study guide
Study Unit
The Writing Process
Part 1
By
Lisa Rowe Fraustino, Ph.D.
About the Author
Lisa Rowe Fraustino, Ph.D., received her doctorate in English from the State University of
New York at Binghamton. She is a college instructor and a freelance writer and editor. She has published many stories and articles in national magazines, and she has written two young adult novels,
Grass and Sky and Ash, both published by Orchard Books.
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Copyright © 1998 by Penn Foster, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to
Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515.
Printed in the United States of America
10/18/10
iii
Preview
Do you send store-bought greeting cards rather than writing your own messages? Do you conduct all of your business affairs over the telephone to avoid the need to write? Do you avoid pursuing certain jobs requiring you to write reports or letters? If so, is it because you don’t think of yourself as a good writer?
Most people don’t consider themselves good writers. However, most people don’t give themselves a chance to be good writers. Most people have misconceptions about how good writers work. In this unit you’ll identify these misconceptions, and you’ll learn about the writing process, beginning with paragraph composition.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Identify common misconceptions about writing
· List and describe the stages of the writing process
· Compose a unified, coherent, and effectively structured paragraph
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Contents
YOU CAN WRITE!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Writing Is Work
There’s More Than One Way to Write
The Writing Process Varies
Good Writers Are Rewriters
Writing Is a Way of Thinking
THE WRITING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Prewriting
Planning
Writing the First Draft
Revising and Editing
Proofreading
Presenting
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The Topic Sentence: Stated or Implied
Unity: Sticking to a Topic
Coherence: Making Sentences Flow
Paragraph Structure
Paragraph Length
ENGLISH IN ACTION ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
PRACTICE EXERCISE ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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The Writing Process, Part 1
YOU CAN WRITE!
Are you afraid to write because you don’t think you’re a good writer?
If so, you may have some misconceptions about the writing process.
To find out if you do, read the pairs of statements in Figure 1. For each pair, place a check mark beside the statement that you believe.
For each pair of sentences, place a check beside the sentence that you believe to be true.
Column 1
Column 2
❑ Writing is easy for good writers.
❑ Writing is hard work, even for good writers.
❑ There’s only one right way to write.
❑ There are many effective ways to write.
❑ The writing process is ordered; it goes step-by-
❑ The writing process goes to-and-fro and some-
step.
times in circles.
❑ Good writers get it right the first time.
❑ Good writers rewrite until they’re satisfied with
❑ Good writers know everything they want to say
❑ Good writers often find out what they want to
before they start.
their work.
say through the process of writing and revising.
❑ Writing is an inborn talent; it can’t be learned.
❑ Writing is a skill; it can be learned with study and practice. FIGURE 1—Use this questionnaire to see if you have any misconceptions about writing.
If you checked some of the statements in the first column, you have misconceptions that cause many people to avoid writing. The statements in the second column are true. Understanding why they’re true will give you the confidence to express yourself on paper.
Writing Is Work
Writing is hard work, even for good writers. Some people who write well say that it’s easy. Maybe it is, for a lucky few. However, most people who write well say that they struggle to transfer their thoughts from mind to paper. They have to think hard to sort out their ideas and organize them so that a reader will be able to ride the same train of thought. 2
The Writing Process, Part 1
Just because writing is hard work doesn’t mean that it isn’t fun. The work of writing can be rewarding in much the same way as gardening, putting together a puzzle, planning a sports strategy, building a birdhouse, or doing any number of other activities that draw on creative energies.
Writing also has practical rewards that make it well worth the effort.
For instance, friends and relatives may treasure the letters you send, for they can be held in the hands and reread—unlike phone calls.
Whether you have a complaint, a request, or something else to say, a carefully worded business letter may get better results than a phone call. On the phone, it’s easy to get off the track and forget what you wanted to say. If you’ve made your point in writing, the person on the receiving end is less likely to misinterpret or forget what you said.
Finally, the ability to write effectively is one of the most sought-after job skills. People who write well have more career options and opportunities for promotion than people who can’t or won’t write.
There’s More Than One Way to Write
There are many effective ways to write. Writers don’t all come from the same mold. They have different ways of writing. You may share the common misconception that good writers always use an outline and stick to it. Actually, few writers are able to organize their thoughts so quickly and efficiently. Although outlining can be an effective way to approach a writing project, other ways are also effective.
For instance, Philip gets started by freewriting. He sits down with paper and pen and writes whatever comes to mind about his subject.
He doesn’t worry about his writing hanging together or making sense, because this isn’t going to be the final piece of writing. Once he has filled a page or two with these random thoughts, he reads through what he has written, searching for his most specific and interesting ideas on the subject. Those are the ideas Philip focuses on when he begins writing.
Liz is what might be called an intuitive writer. She doesn’t use an outline and doesn’t freewrite to get ideas. Instead, she thinks about a writing project in ways that might not seem obvious to others. Sometimes she even thinks right until the last possible minute and finds herself working through the night to meet her deadline.
For instance, Liz is asked to write something about censorship. She thinks she is against censorship, but beyond that she has never thought much about it and doesn’t know what she can possibly say. Now that she has to write about it, though, she starts to notice relevant details all around her. For instance, she notices a copy of
The Catcher in the Rye on her bookshelf and recalls that it was the ob-
The Writing Process, Part 1
3
ject of many censorship attempts. However, she likes the book and thinks it’s honest, so it makes her angry that anyone would ban it just because the main character swears and criticizes adults for being phony. When she listens to music on her CD, she thinks about record labeling and parents’ objections to kids having easy access to rock lyrics and MTV rock videos. Maybe those parents have a point, Liz thinks. Then again, where should we draw the line about who can see what? Who decides? Flipping through the cable TV channels,
Liz notes the frequency of sex and violence in television programming. Is this really appropriate for children? She starts to wonder if maybe censorship is sometimes necessary.
Then, in the newspaper, Liz notices an article about Mark Twain’s
Huckleberry Finn being challenged in a nearby school district because it contains words that are regarded as racial slurs. Liz is shocked. In this day and age, are schools still using books that are flawed by racial prejudice? She is becoming very troubled by now, but she doesn’t sit right down to write in defense of censorship. First, she asks a respected African-American teacher what he thinks of the book.
“It’s a great book,” he says. “People don’t like to see or hear a racial slur being used, but actually the character it’s aimed at is the most admirable human being in the book. The point is to see beyond the prejudice and bigoted language into the character of the person. This sort of thing should be discussed, not censored.”
Now Liz is truly fascinated by her topic. She interviews other AfricanAmericans who have read Huckleberry Finn and uses their opinions to defend the book against banning. She doesn’t bother with an outline.
By now, her ideas have taken fairly clear shape and she writes with excitement—throughout the night—and without an outline.
Ashley is yet another type of writer. She can’t write until she has read everything she can get her hands on about the subject. She is the type of person who goes to the library for one book, ends up browsing in the stacks, and brings home ten books. She can’t help it; she’s fascinated by all kinds of information. At first all of this information overwhelms her. There’s so much to write about. How can she narrow down a topic? As she reads, she analyzes what she is reading and comes to her own conclusions. Ashley is now ready to write.
Those are only a few of the most common ways to begin writing. If you’re an inexperienced writer, try beginning with an outline. If that doesn’t work for you, feel free to experiment with different ways of thinking through your ideas. Whatever works for you is what you should do.
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The Writing Process, Part 1
The Writing Process Varies
The writing process goes to-and-fro and sometimes in circles. There are several stages in the writing process. However, writers often skip around among the stages, sometimes omitting a stage, sometimes sticking at the same stage for a long time, and sometimes going back to the beginning. Just as there are many ways to approach a writing project, there are many ways to work through it, and many ways to finish it.
Good Writers Are Rewriters
Good writers rewrite until they’re satisfied with their work. You shouldn’t feel pressured to get every word right the first time. In fact, you shouldn’t feel pressured to get every sentence or even every idea right in your first draft. The human mind is simply too complex to expect everything to be right in the first draft.
Professional writers say that they often get their best ideas during the third or tenth or twentieth revision of a work. Some writers have even thrown away whole books and started over when they finally figured out what they wanted to do and say. They don’t consider that a waste of time, however. Writing anything—whether it’s a paragraph, an essay, or a book—is like walking to a destination. You need to take every step it took you to get there.
Writing Is a Way of Thinking
Good writers often find out what they want to say through the process of writing and revising. You don’t need to have all your thoughts lined up neatly in your mind before you write them on paper. Some people can do that, but most people don’t think that way. In the process of writing down ideas, you get other ideas. In the process of thinking about those new ideas, you think in ways that you never would have imagined if you hadn’t been writing. Once you get to that point, you may find that your original idea has changed completely. You’ve learned something that you didn’t know before.
You can learn to write. Writing is a skill. Basic writing can be learned with study and practice. Anyone who can read and speak a language can become a competent writer. All you need are (1) the desire to do so, (2) some lessons in the writing process, and (3) practice.
Our goal is to teach you how to become a competent writer. Regardless of how much or how little talent and facility with language that we have, we can all learn to write better. That’s our objective here.
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Practice Exercise 1
At the end of each section of The Writing Process, Part 1, you’ll be asked to check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Practice Exercise.” Writing the answers to these questions will help you review what you’ve learned so far. Please complete Practice Exercise 1 now.
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.
_______ 1. You must be born with writing talent; the ability can’t be learned.
_______ 2. Though some people deviate from the norm, there’s only one ideal way to write.
_______ 3. Good writers sometimes rewrite 20 or 30 times.
_______ 4. Writing is a skill that can be learned with study and practice.
_______ 5. Good writers often find writing a struggle.
_______ 6. It’s common for writers to change their minds about what they want to say after they get in the middle of a writing project.
Check your answers with those on page 43.
THE WRITING PROCESS
Just as there are many ways to write, there are many ways to describe the process of writing. In this course, we’ll break down the process into these stages:
· Prewriting
· Planning
· Writing the First Draft
· Revising and Editing
· Proofreading
· Presenting
As we’ve already mentioned, this process isn’t always linear. That is, writers don’t always include every step or follow each step in order.
They may begin writing a first draft without really knowing what they wish to say, for instance, and then go back and plan the revision using an outline. They may proofread as they go along and not make a special effort to do so as a separate step. Or, once they’ve gone through the entire process, they may decide to discard what they
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The Writing Process, Part 1
have and start again. This may happen in business, for instance, when a proposal is rejected but the company wishes to pursue the project from another angle.
Prewriting
The first stage in the writing process is actually prewriting. This is what you do before you put pen to paper (or fingers to keyboard).
Prewriting comes even before planning because you don’t even have anything specific to plan yet. During prewriting, the first thing to do is to determine your purpose, medium, and audience.
Why are you writing? What do you hope to achieve? The answer is your purpose.
What form will you use—a letter, a memo, a report, a proposal, an essay, a poem, a story, or something else? The answer is your medium.
Who will read the final piece of writing? What are their needs and expectations? That’s your audience.
It’s important to understand your purpose, medium, and audience from the very beginning. Doing so will help you to work through the writing process efficiently and effectively. Without understanding these three elements, you’ll have trouble focusing your ideas and writing with confidence. Or, you may write with ease, yet unintentionally focus on the wrong points and fail to achieve the results you intend. Once you know your purpose, medium, and audience, it’s time to find out what your thoughts are about your topic so that you can decide how to approach your writing project. Suppose, for instance, you’re asked to write a paragraph about cars. What would you say?
Maybe it’s not even a topic that interests you. However, you have to come up with something interesting to say.
Who asked you to write the paragraph, and why? Let’s say, since this course resembles a classroom, that a writing teacher has given you this assignment. Your purpose is to demonstrate that you’ve mastered the basics of written English expression. Your medium is given—a paragraph. Your audience is the teacher and (let’s pretend) the rest of the class. So, what will you say in this paragraph to demonstrate your English skills to your teacher and classmates?
There are many ways you could get ideas. All it really takes to get you started on a writing project is one good idea that excites you.
Finding that idea is the goal of any prewriting exercise.
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You can take five steps as you prewrite: brainstorming, webbing, freewriting, researching, and journal keeping. We’ll examine each here, beginning with brainstorming.
