes.
Object
Material cause
Efficient cause
Formal cause
Final cause
1.

2.

3.

5. How do Aristotle’s ideas on cause show his beliefs about the world around him?
6. What is the link to a version of Christian Ethics? (Hint: Look at Final Cause.)
1.5
The Prime Mover
Use the student book (pages 22–23), the quotes on this sheet and any other resources you may have to answer the following questions.
1. How do Aristotle’s ideas about the Prime Mover link in with his ideas about cause?
2. Look at the quotes from Metaphysics below. Write a few sentences explaining Aristotle’s idea of the Prime Mover as clearly as you can. You should particularly aim to explain the technical terms that are underlined.
‘The Prime Mover “being eternal, substance and actuality.”’
Metaphysics 1072a
‘There is a substance which is eternal and unmovable and separate from sensible things. It has been shown that this substance cannot have any magnitude, but is without parts and indivisible... But it has also been shown that it is impassive and unalterable; for all the other changes are posterior to change of place.’
Metaphysics 1073
3. The Prime Mover ‘moves without being moved’ and ‘produces motion by being loved’.
Explain what this shows about the relationship between the Prime Mover and the world.
4. Why does Aristotle believe that the Prime Mover must be immaterial, in other words, lacking in physical matter?
5. Read the quote below. What does the Prime Mover think about and why does Aristotle think this must be the case?
‘It must be of itself that the divine thought thinks (since it is the most excellent of things) and its thinking is a thinking on thinking.’
Metaphysics 1074
6. Why might a religious believer find Aristotle’s idea of the unmoved mover unsatisfactory?
1.6
Plato or Aristotle?
Sort the cards into two groups: those that apply to Plato and those that apply to Aristotle.
Lived 427–347 BCE.
Lived 384–322 BCE.
Modern philosophy can be described as ‘footnotes to this man’
(A.N. Whitehead).
He believed that the mind was more important than physical matter.
He was a pupil and admirer of Socrates.
Studied at the Academy for 20 years.
Was a Macedonian, taught Alexander the Great.
Left Athens after charges of impiety were brought against him.
He produced the analogy of the cave.
All objects have an inbuilt desire for the Prime Mover.
Explained cause in four different ways: material, efficient, formal and final.
Did not believe in the existence of two realms.
He thought that there was a greater reality beyond this world.
Knowledge can be gained from the empirical world.
He believed in a realm of Forms or ideas.
The Form of the Good is the highest of all the Forms.
All objects have a purpose or final cause.
The form of an object is its structure.
Believed in a Prime Mover who causes movement and change within the universe.
Believed that only the philosopher can see things as they really are.
The realm of the Forms is perfect, unchanging and eternal.
He founded the Academy in Athens, which was almost like an ancient university.
Refresh your memory
Revision checklist
In order to do well on this area of the course you will need to:
Understand what Plato means in his analogy of the cave and be able to explain his symbolism.
Assess the points Plato is making: do they make sense?
Know what Plato means by the idea of ‘Forms’.
Understand how these concepts relate to the particulars.
Understand the Form of the Good.
Be able to discuss whether Plato’s ideas on the Forms are valid.
Show knowledge and understanding of Aristotle’s four causes (material, efficient, formal and final).
Be able to explain Aristotle’s concept of the Prime Mover.
Assess the ideas of Aristotle: do you think they work?
DIY revision
Look at the example of the revision ideas map on page 26 of the student book. Why not try producing some ideas maps for other topics in the list above? The key topics are in bold. Remember that your ideas maps should include the key aspects of the topic, together with possible strengths and weaknesses.
Plato’s theory of the Forms
Use the sheets in this pack, the student book and any other resources that you may have to write an essay assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the Forms. Look at the guidance on the next page to help you.

Paragraph 1
Briefly explain what Plato says about the Forms: they are universals; they are intelligible; they are One, unchanging, perfect, etc.
Paragraph 2
Give an argument for the Forms followed by a possible criticism. Then give your response/summary for this discussion. A sample paragraph is included below. How do the phrases highlighted in bold help to structure the essay?

Paragraph 3
Repeat the above process using another argument. Possible material might include opposites, knowledge and Ideal Standard.

Paragraph 4
Explain the weakness/criticism of the Forms – for example, ‘However, Plato’s idea of Forms also has a number of major weaknesses…’. Illustrate your points with examples if you wish. Give a possible counter-argument if you can, then give your response/summary of the above discussion.
Paragraph 5 and 6
Repeat the process in as much detail as you can for other arguments, for example, undesirable Forms, inventions, three fingers argument, how the Forms relate to the particulars.
Conclusion
Sum up your views on the question and the key points you’ve made in a couple of sentences. Here is a model conclusion:

Get the result

Which material from your essay would be relevant to the above question? Have a look at the sample answers in the student book.

Richard’s answer is not very well ordered. It also contains some material which is irrelevant. Can you spot them and suggest which order his material should go in, and why? In one colour, shade things that are irrelevant and should be deleted. Then, using a pen, number the sections in the order they should be written. Is there anything else that Richard should have said?