Brainstorming
What does the topic of “cars” bring to mind? To find out, try brainstorming. Make a list of every idea that comes to mind. Don’t exclude anything. Don’t worry about putting these thoughts in order. Right now you’re just writing down everything you think might be a possible focus for your paragraph. You may end up not using most of these ideas. You might even wish to brainstorm with one or more other people.
Ask questions. What do you think of cars? What cars do you like?
What would you like to read about cars? Other people may come up with ideas that will give you even better ideas of your own.
A list on the subject of cars might look like the list in Figure 2. Notice that the list could continue.
FIGURE 2—A Brainstormed List
Cars
Big cars
Henry Ford
Little cars
Model T’s
Are RVs cars?
TR7s
My first car
Used car lots
Car accidents
Drive-in movies
Speeding limits
Driveways
Speeding tickets
Garage door openers
Drunk driving
Car seats
Leather seats
Seat belts
Webbing
A similar exercise, called webbing, is perhaps even more useful than brainstorming. It shows relationships between some of the ideas you have. To begin, write your topic (cars, for example) in the middle of a piece of paper (Figure 3). Circle it. Draw a line out from the circle and write another word—the first word that comes to mind about the topic, for example, wheels. Circle that word, too. Draw a line out from there and write another word that comes to mind about the second circled word, for example, hubcaps. Circle the new word and keep going, for example, flat tire, my first flat, learned to change tires in driver’s ed., and
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The Writing Process, Part 1
nobody stopped to help. Then you can go back and start a new chain from the key word, cars. You can start many chains. Often, you’ll come up with something interesting.
FIGURE 3—Webbing
Freewriting
To freewrite, you fill a piece of paper with any idea that comes to mind about your topic. Don’t stop to think. Don’t lift your pen. Just write! Don’t worry about grammar or sentence structure or anything else except your topic. Your goal is to come up with that one good idea, and the best way to do that is to set your creative mind free.
Your mind can’t be creative if it’s worried about spelling and semicolons. Here’s an example of freewriting on the topic of cars.
My car got so hot today. The sun was shining in the windows all afternoon and heated the steering wheel into a fiery circle.
My car is a Geo, just a little thing, but it saves me money on gas and it gets me where I want to go. My first car was a gigantic
Plymouth Fury; we called her Megacar. Mega was used. The
Geo was new when I bought it but it sure looks used now! Mega handled a lot better than the Geo in the snow; I think big cars are probably safer. But it cost a mint to fill Mega with gas. And that was during the energy crisis. Cars and the energy crisis.
Now, that’s a topic! Whatever happened to the energy crisis?
Aren’t cars still using up limited resources? And polluting the environment? How come we don’t hear so much about that any more? I need to look into this.
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Freewriting can reveal the many ideas that constantly pass through your mind.
Researching
Many people like to look to outside sources for ideas for writing. For the assignment on cars, you might go to the library and look for information on cars. Or, if you’ve already decided you’re interested in one of the narrower topics you’ve come up with while brainstorming, clustering, or freewriting, you could look up more information on that idea. Read a biography on Henry Ford, for instance, or do some research on the energy crisis, the history of speed limits, or the pros and cons of small versus big cars.
Journal Keeping
Some people write their most interesting thoughts and experiences in a daily journal, which is a record of experiences, ideas, or reflections, kept for private use. If you keep your journal faithfully, it can be a good source of ideas to write about for other purposes. For instance, perusing the journal entries near the time you bought your last car, you might recall issues that were important to you and come up with a topic like “What to Look for When Buying a Car.”
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English in Action 1
Besides its personal benefits, keeping a journal every day is an effective way of improving your writing. Even with no teacher to evaluate your writing, the practice will make you more comfortable with words. You’ll develop a distinct personal writing style and start to understand the origins of your best ideas.
Begin keeping a journal. Write for five minutes every day, or fill one page every day. Don’t worry about your writing style or grammar or anything else. The only thing to worry about is making sure you do it every day! Make sure that you choose the right kind of journal format for your own personality and lifestyle. Some people write in composition notebooks because they’re sturdy. Others write on loose-leaf notebook paper because they can carry a page with them wherever they go and add the page to a binder later. Still others use small, lightweight notebooks that they can carry in a pocket or bag.
Write about anything at all that comes to mind. On days that you can’t think of anything to write about, consider using one of the following suggestions:
· Describe something or someone near you. It may be your shoe, the chair you’re sitting in, a child in your neighborhood, a dog that always sniffs around your lawn, a statue in the park, the dinner you ate last night, a flower losing its petals, a blown lightbulb— anything at all. Just make sure you paint a vivid word picture of your subject, using as many sensory details as you can: sight, smell, touch, taste, and sound.
· Write a letter that you won’t send, telling somebody something that you want to say but don’t dare to.
· Describe the most embarrassing experience of your life.
· Describe the most exhilarating experience of your life.
· Describe the most miserable experience of your life.
· Imagine that you’re a life form from another galaxy, visiting the planet earth for the first time. Write down the alien’s first impressions of the town where you live.
· Write your autobiography (your life story).
· Write down a story that someone in your family always tells at holiday gatherings.
· Explain what you like and don’t like about something you’ve read, such as a book or an article in a newspaper.
· Argue for or against a controversial issue: book banning, the death penalty, gun control, school prayer, teachers’ strikes, etc.
(Continued)
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English in Action 1
· Cut a picture out of the newspaper or a magazine. Paste it into your journal. Describe the picture or write a story about it.
· Write a letter to an advice columnist. Then, pretend you’re the columnist and write back. Whatever you choose to write about, remember that for most people, the more you write, the better you get at it. Most writers don’t arrive at a perfect copy on the first draft.
Practice is important.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your practice writing to the school.
Planning
Once you’ve found a topic you like, you’re ready to plan the piece of writing. In other words, it’s time to decide what thoughts you wish to include and to organize them in logical order. Planning requires you to keep your purpose, medium, and audience firmly in mind. What points should you make to achieve your purpose? What type of information is usually included in the medium (format) you’re using?
What information does your audience want and need?
Outlining
Now is the time to make an outline, if outlines work for you. Your outline may be informal and rough. To write an informal outline, jot down your key statement or purpose. Below it, write down supporting details. If you’re making an argument for something, use “because” clauses to help you think logically. Also, write down all the arguments that might be made against your point. When you’ve finished your entries, reread them and eliminate any that are irrelevant or weak.
Then number the remaining thoughts in order of importance.
Let’s turn to a new topic, computers, to create the informal outline in
Figure 4.
The informal outline in Figure 4 would be adequate for writing a short report. However, you may elect to write a formal outline. A formal outline helps you to sort big, main ideas from smaller, supporting details and to organize them all in logical order. You’ll find formal outlining especially helpful in organizing long or complex writing projects that include several main points.
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Key Statement: We need one additional customer service workstation with a computer terminal. 1. Because we’re so busy we can’t provide the level of service expected
2. Because we’re using four hours of overtime daily to complete the work
3. Because we have a person who could be reassigned to do customer service work half days without adding to payroll
4. Because we’ll save overtime money needed for the customer service representative and for the supervisor
5. Because the $12,000 annual savings in overtime costs far outweigh the one-time cost of
$3,000 to install a workstation and the monthly terminal leasing fee of $87
FIGURE 4—An Informal Outline
The formal outline in Figure 5 resulted in a report of several pages.
Each subtopic was developed in a separate paragraph.
To write a formal outline, place the main points after Roman numerals
(I, II, III, etc.). After each main point come the subtopics that will be used to support the main idea. Place subtopics after capital letters.
The subtopics, in turn, may require supporting details, and you should place these details after numbers. Finally, if the supporting details lead to still more specific details, place those after lowercase letters.
Each level of topic, subtopic, or details should include at least two items. All entries in a formal outline should be expressed in parallel grammatical form. For instance, you could write a complete sentence after each numeral or letter. Instead of complete sentences, Figure 5 uses nouns and prepositional phrases. The basic outline structure can be repeated until the outline is completed.
Mapping
Some people prefer to use a technique called mapping to organize ideas. Mapping is a branching activity. It’s a cross between clustering and flowcharting (Figure 6). Draw a circle in the middle of a piece of blank paper. In the circle, write your subject (such as Installation of
Personal Computers for Professional and Support Staff). From the circle, begin drawing branches with a main topic on each line (such as increased productivity, literature review, research). From these main branches, draw smaller branches containing the details or supporting arguments for each main topic. Don’t worry about the order in which you put the main topics. You’ll arrange them in the next step.
The Writing Process, Part 1
Installation of Personal Computers for Professional and Support Staff
I. Needs
A. Word processing
1. Letters
2. Memos
3. Reports
4. Proposals
B. Data entry/processing
1. Customer lists and data
2. Mailing labels
a.
By customer
b.
By zip/postal code
c.
By product previously purchased
d.
By date of previous purchase
e.
By value of annual purchases
f.
By contact source
C. Financial analysis
1. Unit sales by product
2. Dollar sales by product
3. Weekly, monthly, annual sales
4. Expense budget
5. Profitability
a.
By product
b.
By product line
c.
For the group
II. Current capability
A. Typing
B. Proofreading
FIGURE 5—A Formal Outline
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FIGURE 6—Mapping
When you’ve finished your mapping, number the main branches in the order that you think will best convey your message. In longer pieces of writing, each main branch with its supporting branches should be a single paragraph.
Finally, some writers prefer not to do any written planning. They do all the planning in their heads. If you’re the sort of writer who discovers what you wish to say in the process of trying to say it, then your plan will be very rough and tentative. You must be open to changes along the way. We stress again: that may be okay! We do advise that you at least try planning on paper to see if it works for you. If it doesn’t, and planning in your head does, then plan in your head.
Whatever works for you is the way you should write.
English in Action 2
Use the prewriting activities we’ve described to come up with your own idea on the subject of cars. Choose one topic to become the focus of a paragraph you would like to write.
Outline or map your main ideas.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
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Writing the First Draft
Once you’ve ordered the main points you wish to make, you’re ready to write the first draft. Some writers work laboriously, trying to get every word and every comma perfect in the first draft. However, the typical human mind simply isn’t set up to work that way. You shouldn’t put that sort of “perfection pressure” on yourself. You’ll find that your thoughts and your language flow much more smoothly if you write without stopping.
Don’t try to do too many things at one time when writing. Don’t attempt to write, edit, and rewrite each sentence and paragraph as you proceed. You’ll only get bogged down in the process and lose track of what you’re trying to communicate. You can avoid this problem by doing what many professional writers do—write straight through, letting your thoughts come out in writing as best they can. Follow your outline or map, but don’t stop to edit or rewrite.
If you veer away from the planned topic for a little while, don’t worry about it—your creative mind may be leading you to even better material. Any irrelevant digressions can be deleted later. (If you don’t know the meaning of digressions, look up the verb form digress in your dictionary.) Just let the writing flow. You’ll get the tough part behind you, and often the writing will be less stilted because you’re more apt to write the way you speak.
Whether you handwrite or work on a typewriter or word processor, it’s wise to double-space your work. Doing so will give you the space you’ll need for revisions.
English in Action 3
Following your outline or map from English in Action 2, write a rough draft of your paragraph on the topic of cars.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
Revising and Editing
For professional writers, nothing is as important as editing and rewriting. A professional writer often rewrites eight or nine times— sometimes even twenty or thirty times—and usually not fewer than three times. Of course, if you’re not a professional writer, you won’t need the level of refinement gained through eight or twenty rewrites! However, at least one rewrite is necessary for most writing.
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(An exception is informal letters to friends and family, who probably won’t mind if you don’t have a main point or if your letter isn’t a polished and professional text.)
How many times should you rewrite? As many times as you think necessary to communicate effectively, given your purpose, medium, and audience. And what does it mean to revise a piece of writing?
Revising
The word revise means “see again.” To see again suggests more than cleaning up minor errors. To see again suggests a new way of looking at what you’ve done. Revision requires you to look at your work as if you were the target reader, seeing the document for the first time.
You still shouldn’t be worried about little mistakes at this point. Your concern at this point is the big picture. Looking for little mistakes can bog you down and make it difficult to see bigger, more important problems in organization. Why spend time fiddling with little details that might end up getting cut or rewritten entirely? The best way is to get the whole piece of writing the way you want it, and then go through to fix mistakes line by line, word by word.
When you’re revising, these are the sorts of questions to ask yourself about the piece of writing as a whole:
Is it clear in purpose and in meaning? If not, rethink your organization and your approach. You may need to start over with different ideas. Are there parts that should be cut? Cross them out.
Are there parts that should be developed further? Add parts by writing between the lines and in the margins.
Are there parts that should be moved elsewhere? Move parts by circling them and drawing arrows to wherever you wish to insert the words.
Are there parts that should be condensed or combined with other parts within the document? Cross out those parts and rewrite between the lines and in the margins. Use the symbols in Figure 7, called proofreaders’ marks, to indicate corrections in your work. You’ll find that they help you to streamline the process. Using these symbols will be easier and clearer than writing out directions to yourself.
Editing
Once you have your major changes in place, it’s time to put to use what you’ve learned about grammar, sentence structure, word usage, punctuation, and spelling. Strive for a clear, concise style. To help you
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FIGURE 7—Frequently Used Proofreaders’ Marks
with your editing, here are some tips, many of which will sound familiar to you:
· Vary sentence lengths. Mix it up. Don’t have all short, choppy sentences, but don’t have all long ones, either. Strive for sentence lengths of 10–20 words. A few sentences may be shorter, but seldom should one be much longer.
· Look for and delete unnecessary words. Try also to concentrate wordy ideas into a single word. Make shapeless sentences clear, and cut out any dead or repetitious words.
· Eliminate irrelevant information. Don’t tell your audience every little detail you can think of about a subject. Stick to what adds to the information or to your argument.
· Get rid of dry, stilted, or cliché-laden language. The technical term for worn-out expressions such as taking the bull by the horns, happy as a lark, and slept like a log is cliché (Figure 8).
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Like all languages, English has in it a body of expressions that are overused at any given point in its history. Here are some expressions that are currently overused: all things considered, as a matter of fact, call on the carpet, circumstances beyond control, finishing touch, foregone conclusion, in the final analysis, in this day and age, it stands to reason, overall picture, point of no return, psychological moment, read between the lines, second to none, sell like hotcakes, behind the eight ball, cooking with gas, face the music, get the green light, I’ll buy that, in less than no time, long time no see, low man on the totem pole, shot in the arm, that’s for the birds . . .
The following phrases were, at one time, used in everyday conversation. Constant repetition, however, has robbed them of the fresh imagery they once conveyed. at the drop of a hat, break the ice, clean bill of health, close to the soil, come apart at the seams, handle with kid gloves, lead a dog’s life, mention in the same breath, raise one’s sights, rub the wrong way . . .
Some clichés, like the following, have been around for centuries. bring home the bacon, speak of the devil, you can’t have your cake and eat it too, busy as a bee, thin as a rail, quiet as a mouse, white as a sheet, sharp as a tack, slippery as an eel, slow as molasses in January, bury the hatchet, split hairs, put your shoulder to the wheel, let the cat out of the bag, put the cart before the horse, cook one’s goose, kill two birds with one stone, bite off more than one can chew, get up on the wrong side of the bed . . .
And these: down in the dumps, face the facts, lap of luxury, live and learn, point with pride, slow but sure, spic and span, sure as shooting, through thick and thin, by hook or by crook, fair and square, haste makes waste, high and dry, wear and tear, wine and dine, blow hot and cold, by means fair or foul, feast or famine, kill or cure, move heaven and earth, neither here nor there, open and shut, rain or shine, sink or swim, the long and short of it . . .
The list goes on: bag and baggage, fits and starts, hale and hearty, house and home, kith and kin, lord and master, part and parcel, pure and simple, toss and turn, well and good, boon to mankind, bow in defeat, brave the elements, by the same token, deem it a privilege, explore every avenue, irony of fate, paragon of virtue, picture of health . . .
How much better and more persuasive it sounds to say “It is a privilege to work with all of you in this department” than to say “I deem it a privilege to work with all of you.”
Should clichés ever be used? The answer is yes, when they’re employed consciously, effectively, and with purpose. Consider the person who offered a violin for sale “with no strings attached” and the writer who described amateur parachutists as “jumping for joy.”
Both were using clichés consciously, and they achieved delightful, original expressions. It’s reliance upon clichés—not the clichés themselves—that rub the wrong way.
FIGURE 8—Clichés can weaken your writing. Try to invent your own ways of saying what you want to say.
· Substitute specific strong verbs for weak or overused ones. Remember to use active voice, rather than passive, for a clear, direct style.
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· Replace generalities with specifics. It’s better to mention that 200 samples were distributed during a convention than to say that a
“substantial number” were given out.
Making comparisons is an effective way to replace generalities with specifics. Comparisons put the information into a recognizable and understandable context.
General: That building is huge and ornate.
Specific comparison: That building looks like a castle.
· When possible, change negative messages to positive. Rather than saying “We can’t meet until this project is finished in three weeks,” say “We can meet anytime after this project finishes in three weeks.” The positive approach shows that you really do want to meet with the person.
· Use lists to break up your copy and to make reading quick and easy.
When you use lists, remember to keep the entries parallel in structure. · Check and correct the grammar. Be especially alert to subject/pronoun agreement, subject/verb agreement, and proper pronoun form. Figure 9 shows a paragraph that has been revised and edited according to the guidelines we’ve given. Figure 10 is a typed version of the corrected copy of this sample revision.
Proofreading
Theyr’e not spellnig errrors; they’r ejust typls.
How did you react to the previous sentence? The mistakes are typographical errors. The sentence should read
They’re not spelling errors; they’re just typos.
Typographical and spelling errors interfere with the clarity of ideas.
They cast doubt on the accuracy of the entire document. If the attention to little details is careless, the reader wonders, might not the big details be carelessly handled, too?
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FIGURE 9—Sample Revision
When I think of cars, I inevitably think of my first flat tire. It happened the same day I got my first car—and it was raining. Luckily, I knew how to change tires. Nobody stopped to help me. I was late to pick up my friend for a joy ride in my new car, and I was wet, muddy, and miserable. It seemed only fitting when my hubcap fell off on the way home.
FIGURE 10—Corrected Copy of Sample Revision
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Everybody makes mistakes. Even the best typists make typos, even the best spellers misspell, even the best English teachers confuse who and whom, and even the best writers sometimes find that they’ve quickly scribbled their for they’re, or to for too. Most of the mistakes that make it into final documents don’t result from stupidity or even carelessness, though careless mistakes do happen too often. Most mistakes are simply overlooked because of our inability to see what’s really on the page. Instead, we see what we thought we put there.
Familiarity with material makes it difficult to pick out errors that practically leap off the page to someone else.
How can you avoid making simple proofreading mistakes that make you look careless when really you’re a perfectionist? Well, you won’t be able to catch all the mistakes, but you’ll come close if you apply all the skills you’ve acquired and you understand why the majority of mistakes occur. Here are some suggestions:
· Be consistent in the way that you handle paragraph indentation.
Either indent the first sentence of each paragraph or, if you don’t indent the first sentence, skip a line between each paragraph.
· Check for correct punctuation, including capitalization.
· Watch for grammatical errors. Keep an alert eye out for errors such as fragments, run-ons, faulty agreement, and incorrect comparisons. · Make sure you haven’t mistaken commonly confused pairs of words, such as there, their, and they’re.
· Some people get caught up in the meaning of what they’re reading and forget to look for little mistakes. To avoid this problem, professional proofreaders sometimes read backwards (from the end to the beginning of the document) to concentrate on small details of usage. If you tend to read fast, you might also cover the page with a plain colored bookmark or piece of paper to slow yourself down and keep your eyes focused on one line of text at a time.
· Be on the lookout for mistakes that may happen when you rewrite or type a new copy of a revision. These mistakes include repeated words, sentences, or lines; and skipped lines, sentences, or paragraphs.
· Learn to spell the words you use. Learn the spelling rules and the exceptions to those rules.
· Become familiar with the look of words in print. The next time you’re tempted to turn on the TV, pick up a book instead. Or, write a letter to a friend. While you’re reading or writing, keep a dictionary at your side and look up unfamiliar words. In fact,
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look up familiar words, too, if they’re the least bit tricky. You can make mistakes by assuming you know something and not checking to make sure you’re right.
· When you look up a word in a dictionary, say the word. See the word. Copy the word correctly. Try to spell it with your eyes closed. · Spell by syllables. Make sure that you pronounce the word correctly and that you hear all the syllables. Many people spell words wrong because they pronounce them wrong. Probably, for instance, is commonly misspelled as probaly. Take the time to look at what you’ve written and pronounce it correctly.
· Pay special attention to words that aren’t spelled the way they’re pronounced. Many people misspell words containing silent letters (debt, sign, exhaust, knife, night, pneumonia). Others have trouble with two-letter combinations that sound like one letter
(phone, rough, school).
· Many people also have trouble with homonyms, words that sound alike but have different meanings. Two/too/to, there/their/they’re, your/you’re, hear/here, no/know, and weather/whether are just a few examples.
· Keep a list of words you’ve misspelled and looked up. Use your list as a reference when you write, edit, and proofread your work. When typing, people tend to make the same sorts of mistakes. If you type your work on a typewriter or word processor, study it and see if you notice any patterns in your spelling typing errors. Pay attention to the details shown in Figure 11.
FIGURE 11—Common
Typos
COMMON TYPOS
Common Mistake
Typing Error
Dropped letters
Ther car is red.
Added letters
Theirr car is red.
Transposed letters
Thier car is red.
Wrong letters
Rheir car is red.
Substituted letters
Yjrot vst od trf/
Spacing errors
Thei rcar is red.
Wrong word
There car is red.
Corrected sentence: Their car is red.
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Presenting
The final stage of the writing process is presenting—giving the final copy to the intended audience. Professional writers, and some classroom teachers, call this stage publishing. We’re calling it presenting.
Every time you pick up a magazine, newspaper, print advertisement, flyer, brochure, report, or anything else in print, you’re reading what some other writer has presented.
You present your writing when you send notes and letters to friends and relatives. In your working life, you’re likely to present writing in various forms, from resumes to business letters to reports on projects.
Once you’ve reached the presenting stage, most of the hard work has already taken place. Now, before sending your work out into the world, make sure that it’s as perfect as you can make it. Carefully proofread it. Be sure that it’s formatted according to the conventions of the medium you’re using, and that it’s presented as cleanly and neatly as possible.
The final step in a writing project is presenting it for someone to read.
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English in Action 4
Write a letter to a friend or relative. Follow the writing process you’ve just learned about.
First, find a focus by brainstorming, clustering, freewriting, research, or journal writing.
Plan your letter by choosing the main points you’ll make. Organize your thoughts with an outline or web. Write a first draft. Then revise, proofread, and present the letter to your intended audience.
Choose one of these suggested topics, or invent one of your own.
What you did (or plan to do) on vacation
How you feel about writing
A major event or decision in your life
Developments at work
Your children’s activities
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your practice writing to the school. You may, however, send the letter to the person for whom you wrote it.
Practice Exercise 2
Questions 1–5: Answer the following questions.
1. List the stages of the writing process as discussed in this study unit.
________________________________________________________________________________
2. During the first stage of the writing process, you must first define your _______,
_______, and _______.
3. Name and briefly describe five prewriting activities that can help you decide what to write about.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the difference between outlining and webbing?
________________________________________________________________________________
5. What does revision mean? How is revising different from editing?
________________________________________________________________________________
(Continued)
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Practice Exercise 2
Questions 6–12: Read each sentence and draw a line through the cliché. Write a replacement for each cliché.
6. I thought that Robertson had won the game fair and square. _______________________
7. This medicine will either kill you or cure you. ____________________________________
8. Shirley believes in this policy heart and soul._____________________________________
9. I’ve been leading a dog’s life since Mona went to Cincinnati. _______________________
10. Benton decided to surrender and face the music. _________________________________
11. I know where you’re coming from, Alan, but we still have to work within company policy.______________________________________________________________________ 12. If we aren’t careful, this contract is going to come apart at the seams. ________________
Check your answers with those on page 43.
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a unit of thought that focuses and develops a single subject. Thus, a good paragraph is said to be unified. It’s also said to be coherent, from the Latin word meaning “to stick.” All the sentences in a paragraph should “stick together,” flowing logically from one meaning to the next. A unified, coherent paragraph may be developed in several ways.
The Topic Sentence: Stated or Implied
Typically, a paragraph begins with a topic sentence, a statement of the main idea or subject. Note how the italicized topic sentence orients the reader to what follows in this paragraph:
One of the most attractive features of word processing is the efficiency of editing documents. Mistakes are easy to fix, especially with the selections provided in the menu. The menu lists possible options for the user, such as “save” or “print.” Even better, you can do editing on screen—add this, delete that, substitute something here, rearrange something there. Or, if you prefer, you can edit a printout, called a hard copy. Either way, you don’t have to retype the whole document. Simply move the cursor (a blinking light or marker that indicates your position on the monitor) to the exact spot in the document where you want to add, delete, or move text. You can move the cursor up, down, left, or right.
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The topic sentence doesn’t have to be the first sentence. The topic sentence can appear anywhere in the paragraph. Many paragraphs build up to the main point, saving the topic sentence for last. Here’s an example:
The neighbor’s dog dug up my dahlia bulbs at eight o’clock in the morning. At nine, the water heater burst and soaked the family room carpet. My son was sent home from school with poison ivy at ten o’clock, and at eleven the rain started. The roof started leaking at noon. Some days just aren’t worth getting up for in the morning.
Can you identify the topic sentence in the following paragraph?
Accuracy isn’t the only goal in technical documents. You have to make sure the letter or report is clear, concise, and logical—in other words, readable. What makes writing readable? Writing teachers often urge their students to think of their purpose, medium, and audience as they write. Why is this document being composed? What form will it take? Who will read it and what are their needs? To communicate effectively, good writers keep these questions in mind.
The statement that best pinpoints the topic of this paragraph is the second sentence: You have to make sure the letter or report is clear, concise, and logical—in other words, readable. The remaining sentences in the paragraph somehow relate to readability. The first sentence doesn’t mention readability outright, but it leads up to the point through logical comparison.
In some paragraphs, the main topic is so obvious to the reader that it doesn’t have to be stated at all. This often happens in paragraphs that give directions or tell a story. What is the topic of the following paragraph? Computers were first intended to do quick mathematical calculations. Today’s computers can also be used to file information, create graphics, process data, and manage accounts. They also perform many other functions that help businesses run smoothly and keep costs down. Some offices use word processors that aren’t full-scale computers. They look something like electronic typewriters and use computer technology for the sole purpose of creating written documents.
Remember that each sentence in a paragraph contributes to the topic.
So some aspect of the topic must be present in each sentence. Could the topic here be “Why Computers Were Invented”? No. Only the first sentence touches on that. The same goes for “Computers and
Mathematics.” This paragraph has a more general purpose. Let’s try
“Computers in Today’s Offices.” No, that still isn’t right; then the first
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sentence wouldn’t belong. A title such as “Some Uses of Computer
Technology” best sums up the paragraph.
Computer technology can not only help you compose a piece of writing, it can also be an interesting topic for writing.
Here’s another paragraph in which no single sentence states the topic.
However, the topic is clear from the information that’s given.
The snow on the roads had packed and frozen during the night.
As Ann drove slowly to work, she saw several empty cars that had skidded off the road into the snowbanks. The car radio blared news of an eight-car pileup on a highway, and it cautioned drivers to use an alternate route. Drifting snow had closed another highway, according to the announcer.
In this paragraph, could the topic be “Ann’s Driving Skills”? Since
Ann’s driving is mentioned in only one sentence, this couldn’t be the topic. How about “The Value of a Car Radio”? The radio isn’t mentioned in the first two sentences, so this couldn’t be the topic, either.
To determine the topic, decide what subject is mentioned in each sentence. The topic could be “Snow Storm Causes Hazardous Driving
Conditions.”
Go back and read these two example paragraphs again to find the details that tell you the topics.
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Unity: Sticking to a Topic
Although paragraphs don’t have to begin with a topic sentence, beginning with the topic is usually an effective strategy. Putting the topic up front helps the reader predict the information that follows.
Wherever the topic sentence appears—the beginning, middle, or end of the paragraph (or not at all)—every sentence in the paragraph should contribute to supporting or developing the topic.
Dan decided to write a paragraph describing a black locust tree. He freewrote the following in his journal:
The black locust tree has flowers that look like sweet peas, it has seed pods, and it has deeply pitted bark. I remember reading somewhere that it was almost wiped out during the ice ages.
When I was a child, I always knew that when I smelled its blossoms, school would soon be over for the school year.
All of Dan’s information is interesting, but does all of it describe the tree? Some of it does, some of it doesn’t. So the next step is to sort through the information and select only those sentences that describe the tree. As he sorts through the sentences describing the tree and as he adds details, Dan realizes that the textures of the tree’s various parts present quite a contrast. He uses this fact about texture for the basis of his first sentence—his topic sentence.
The black locust tree presents an interesting contrast in textures.
Round, golden-green leaflets that look and feel like suede unfurl late in May. Its smooth, off-white, sweet-pea blossoms appear soon after. The rugged, vertical ridges of its black trunk contrast with the soft colors and smooth textures of the flowers and leaves. The twisted, bumpy seed pods with satin linings cling to the sparse, brittle branches long after the leaves have dropped.
Notice that every sentence in Dan’s paragraph contains a reference to the texture somewhere on the tree, thus fulfilling the promise of the topic sentence. The paragraph has unity; every sentence and every word belongs.
Here’s another example of a descriptive paragraph. As you read, identify the topic sentence. See if you can state the main theme of the paragraph in one brief phrase. Ask yourself, “What single idea holds all the sentences together as a unified whole?”
Ben is a striking man. Big and solid like a football pro, he is tanned a rich brown from working in the sun. His silver-white hair and his ice-blue, transparent eyes are startling against his dark skin. Although he has a slender nose, his thick lips and puffy eyelids give his face a sensual look.
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The topic sentence begins the paragraph. Each sentence shows a different aspect of Ben’s striking appearance.
Not all paragraphs are descriptive, of course. More often than not, writers write to relate ideas. The idea expressed in a paragraph might be something that can’t be seen or felt, but that you know about through reading or through conclusions reached by your own mental processes. For example, you might write to express thoughts on topics such as these:
· Why the crime rate is so high
· What should be done with the space program
· How your local government can function better
· Why dinosaurs became extinct
· How homeowners can improve their lawns
Dan decided to follow up on his recollection that the locust tree was almost wiped out during the ice ages. He went to the library and found some fascinating ideas. Then he wrote this paragraph:
The detective work of scientists has revealed that the black locust tree, which flourishes today in the Appalachians, was almost wiped out during the ice ages. As glaciers crept south through the
Appalachian Mountains, the black locusts fell before the crushing mountains of ice. The tree survived only in the summits of the southern Appalachians, where the glaciers didn’t reach. As the glaciers melted and receded, the hardy locust gradually reclaimed much of its former range. Today you can drive through the northern Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania and see tall stands of this hardy, thorny tree.
Notice, again, that the first sentence is the topic sentence. It tells the reader about the idea that the paragraph will develop. Every sentence gives further information about that idea.
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English in Action 5
The best way to learn how to write is to start writing. Here are two projects to get you started! 1. Think of an item, a person, or an animal that you feel you can describe well. Your subject can be anything from a baseball bat to a well-loved hat to your grandmother to the squirrel outside your window. When you’ve decided what you’re going to describe, take some scrap paper and freewrite a few sentences about your subject. The sentences should describe anything and everything about it in sensory detail—its size, shape, color, texture, smell, sounds, and so on. Write anything that comes to mind that might help a reader envision the subject vividly. Then sort through your sentences, as Dan did in his description of the locust tree, and pick out those sentences that you think belong together in a paragraph.
Do you see any all-inclusive sentence that you can use as a topic sentence? If so, put that sentence first. If not, think of a new sentence that sums up the theme of the other sentences in the paragraph. There must be something they all have in common; otherwise, you wouldn’t have chosen them for your paragraph! Begin the paragraph with your topic sentence. Arrange your remaining sentences in some sort of logical order. Now you have a first rough draft.
Take a coffee break. Walk around the block. Listen to some music. Weed your garden. Do something enjoyable to clear your mind for a few minutes before you return to your draft. Once your mind is clear, it’s time to revise your work—to see it again. Using the guidelines given earlier, rewrite until you’re satisfied that you have a well-written, clear, interesting paragraph.
2. Write a paragraph about an idea that you have. It might be an idea of how something can be improved or why you think a certain event happened. It might be something as simple as your plan for catching an elusive mouse or as complicated as various ways to discipline children. If you can’t think of a new idea, you might consider some of the ones we’ve mentioned already (for example, the crime rate, or one of the journal writing topics we gave you).
The subject you choose should be one that you know well. Choose a subject that you feel strongly about and can write about from experience or from ideas already in your mind.
Again, follow the writing process from prewriting exercises through planning, organizing, drafting, and revising. Remember that your sentences and paragraphs will be more interesting to your reader if you use specific details—strong nouns and verbs, colorful modifiers (adjectives and adverbs)—and a direct, lively style.
After you’ve written the final version of your paragraphs, you can turn to the answer section on page 41 for some helpful self-evaluation suggestions. Hold on to your paragraphs.
You’ll be working with them again later.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
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Coherence: Making Sentences Flow
One of the delights in watching a skillful athlete or a talented dancer perform is seeing how every body motion flows out of one movement and into another. The continuous stream of motion gives the movements power and clarity. If your writing is to be clear and readable, every sentence must flow easily like an athlete’s or a dancer’s movements. Sentences must go from one to another without any break in the forward motion of your thought. Sentences that abruptly start and stop leave readers wondering where they’ve come from or where they’re going.
Here are four suggestions to help you achieve a graceful and dynamic sentence flow:
1. Transitional words and phrases draw attention to relationships.
They help a reader follow the direction of your argument. We can categorize these transitional words or phrases according to the four types of relationships they indicate:
a. The relationship of continuation: again, also, similarly, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next to, continue, likewise
No one can doubt Herb’s honesty. Besides, he had no motive for embezzlement.
b. The relationship of conclusion: as a result, consequently, hence, in conclusion, so, then, therefore, thus, accordingly, to sum up, in short, in brief
This new sealing compound will be popular throughout the building industry. We should, therefore, begin marketing it at once.
c. The relationship of contrast: but, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, yet, notwithstanding, instead, conversely, in spite of, still, nor
Pauline led her department with energy and determination.
Nevertheless, her progress up the corporate ladder was slow.
d. The relationship of comparison or illustration: for example, to illustrate, that is, in other words, in fact, as has been said, as is well known, as a matter of fact
India is not a poor country. As a matter of fact, it possesses large reserves of iron and coal.
2. The deliberate repetition of key terms over one or two sentences will highlight each step in the advance of your thought and will aid reader comprehension. You must be careful, however, that
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the word or phrase is central to your meaning and that you don’t overuse it. Examples:
The by-products of our new promotional campaign have been numerous. One by-product is the increased consumer familiarity with our company and its range of services.
Nature’s wonderful engineering reaches its peak in the design of the hand. The hand has 25 joints capable of 58 separate motions. With these 58 motions people play, hunt, build, dance, destroy, love, and shape their aspirations with endless variety.
The symbolism of American Indian art flows from myths.
These myths are social creations of the tribe that celebrate and perpetuate its communal life.
3. Verbal links are used to hook the beginning of one sentence to the end, to something near the end, or to the whole of the previous sentence. Bill lay down beneath the tree. There, the rustling leaves formed a cool canopy over him.
Sentences not linked in a smooth flow break the reader’s train of thought. Such breaks tend to slow down or prevent effective communication. Before you hang any wallpaper, drop a plumb line. By this means you’ll keep all the strips in vertical alignment. (If the reader doesn’t know what a plumb line is, he or she has to stop and find out what one is.)
The demonstrative pronouns this, these, that, and those are an easy and convenient method for referring the reader to some part of the preceding sentence. However, you must always be sure that the pronoun’s antecedent—the word it refers to—is clear. Clear:
You won’t help the problem of our production shortfalls by your perpetual harping. That can only hamper creative solutions to our present as well as our future troubles.
Unclear: Blue chip stocks were falling, and my broker advised me to invest in selected mutual funds. This led me to revise my portfolio.
In the first example, the pronoun that refers to perpetual harping.
In the second, it’s unclear whether this refers to the falling blue chip stocks or to the broker’s advice. The easiest way to avoid ambiguity is to give a fuller statement of what the pronoun
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refers to, as this advice led me to revise my portfolio. In this last example, the demonstrative pronoun this has been replaced with the demonstrative adjective this and the noun advice.
4. Parallel repeats of similar word patterns, either within or between sentences, will lay down even tracks over which your meaning may roll without interruption. Examples:
For individual women, the balance of rewards and costs in having children may appear more favorable than the balance of autonomy and energy expended in pursuing a career.
(Parallel repeat within a sentence)
The issue is not whether we will ignore or help the poor. The real question is whether the poor will endure passively or explode in violence. (Parallel repeat between sentences)
English in Action 6
Take out the paragraphs you wrote for English in Action 5. Your sentences should all be unified. Each sentence should clearly relate to the topic. Ask yourself, are your sentences coherent? Do they flow one to the next in a smooth and logical way? Consider the techniques you’ve just learned about coherent style. Can you improve your paragraphs by applying these techniques?
After you’ve made corrections, put your work aside for a day or more. Then, reread with a fresh eye. Check that every sentence in the paragraph works with every other sentence to form a unified, coherent whole.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
Paragraph Structure
Just as there are many ways to come up with ideas and many ways to express them, there are many ways to arrange details in paragraphs.
Writers often place details in spatial order, chronological order, order of importance, or order of comparison and contrast.
Spatial order. When a real estate agent describes a house from front door to back door or from top to bottom, that person is ordering ideas spatially. To arrange details in spatial order means to place them in the order of their locations in space or in relationship to one another.
Here’s an example:
My mother always plants her garden the same way. She begins in the middle with peas. On both sides of the peas she plants lettuce. The next row on the right side contains broccoli, and the
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next row on the left side contains cabbage. Beside the broccoli she plants beets; beside the cabbage, radishes. She finishes the right side with several rows of corn. The left side, which faces the lawn, ends with several rows of flowers that bloom throughout the summer.
Use special order to describe parts of your subject—such as plants in a garden—according to their locations.
Chronological order. To arrange details in chronological order means to arrange them in the order of time in which they occurred. Stories that begin “Once upon a time” are usually told in chronological order.
You’ll find chronological order the easiest way to organize paragraphs that explain the steps of how to do something, whether it’s how to get to your house, how to make your special fish chowder, or how to do your job.
Order of importance. Writers often arrange supporting details in the order of importance, either from the most important to the least important, or from the least important to the most important. In newspaper articles, press releases, and business reports, the most important information usually goes first, so readers can find the main points right away. If your purpose is simply to relay information quickly, and if that’s what your audience expects from you, place details in order of most to least important.
In other cases, the more effective organization is from least important to most important. This structure is more dramatic and more likely to
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hold the reader’s interest. If your purpose is to entertain, captivate, or build a persuasive argument, and your audience expects to be engrossed rather than to gloss, place details in order of least to most important. Order of comparison and contrast. Another common way to develop a paragraph is to compare the similarities and contrast the differences between things. This may be done two ways.
1. You can show all the aspects of the first object and then all the aspects of the other object. Your paragraph will be composed of two halves generally equal in style and sentence structure.
My older daughter is the shortest girl in her class. She has brown hair, brown eyes, and a contagious giggle. My younger daughter is the tallest girl in her class. She has blond hair, blue eyes, and a contagious giggle.
2. Or, you can alternate aspects of the two subjects being compared and contrasted. Be careful to treat only one aspect at a time and make certain that the aspects are comparable.
My older daughter has brown hair and brown eyes; my younger daughter has blond hair and blue eyes. The elder is the shortest girl in her class, while the younger is the tallest in hers. However, they both have a contagious giggle.
Comparing and contrasting two people can give readers a clear picture of both of them.
36
The Writing Process, Part 1
Paragraph Length
Just as commas separate groups of words, paragraphs separate groups of related sentences into distinct units. Paragraphs also allow the eye a short break.
Today, there are two ways that we signal a paragraph:
1. By indenting the beginning of the opening sentence (about one inch in longhand or about five spaces in typewritten copy). Sometimes a line of space is inserted between indented paragraphs.
2. By not indenting the beginning of the opening sentence but by inserting a line of space between paragraphs. This is the method that’s used in many word processing and computer programs.
It’s the method that we’re using in this study unit.
A paragraph introduces a new topic or a new aspect of the same topic.
As we’ve discussed, a topic sentence at or near the beginning of the paragraph often states the controlling idea. All the other sentences in the paragraph should contribute to this idea. Of course, this assumes that the paragraph has more than one sentence. As a general rule, don’t write one-sentence paragraphs except in passages of dialogue or in brief transitions between main sections of your argument.
The three most common errors in paragraphing are
1. Failing to break written thoughts into enough paragraphs
2. Breaking written thoughts into too many paragraphs
3. Introducing irrelevant matter into paragraphs
Each of these errors can ruin the unity and coherence of a paragraph.
Insufficient Paragraph Breaks
The following paragraph develops two distinct though related topics.
Read it carefully and then decide where the paragraph separation should come.
Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues. In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers.
Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
The Writing Process, Part 1
37
Nuclear power has helped many communities is introducing a new aspect of the topic. A paragraph indentation there will tell the reader to watch for a new theme, in this case, the importance of nuclear power at certain times.
A technical subject, such as nuclear power, requires careful paragraph organization. Too Many Paragraph Breaks
The opposite fault—breaking material into paragraphs too often— produces a choppy, disconnected effect. No one can easily distinguish the topic from its development sentences in a group of short paragraphs.
Study the following paragraphs and decide whether each develops a single topic.
Key legislators, who are sympathetic to the emerging strategicarms treaty, are nonetheless urging delay in ratification.
The legislators have already had to face a number of controversial issues—Panama, Middle East jet sales, the Turkish arms embargo— all in an election year.
To add another touchy issue and give it the attention it deserves before the annual elections would be difficult.
No one wants to plunge into controversy just before a campaign.
All the legislators are up for re-election this year.
All of those paragraphs really center on a single theme: the reluctance of key senators to ratify a strategic-arms treaty. The sentences should therefore be grouped together as a single paragraph.
38
The Writing Process, Part 1
Irrelevant Matter
A third error, the introduction of irrelevant material into a paragraph, is especially distracting. (Irrelevant means not applicable or not necessary.) Irrelevant material breaks paragraph unity. It clogs the paragraph and hinders comprehension. See if you can discover the extra, irrelevant material in this paragraph.
The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. We don’t know for certain yet, since all the statistics haven’t yet been thoroughly sifted. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption.
Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. That would be a helpful boost, as all economists will agree, I think. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of next year. Wall Street has reacted to the upswing with a flurry of optimistic activity that no one could have foreseen. Investors have shown their interest in the capital-spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks.
The following sentences all interrupt the even flow of exposition in that paragraph by blocking it with extra or redundant information.
We don’t know for certain yet . . ., That would be a helpful boost
. . ., Wall Street has reacted . . .
Rewrite the paragraph without them and you’ll see how much more coherently it reads.
Composing unified and coherent writing is a process that can be learned. Clearly identify the purpose, medium, and audience for any writing project that you undertake. Follow the six primary steps of the writing process that we’ve presented in this study unit. If you do that, you should be able to write effectively. It’s hard work, but if you take it one step at a time, your chances for success are great.
The Writing Process, Part 1
39
Practice Exercise 3
In the following two examples, combine or separate sentences or passages as appropriate.
Delete any nonessential passages. Start a new paragraph only when a new topic is introduced. 1. Arson destroys neighborhoods as surely as mass bombing.
Only a few people commit the crime, but all residents must suffer the consequences.
How could it be otherwise, given the nature of the problem, with its tangle of social and economic issues?
Decaying buildings are torched by their owners to collect insurance money. This is a despicable crime and ought to be vigorously investigated and punished. Most arsonists escape punishment.
Burnt-out structures are, in turn, a haven for gangs and drug traffickers, who cause even more arson.
Once several blocks have been gutted, a kind of collective hopelessness grips those who can’t afford to move. The young may continue to set fires from hatred or from despair of ever escaping their crumbling prison.
The old and sick become the prey of robbery or random violence, their final years drawn into a whirlpool of fear.
The end comes when the municipal government gives up, curtails most services, and abandons the neighborhood.
2. Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues. In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers. Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
(Continued)
40
The Writing Process, Part 1
Practice Exercise 3
The sentences in the following paragraph are out of sequence. On a separate sheet of paper, determine the topic sentence and rewrite the paragraph with the sentences in the most meaningful order.
3. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption. Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. Investors have shown their interest in the capital-spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of the next year.
Indicate the type of order that would be most effective—spatial order, chronological order, order of importance, or comparison and contrast—to develop a paragraph on each of the following topics.
4. My Summer Vacation ________________________________________________________
5. How to House-Train Your Dog ________________________________________________
6. The Pros and Cons of Home Ownership_________________________________________
7. The Well-Organized Office ____________________________________________________
8. Project Feasibility Report______________________________________________________
Check your answers with those on page 44.
41
English in Action Answers
5
You might want to set your paragraph aside until tomorrow or even until next week. Then reread it, pretending that someone else has written it and that you’re trying to form a mental picture by reading the paragraph. Is the writing clear? Do all of the details carry through the idea of the topic sentence? Have you included all the important points that contribute to your subject? And why not complete the writing process by presenting your work? Let a family member or friend read the paragraph you wrote. Sometimes another person can offer an honest response that will help you to improve your writing. Choose someone who will be understanding of what you’re trying to accomplish. Before you give this person the paragraph to read, explain your purpose. In the case of your description, you want to know whether a clear picture forms in the reader’s mind as he or she reads it. With your second paragraph, you want to know whether the reader comprehends the idea.
After you’ve analyzed the paragraph, make any changes you feel are necessary.
42
English In Action Answers
NOTES
43
Practice Exercise Answers
1
Researching: Collect information from outside sources.
Journal keeping: Write in a journal every day, and turn to it when you’re looking for topic ideas.
1. False
2. False
3. True
4. A formal outline is strictly organized and follows a set format:
4. True
I.
5. True
A.
6. True
1.
2.
2
1. Prewriting
Planning
Writing the First Draft
Revising and Editing
Proofreading
Presenting (Going Public or
Publishing)
2. purpose, medium, audience
3. Brainstorming: Make a list of any ideas that come to mind about your general topic.
Clustering/webbing: This is a branching exercise. In the middle of a piece of paper, write your topic and circle it. Write and circle other ideas as they come to mind, connecting them with lines.
Freewriting: Without stopping, write sentence after sentence about your topic—whatever comes to mind.
B.
1.
2.
Webbing is a branching activity that shows the relationship between ideas.
The format is more flexible.
5. To revise is “to see again.” You read as if you were seeing the work for the first time and make changes to the overall organization of the piece. To edit is to make changes sentence by sentence and word by word to improve the flow of language and correct errors.
There are many ways to improve on these sentences. We’ve identified the clichés in each sentence and provided examples of possible answers.
44
Practice Exercise Answers
Possible
Revision
Cliché
6. fair and square
honorably
(or without cheating) 7. kill you or cure you
This medicine should cure you, but it may have negative side effects. 8. heart and soul
completely
9. leading a dog’s life
I’ve been lonely
10. face the music
accept the consequences. 11. I know where you’re I understand coming from your concerns
12. come apart at the seams this contract isn’t going to satisfy the client (or stand up in court) 3
1. Arson destroys neighborhoods as surely as mass bombing. Only a few people commit the crime, but all residents must suffer the consequences.
Decaying buildings are torched by their owners to collect insurance money. Burnt-out structures are, in turn, a haven for gangs and drug traffickers, who cause even more arson. Once several blocks have been gutted, a kind of collective hopelessness grips those who can’t afford to move. The young may continue to set fires from hatred or from despair of ever escaping their crumbling prison. The old and sick become the prey of robbery or random violence, their final years drawn into a whirlpool of fear.
The end comes when the municipal government gives up, curtails most services, and abandons the neighborhood. 2. This paragraph breaks in the middle with a second topic sentence: “Nuclear power has helped many communities.”
A paragraph indentation here will tell the reader to watch for a new theme, in this case, the importance of nuclear power at certain times.
Here is the same material that has been divided into two paragraphs.
Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues.
In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers. Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
3. The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption. Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of next year. Investors have shown their interest in the capital- spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks.
Practice Exercise Answers
4. chronological
5. chronological
6. comparison and contrast
7. spatial
8. Importance
45
46
Practice Exercise Answers
NOTES
Examination
47
The Writing Process, Part 1
98609700
Examination Instructions
Below is the examination for The Writing Process, Part 1. To complete this examination, follow these steps: 1. Use a word-processing program, preferably Microsoft Word, to complete the examination.
2. At the top of every page, include your name and student number.
3. Be sure to save your work.
If you do not have access to Microsoft Word, you must properly format your document by clicking on
SAVE AS, naming it using the student number_exam number format (e.g. 12345678_986097), and choosing FILE TYPE: Rich Text Format. This exam MUST be sent as a .doc or .rtf file to be graded electronically. Submitting Your Examination
1. Log onto the school Web site and go to My Courses.
2. Click on Take Exam next to the assignment you’ve completed.
3. Attach your file or files as follows:
a.
Click on the Browse box.
b.
Locate the file you wish to attach.
c.
Double-click on the file.
d.
Click on Upload File.
e.
Repeat steps a through d to upload any additional files.
4. Enter your e-mail address in the box provided. (Your e-mail address is required for electronic submission.) 5. Click on Submit Files.
48
Examination
Examination
Answer Questions 1–4 in one or two sentences.
Question 1 is based on the following paragraph.
A trip to the ocean can be a relaxing escape from the everyday pressures of life. A sailboat glistening on the horizon provides a mental escape to faraway places. The rhythm of the ocean beating against the sand is sedating music to a troubled mind. A slow, gentle breeze can relax your tensions. You should always be careful to avoid overexposure to the sun at the beach.
1. Type the sentences that answer the following questions:
a. What sentence is the topic sentence of the paragraph?
b. What sentence is unrelated to the topic and can be eliminated?
2. List four things to look for when you’re proofreading.
3. Complete the following two steps:
a. Define the term cliché.
b. Write one sentence that contains a cliché.
4. Name and explain two types of prewriting.
5. Choose one of the topics listed below and write a five-sentence paragraph using chronological order to arrange the details of the paragraph.
a. Signing on to my homepage is simple.
b. Writing a paper takes patience and time.
c. Let me explain how to make my favorite sandwich.
6. Choose one of the following topics. Write an eight-sentence paragraph that fully develops the topic.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Following instructions is very important.
Job training programs (such as Job Corps) are valuable to both employers and potential employees.
Advances in technology are making people less social.
A high school diploma is important to my future.
College is not for everyone.
Drunk driving can be stopped.
The Writing Process
Part 1
By
Lisa Rowe Fraustino, Ph.D.
About the Author
Lisa Rowe Fraustino, Ph.D., received her doctorate in English from the State University of
New York at Binghamton. She is a college instructor and a freelance writer and editor. She has published many stories and articles in national magazines, and she has written two young adult novels,
Grass and Sky and Ash, both published by Orchard Books.
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Copyright © 1998 by Penn Foster, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to
Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515.
Printed in the United States of America
10/18/10
iii
Preview
Do you send store-bought greeting cards rather than writing your own messages? Do you conduct all of your business affairs over the telephone to avoid the need to write? Do you avoid pursuing certain jobs requiring you to write reports or letters? If so, is it because you don’t think of yourself as a good writer?
Most people don’t consider themselves good writers. However, most people don’t give themselves a chance to be good writers. Most people have misconceptions about how good writers work. In this unit you’ll identify these misconceptions, and you’ll learn about the writing process, beginning with paragraph composition.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Identify common misconceptions about writing
· List and describe the stages of the writing process
· Compose a unified, coherent, and effectively structured paragraph
v
Contents
YOU CAN WRITE!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Writing Is Work
There’s More Than One Way to Write
The Writing Process Varies
Good Writers Are Rewriters
Writing Is a Way of Thinking
THE WRITING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Prewriting
Planning
Writing the First Draft
Revising and Editing
Proofreading
Presenting
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The Topic Sentence: Stated or Implied
Unity: Sticking to a Topic
Coherence: Making Sentences Flow
Paragraph Structure
Paragraph Length
ENGLISH IN ACTION ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
PRACTICE EXERCISE ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1
The Writing Process, Part 1
YOU CAN WRITE!
Are you afraid to write because you don’t think you’re a good writer?
If so, you may have some misconceptions about the writing process.
To find out if you do, read the pairs of statements in Figure 1. For each pair, place a check mark beside the statement that you believe.
For each pair of sentences, place a check beside the sentence that you believe to be true.
Column 1
Column 2
❑ Writing is easy for good writers.
❑ Writing is hard work, even for good writers.
❑ There’s only one right way to write.
❑ There are many effective ways to write.
❑ The writing process is ordered; it goes step-by-
❑ The writing process goes to-and-fro and some-
step.
times in circles.
❑ Good writers get it right the first time.
❑ Good writers rewrite until they’re satisfied with
❑ Good writers know everything they want to say
❑ Good writers often find out what they want to
before they start.
their work.
say through the process of writing and revising.
❑ Writing is an inborn talent; it can’t be learned.
❑ Writing is a skill; it can be learned with study and practice. FIGURE 1—Use this questionnaire to see if you have any misconceptions about writing.
If you checked some of the statements in the first column, you have misconceptions that cause many people to avoid writing. The statements in the second column are true. Understanding why they’re true will give you the confidence to express yourself on paper.
Writing Is Work
Writing is hard work, even for good writers. Some people who write well say that it’s easy. Maybe it is, for a lucky few. However, most people who write well say that they struggle to transfer their thoughts from mind to paper. They have to think hard to sort out their ideas and organize them so that a reader will be able to ride the same train of thought. 2
The Writing Process, Part 1
Just because writing is hard work doesn’t mean that it isn’t fun. The work of writing can be rewarding in much the same way as gardening, putting together a puzzle, planning a sports strategy, building a birdhouse, or doing any number of other activities that draw on creative energies.
Writing also has practical rewards that make it well worth the effort.
For instance, friends and relatives may treasure the letters you send, for they can be held in the hands and reread—unlike phone calls.
Whether you have a complaint, a request, or something else to say, a carefully worded business letter may get better results than a phone call. On the phone, it’s easy to get off the track and forget what you wanted to say. If you’ve made your point in writing, the person on the receiving end is less likely to misinterpret or forget what you said.
Finally, the ability to write effectively is one of the most sought-after job skills. People who write well have more career options and opportunities for promotion than people who can’t or won’t write.
There’s More Than One Way to Write
There are many effective ways to write. Writers don’t all come from the same mold. They have different ways of writing. You may share the common misconception that good writers always use an outline and stick to it. Actually, few writers are able to organize their thoughts so quickly and efficiently. Although outlining can be an effective way to approach a writing project, other ways are also effective.
For instance, Philip gets started by freewriting. He sits down with paper and pen and writes whatever comes to mind about his subject.
He doesn’t worry about his writing hanging together or making sense, because this isn’t going to be the final piece of writing. Once he has filled a page or two with these random thoughts, he reads through what he has written, searching for his most specific and interesting ideas on the subject. Those are the ideas Philip focuses on when he begins writing.
Liz is what might be called an intuitive writer. She doesn’t use an outline and doesn’t freewrite to get ideas. Instead, she thinks about a writing project in ways that might not seem obvious to others. Sometimes she even thinks right until the last possible minute and finds herself working through the night to meet her deadline.
For instance, Liz is asked to write something about censorship. She thinks she is against censorship, but beyond that she has never thought much about it and doesn’t know what she can possibly say. Now that she has to write about it, though, she starts to notice relevant details all around her. For instance, she notices a copy of
The Catcher in the Rye on her bookshelf and recalls that it was the ob-
The Writing Process, Part 1
3
ject of many censorship attempts. However, she likes the book and thinks it’s honest, so it makes her angry that anyone would ban it just because the main character swears and criticizes adults for being phony. When she listens to music on her CD, she thinks about record labeling and parents’ objections to kids having easy access to rock lyrics and MTV rock videos. Maybe those parents have a point, Liz thinks. Then again, where should we draw the line about who can see what? Who decides? Flipping through the cable TV channels,
Liz notes the frequency of sex and violence in television programming. Is this really appropriate for children? She starts to wonder if maybe censorship is sometimes necessary.
Then, in the newspaper, Liz notices an article about Mark Twain’s
Huckleberry Finn being challenged in a nearby school district because it contains words that are regarded as racial slurs. Liz is shocked. In this day and age, are schools still using books that are flawed by racial prejudice? She is becoming very troubled by now, but she doesn’t sit right down to write in defense of censorship. First, she asks a respected African-American teacher what he thinks of the book.
“It’s a great book,” he says. “People don’t like to see or hear a racial slur being used, but actually the character it’s aimed at is the most admirable human being in the book. The point is to see beyond the prejudice and bigoted language into the character of the person. This sort of thing should be discussed, not censored.”
Now Liz is truly fascinated by her topic. She interviews other AfricanAmericans who have read Huckleberry Finn and uses their opinions to defend the book against banning. She doesn’t bother with an outline.
By now, her ideas have taken fairly clear shape and she writes with excitement—throughout the night—and without an outline.
Ashley is yet another type of writer. She can’t write until she has read everything she can get her hands on about the subject. She is the type of person who goes to the library for one book, ends up browsing in the stacks, and brings home ten books. She can’t help it; she’s fascinated by all kinds of information. At first all of this information overwhelms her. There’s so much to write about. How can she narrow down a topic? As she reads, she analyzes what she is reading and comes to her own conclusions. Ashley is now ready to write.
Those are only a few of the most common ways to begin writing. If you’re an inexperienced writer, try beginning with an outline. If that doesn’t work for you, feel free to experiment with different ways of thinking through your ideas. Whatever works for you is what you should do.
4
The Writing Process, Part 1
The Writing Process Varies
The writing process goes to-and-fro and sometimes in circles. There are several stages in the writing process. However, writers often skip around among the stages, sometimes omitting a stage, sometimes sticking at the same stage for a long time, and sometimes going back to the beginning. Just as there are many ways to approach a writing project, there are many ways to work through it, and many ways to finish it.
Good Writers Are Rewriters
Good writers rewrite until they’re satisfied with their work. You shouldn’t feel pressured to get every word right the first time. In fact, you shouldn’t feel pressured to get every sentence or even every idea right in your first draft. The human mind is simply too complex to expect everything to be right in the first draft.
Professional writers say that they often get their best ideas during the third or tenth or twentieth revision of a work. Some writers have even thrown away whole books and started over when they finally figured out what they wanted to do and say. They don’t consider that a waste of time, however. Writing anything—whether it’s a paragraph, an essay, or a book—is like walking to a destination. You need to take every step it took you to get there.
Writing Is a Way of Thinking
Good writers often find out what they want to say through the process of writing and revising. You don’t need to have all your thoughts lined up neatly in your mind before you write them on paper. Some people can do that, but most people don’t think that way. In the process of writing down ideas, you get other ideas. In the process of thinking about those new ideas, you think in ways that you never would have imagined if you hadn’t been writing. Once you get to that point, you may find that your original idea has changed completely. You’ve learned something that you didn’t know before.
You can learn to write. Writing is a skill. Basic writing can be learned with study and practice. Anyone who can read and speak a language can become a competent writer. All you need are (1) the desire to do so, (2) some lessons in the writing process, and (3) practice.
Our goal is to teach you how to become a competent writer. Regardless of how much or how little talent and facility with language that we have, we can all learn to write better. That’s our objective here.
The Writing Process, Part 1
5
Practice Exercise 1
At the end of each section of The Writing Process, Part 1, you’ll be asked to check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Practice Exercise.” Writing the answers to these questions will help you review what you’ve learned so far. Please complete Practice Exercise 1 now.
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.
_______ 1. You must be born with writing talent; the ability can’t be learned.
_______ 2. Though some people deviate from the norm, there’s only one ideal way to write.
_______ 3. Good writers sometimes rewrite 20 or 30 times.
_______ 4. Writing is a skill that can be learned with study and practice.
_______ 5. Good writers often find writing a struggle.
_______ 6. It’s common for writers to change their minds about what they want to say after they get in the middle of a writing project.
Check your answers with those on page 43.
THE WRITING PROCESS
Just as there are many ways to write, there are many ways to describe the process of writing. In this course, we’ll break down the process into these stages:
· Prewriting
· Planning
· Writing the First Draft
· Revising and Editing
· Proofreading
· Presenting
As we’ve already mentioned, this process isn’t always linear. That is, writers don’t always include every step or follow each step in order.
They may begin writing a first draft without really knowing what they wish to say, for instance, and then go back and plan the revision using an outline. They may proofread as they go along and not make a special effort to do so as a separate step. Or, once they’ve gone through the entire process, they may decide to discard what they
6
The Writing Process, Part 1
have and start again. This may happen in business, for instance, when a proposal is rejected but the company wishes to pursue the project from another angle.
Prewriting
The first stage in the writing process is actually prewriting. This is what you do before you put pen to paper (or fingers to keyboard).
Prewriting comes even before planning because you don’t even have anything specific to plan yet. During prewriting, the first thing to do is to determine your purpose, medium, and audience.
Why are you writing? What do you hope to achieve? The answer is your purpose.
What form will you use—a letter, a memo, a report, a proposal, an essay, a poem, a story, or something else? The answer is your medium.
Who will read the final piece of writing? What are their needs and expectations? That’s your audience.
It’s important to understand your purpose, medium, and audience from the very beginning. Doing so will help you to work through the writing process efficiently and effectively. Without understanding these three elements, you’ll have trouble focusing your ideas and writing with confidence. Or, you may write with ease, yet unintentionally focus on the wrong points and fail to achieve the results you intend. Once you know your purpose, medium, and audience, it’s time to find out what your thoughts are about your topic so that you can decide how to approach your writing project. Suppose, for instance, you’re asked to write a paragraph about cars. What would you say?
Maybe it’s not even a topic that interests you. However, you have to come up with something interesting to say.
Who asked you to write the paragraph, and why? Let’s say, since this course resembles a classroom, that a writing teacher has given you this assignment. Your purpose is to demonstrate that you’ve mastered the basics of written English expression. Your medium is given—a paragraph. Your audience is the teacher and (let’s pretend) the rest of the class. So, what will you say in this paragraph to demonstrate your English skills to your teacher and classmates?
There are many ways you could get ideas. All it really takes to get you started on a writing project is one good idea that excites you.
Finding that idea is the goal of any prewriting exercise.
The Writing Process, Part 1
7
You can take five steps as you prewrite: brainstorming, webbing, freewriting, researching, and journal keeping. We’ll examine each here, beginning with brainstorming.
Brainstorming
What does the topic of “cars” bring to mind? To find out, try brainstorming. Make a list of every idea that comes to mind. Don’t exclude anything. Don’t worry about putting these thoughts in order. Right now you’re just writing down everything you think might be a possible focus for your paragraph. You may end up not using most of these ideas. You might even wish to brainstorm with one or more other people.
Ask questions. What do you think of cars? What cars do you like?
What would you like to read about cars? Other people may come up with ideas that will give you even better ideas of your own.
A list on the subject of cars might look like the list in Figure 2. Notice that the list could continue.
FIGURE 2—A Brainstormed List
Cars
Big cars
Henry Ford
Little cars
Model T’s
Are RVs cars?
TR7s
My first car
Used car lots
Car accidents
Drive-in movies
Speeding limits
Driveways
Speeding tickets
Garage door openers
Drunk driving
Car seats
Leather seats
Seat belts
Webbing
A similar exercise, called webbing, is perhaps even more useful than brainstorming. It shows relationships between some of the ideas you have. To begin, write your topic (cars, for example) in the middle of a piece of paper (Figure 3). Circle it. Draw a line out from the circle and write another word—the first word that comes to mind about the topic, for example, wheels. Circle that word, too. Draw a line out from there and write another word that comes to mind about the second circled word, for example, hubcaps. Circle the new word and keep going, for example, flat tire, my first flat, learned to change tires in driver’s ed., and
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nobody stopped to help. Then you can go back and start a new chain from the key word, cars. You can start many chains. Often, you’ll come up with something interesting.
FIGURE 3—Webbing
Freewriting
To freewrite, you fill a piece of paper with any idea that comes to mind about your topic. Don’t stop to think. Don’t lift your pen. Just write! Don’t worry about grammar or sentence structure or anything else except your topic. Your goal is to come up with that one good idea, and the best way to do that is to set your creative mind free.
Your mind can’t be creative if it’s worried about spelling and semicolons. Here’s an example of freewriting on the topic of cars.
My car got so hot today. The sun was shining in the windows all afternoon and heated the steering wheel into a fiery circle.
My car is a Geo, just a little thing, but it saves me money on gas and it gets me where I want to go. My first car was a gigantic
Plymouth Fury; we called her Megacar. Mega was used. The
Geo was new when I bought it but it sure looks used now! Mega handled a lot better than the Geo in the snow; I think big cars are probably safer. But it cost a mint to fill Mega with gas. And that was during the energy crisis. Cars and the energy crisis.
Now, that’s a topic! Whatever happened to the energy crisis?
Aren’t cars still using up limited resources? And polluting the environment? How come we don’t hear so much about that any more? I need to look into this.
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Freewriting can reveal the many ideas that constantly pass through your mind.
Researching
Many people like to look to outside sources for ideas for writing. For the assignment on cars, you might go to the library and look for information on cars. Or, if you’ve already decided you’re interested in one of the narrower topics you’ve come up with while brainstorming, clustering, or freewriting, you could look up more information on that idea. Read a biography on Henry Ford, for instance, or do some research on the energy crisis, the history of speed limits, or the pros and cons of small versus big cars.
Journal Keeping
Some people write their most interesting thoughts and experiences in a daily journal, which is a record of experiences, ideas, or reflections, kept for private use. If you keep your journal faithfully, it can be a good source of ideas to write about for other purposes. For instance, perusing the journal entries near the time you bought your last car, you might recall issues that were important to you and come up with a topic like “What to Look for When Buying a Car.”
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English in Action 1
Besides its personal benefits, keeping a journal every day is an effective way of improving your writing. Even with no teacher to evaluate your writing, the practice will make you more comfortable with words. You’ll develop a distinct personal writing style and start to understand the origins of your best ideas.
Begin keeping a journal. Write for five minutes every day, or fill one page every day. Don’t worry about your writing style or grammar or anything else. The only thing to worry about is making sure you do it every day! Make sure that you choose the right kind of journal format for your own personality and lifestyle. Some people write in composition notebooks because they’re sturdy. Others write on loose-leaf notebook paper because they can carry a page with them wherever they go and add the page to a binder later. Still others use small, lightweight notebooks that they can carry in a pocket or bag.
Write about anything at all that comes to mind. On days that you can’t think of anything to write about, consider using one of the following suggestions:
· Describe something or someone near you. It may be your shoe, the chair you’re sitting in, a child in your neighborhood, a dog that always sniffs around your lawn, a statue in the park, the dinner you ate last night, a flower losing its petals, a blown lightbulb— anything at all. Just make sure you paint a vivid word picture of your subject, using as many sensory details as you can: sight, smell, touch, taste, and sound.
· Write a letter that you won’t send, telling somebody something that you want to say but don’t dare to.
· Describe the most embarrassing experience of your life.
· Describe the most exhilarating experience of your life.
· Describe the most miserable experience of your life.
· Imagine that you’re a life form from another galaxy, visiting the planet earth for the first time. Write down the alien’s first impressions of the town where you live.
· Write your autobiography (your life story).
· Write down a story that someone in your family always tells at holiday gatherings.
· Explain what you like and don’t like about something you’ve read, such as a book or an article in a newspaper.
· Argue for or against a controversial issue: book banning, the death penalty, gun control, school prayer, teachers’ strikes, etc.
(Continued)
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English in Action 1
· Cut a picture out of the newspaper or a magazine. Paste it into your journal. Describe the picture or write a story about it.
· Write a letter to an advice columnist. Then, pretend you’re the columnist and write back. Whatever you choose to write about, remember that for most people, the more you write, the better you get at it. Most writers don’t arrive at a perfect copy on the first draft.
Practice is important.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your practice writing to the school.
Planning
Once you’ve found a topic you like, you’re ready to plan the piece of writing. In other words, it’s time to decide what thoughts you wish to include and to organize them in logical order. Planning requires you to keep your purpose, medium, and audience firmly in mind. What points should you make to achieve your purpose? What type of information is usually included in the medium (format) you’re using?
What information does your audience want and need?
Outlining
Now is the time to make an outline, if outlines work for you. Your outline may be informal and rough. To write an informal outline, jot down your key statement or purpose. Below it, write down supporting details. If you’re making an argument for something, use “because” clauses to help you think logically. Also, write down all the arguments that might be made against your point. When you’ve finished your entries, reread them and eliminate any that are irrelevant or weak.
Then number the remaining thoughts in order of importance.
Let’s turn to a new topic, computers, to create the informal outline in
Figure 4.
The informal outline in Figure 4 would be adequate for writing a short report. However, you may elect to write a formal outline. A formal outline helps you to sort big, main ideas from smaller, supporting details and to organize them all in logical order. You’ll find formal outlining especially helpful in organizing long or complex writing projects that include several main points.
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Key Statement: We need one additional customer service workstation with a computer terminal. 1. Because we’re so busy we can’t provide the level of service expected
2. Because we’re using four hours of overtime daily to complete the work
3. Because we have a person who could be reassigned to do customer service work half days without adding to payroll
4. Because we’ll save overtime money needed for the customer service representative and for the supervisor
5. Because the $12,000 annual savings in overtime costs far outweigh the one-time cost of
$3,000 to install a workstation and the monthly terminal leasing fee of $87
FIGURE 4—An Informal Outline
The formal outline in Figure 5 resulted in a report of several pages.
Each subtopic was developed in a separate paragraph.
To write a formal outline, place the main points after Roman numerals
(I, II, III, etc.). After each main point come the subtopics that will be used to support the main idea. Place subtopics after capital letters.
The subtopics, in turn, may require supporting details, and you should place these details after numbers. Finally, if the supporting details lead to still more specific details, place those after lowercase letters.
Each level of topic, subtopic, or details should include at least two items. All entries in a formal outline should be expressed in parallel grammatical form. For instance, you could write a complete sentence after each numeral or letter. Instead of complete sentences, Figure 5 uses nouns and prepositional phrases. The basic outline structure can be repeated until the outline is completed.
Mapping
Some people prefer to use a technique called mapping to organize ideas. Mapping is a branching activity. It’s a cross between clustering and flowcharting (Figure 6). Draw a circle in the middle of a piece of blank paper. In the circle, write your subject (such as Installation of
Personal Computers for Professional and Support Staff). From the circle, begin drawing branches with a main topic on each line (such as increased productivity, literature review, research). From these main branches, draw smaller branches containing the details or supporting arguments for each main topic. Don’t worry about the order in which you put the main topics. You’ll arrange them in the next step.
The Writing Process, Part 1
Installation of Personal Computers for Professional and Support Staff
I. Needs
A. Word processing
1. Letters
2. Memos
3. Reports
4. Proposals
B. Data entry/processing
1. Customer lists and data
2. Mailing labels
a.
By customer
b.
By zip/postal code
c.
By product previously purchased
d.
By date of previous purchase
e.
By value of annual purchases
f.
By contact source
C. Financial analysis
1. Unit sales by product
2. Dollar sales by product
3. Weekly, monthly, annual sales
4. Expense budget
5. Profitability
a.
By product
b.
By product line
c.
For the group
II. Current capability
A. Typing
B. Proofreading
FIGURE 5—A Formal Outline
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FIGURE 6—Mapping
When you’ve finished your mapping, number the main branches in the order that you think will best convey your message. In longer pieces of writing, each main branch with its supporting branches should be a single paragraph.
Finally, some writers prefer not to do any written planning. They do all the planning in their heads. If you’re the sort of writer who discovers what you wish to say in the process of trying to say it, then your plan will be very rough and tentative. You must be open to changes along the way. We stress again: that may be okay! We do advise that you at least try planning on paper to see if it works for you. If it doesn’t, and planning in your head does, then plan in your head.
Whatever works for you is the way you should write.
English in Action 2
Use the prewriting activities we’ve described to come up with your own idea on the subject of cars. Choose one topic to become the focus of a paragraph you would like to write.
Outline or map your main ideas.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
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Writing the First Draft
Once you’ve ordered the main points you wish to make, you’re ready to write the first draft. Some writers work laboriously, trying to get every word and every comma perfect in the first draft. However, the typical human mind simply isn’t set up to work that way. You shouldn’t put that sort of “perfection pressure” on yourself. You’ll find that your thoughts and your language flow much more smoothly if you write without stopping.
Don’t try to do too many things at one time when writing. Don’t attempt to write, edit, and rewrite each sentence and paragraph as you proceed. You’ll only get bogged down in the process and lose track of what you’re trying to communicate. You can avoid this problem by doing what many professional writers do—write straight through, letting your thoughts come out in writing as best they can. Follow your outline or map, but don’t stop to edit or rewrite.
If you veer away from the planned topic for a little while, don’t worry about it—your creative mind may be leading you to even better material. Any irrelevant digressions can be deleted later. (If you don’t know the meaning of digressions, look up the verb form digress in your dictionary.) Just let the writing flow. You’ll get the tough part behind you, and often the writing will be less stilted because you’re more apt to write the way you speak.
Whether you handwrite or work on a typewriter or word processor, it’s wise to double-space your work. Doing so will give you the space you’ll need for revisions.
English in Action 3
Following your outline or map from English in Action 2, write a rough draft of your paragraph on the topic of cars.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
Revising and Editing
For professional writers, nothing is as important as editing and rewriting. A professional writer often rewrites eight or nine times— sometimes even twenty or thirty times—and usually not fewer than three times. Of course, if you’re not a professional writer, you won’t need the level of refinement gained through eight or twenty rewrites! However, at least one rewrite is necessary for most writing.
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(An exception is informal letters to friends and family, who probably won’t mind if you don’t have a main point or if your letter isn’t a polished and professional text.)
How many times should you rewrite? As many times as you think necessary to communicate effectively, given your purpose, medium, and audience. And what does it mean to revise a piece of writing?
Revising
The word revise means “see again.” To see again suggests more than cleaning up minor errors. To see again suggests a new way of looking at what you’ve done. Revision requires you to look at your work as if you were the target reader, seeing the document for the first time.
You still shouldn’t be worried about little mistakes at this point. Your concern at this point is the big picture. Looking for little mistakes can bog you down and make it difficult to see bigger, more important problems in organization. Why spend time fiddling with little details that might end up getting cut or rewritten entirely? The best way is to get the whole piece of writing the way you want it, and then go through to fix mistakes line by line, word by word.
When you’re revising, these are the sorts of questions to ask yourself about the piece of writing as a whole:
Is it clear in purpose and in meaning? If not, rethink your organization and your approach. You may need to start over with different ideas. Are there parts that should be cut? Cross them out.
Are there parts that should be developed further? Add parts by writing between the lines and in the margins.
Are there parts that should be moved elsewhere? Move parts by circling them and drawing arrows to wherever you wish to insert the words.
Are there parts that should be condensed or combined with other parts within the document? Cross out those parts and rewrite between the lines and in the margins. Use the symbols in Figure 7, called proofreaders’ marks, to indicate corrections in your work. You’ll find that they help you to streamline the process. Using these symbols will be easier and clearer than writing out directions to yourself.
Editing
Once you have your major changes in place, it’s time to put to use what you’ve learned about grammar, sentence structure, word usage, punctuation, and spelling. Strive for a clear, concise style. To help you
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FIGURE 7—Frequently Used Proofreaders’ Marks
with your editing, here are some tips, many of which will sound familiar to you:
· Vary sentence lengths. Mix it up. Don’t have all short, choppy sentences, but don’t have all long ones, either. Strive for sentence lengths of 10–20 words. A few sentences may be shorter, but seldom should one be much longer.
· Look for and delete unnecessary words. Try also to concentrate wordy ideas into a single word. Make shapeless sentences clear, and cut out any dead or repetitious words.
· Eliminate irrelevant information. Don’t tell your audience every little detail you can think of about a subject. Stick to what adds to the information or to your argument.
· Get rid of dry, stilted, or cliché-laden language. The technical term for worn-out expressions such as taking the bull by the horns, happy as a lark, and slept like a log is cliché (Figure 8).
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Like all languages, English has in it a body of expressions that are overused at any given point in its history. Here are some expressions that are currently overused: all things considered, as a matter of fact, call on the carpet, circumstances beyond control, finishing touch, foregone conclusion, in the final analysis, in this day and age, it stands to reason, overall picture, point of no return, psychological moment, read between the lines, second to none, sell like hotcakes, behind the eight ball, cooking with gas, face the music, get the green light, I’ll buy that, in less than no time, long time no see, low man on the totem pole, shot in the arm, that’s for the birds . . .
The following phrases were, at one time, used in everyday conversation. Constant repetition, however, has robbed them of the fresh imagery they once conveyed. at the drop of a hat, break the ice, clean bill of health, close to the soil, come apart at the seams, handle with kid gloves, lead a dog’s life, mention in the same breath, raise one’s sights, rub the wrong way . . .
Some clichés, like the following, have been around for centuries. bring home the bacon, speak of the devil, you can’t have your cake and eat it too, busy as a bee, thin as a rail, quiet as a mouse, white as a sheet, sharp as a tack, slippery as an eel, slow as molasses in January, bury the hatchet, split hairs, put your shoulder to the wheel, let the cat out of the bag, put the cart before the horse, cook one’s goose, kill two birds with one stone, bite off more than one can chew, get up on the wrong side of the bed . . .
And these: down in the dumps, face the facts, lap of luxury, live and learn, point with pride, slow but sure, spic and span, sure as shooting, through thick and thin, by hook or by crook, fair and square, haste makes waste, high and dry, wear and tear, wine and dine, blow hot and cold, by means fair or foul, feast or famine, kill or cure, move heaven and earth, neither here nor there, open and shut, rain or shine, sink or swim, the long and short of it . . .
The list goes on: bag and baggage, fits and starts, hale and hearty, house and home, kith and kin, lord and master, part and parcel, pure and simple, toss and turn, well and good, boon to mankind, bow in defeat, brave the elements, by the same token, deem it a privilege, explore every avenue, irony of fate, paragon of virtue, picture of health . . .
How much better and more persuasive it sounds to say “It is a privilege to work with all of you in this department” than to say “I deem it a privilege to work with all of you.”
Should clichés ever be used? The answer is yes, when they’re employed consciously, effectively, and with purpose. Consider the person who offered a violin for sale “with no strings attached” and the writer who described amateur parachutists as “jumping for joy.”
Both were using clichés consciously, and they achieved delightful, original expressions. It’s reliance upon clichés—not the clichés themselves—that rub the wrong way.
FIGURE 8—Clichés can weaken your writing. Try to invent your own ways of saying what you want to say.
· Substitute specific strong verbs for weak or overused ones. Remember to use active voice, rather than passive, for a clear, direct style.
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· Replace generalities with specifics. It’s better to mention that 200 samples were distributed during a convention than to say that a
“substantial number” were given out.
Making comparisons is an effective way to replace generalities with specifics. Comparisons put the information into a recognizable and understandable context.
General: That building is huge and ornate.
Specific comparison: That building looks like a castle.
· When possible, change negative messages to positive. Rather than saying “We can’t meet until this project is finished in three weeks,” say “We can meet anytime after this project finishes in three weeks.” The positive approach shows that you really do want to meet with the person.
· Use lists to break up your copy and to make reading quick and easy.
When you use lists, remember to keep the entries parallel in structure. · Check and correct the grammar. Be especially alert to subject/pronoun agreement, subject/verb agreement, and proper pronoun form. Figure 9 shows a paragraph that has been revised and edited according to the guidelines we’ve given. Figure 10 is a typed version of the corrected copy of this sample revision.
Proofreading
Theyr’e not spellnig errrors; they’r ejust typls.
How did you react to the previous sentence? The mistakes are typographical errors. The sentence should read
They’re not spelling errors; they’re just typos.
Typographical and spelling errors interfere with the clarity of ideas.
They cast doubt on the accuracy of the entire document. If the attention to little details is careless, the reader wonders, might not the big details be carelessly handled, too?
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FIGURE 9—Sample Revision
When I think of cars, I inevitably think of my first flat tire. It happened the same day I got my first car—and it was raining. Luckily, I knew how to change tires. Nobody stopped to help me. I was late to pick up my friend for a joy ride in my new car, and I was wet, muddy, and miserable. It seemed only fitting when my hubcap fell off on the way home.
FIGURE 10—Corrected Copy of Sample Revision
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Everybody makes mistakes. Even the best typists make typos, even the best spellers misspell, even the best English teachers confuse who and whom, and even the best writers sometimes find that they’ve quickly scribbled their for they’re, or to for too. Most of the mistakes that make it into final documents don’t result from stupidity or even carelessness, though careless mistakes do happen too often. Most mistakes are simply overlooked because of our inability to see what’s really on the page. Instead, we see what we thought we put there.
Familiarity with material makes it difficult to pick out errors that practically leap off the page to someone else.
How can you avoid making simple proofreading mistakes that make you look careless when really you’re a perfectionist? Well, you won’t be able to catch all the mistakes, but you’ll come close if you apply all the skills you’ve acquired and you understand why the majority of mistakes occur. Here are some suggestions:
· Be consistent in the way that you handle paragraph indentation.
Either indent the first sentence of each paragraph or, if you don’t indent the first sentence, skip a line between each paragraph.
· Check for correct punctuation, including capitalization.
· Watch for grammatical errors. Keep an alert eye out for errors such as fragments, run-ons, faulty agreement, and incorrect comparisons. · Make sure you haven’t mistaken commonly confused pairs of words, such as there, their, and they’re.
· Some people get caught up in the meaning of what they’re reading and forget to look for little mistakes. To avoid this problem, professional proofreaders sometimes read backwards (from the end to the beginning of the document) to concentrate on small details of usage. If you tend to read fast, you might also cover the page with a plain colored bookmark or piece of paper to slow yourself down and keep your eyes focused on one line of text at a time.
· Be on the lookout for mistakes that may happen when you rewrite or type a new copy of a revision. These mistakes include repeated words, sentences, or lines; and skipped lines, sentences, or paragraphs.
· Learn to spell the words you use. Learn the spelling rules and the exceptions to those rules.
· Become familiar with the look of words in print. The next time you’re tempted to turn on the TV, pick up a book instead. Or, write a letter to a friend. While you’re reading or writing, keep a dictionary at your side and look up unfamiliar words. In fact,
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The Writing Process, Part 1
look up familiar words, too, if they’re the least bit tricky. You can make mistakes by assuming you know something and not checking to make sure you’re right.
· When you look up a word in a dictionary, say the word. See the word. Copy the word correctly. Try to spell it with your eyes closed. · Spell by syllables. Make sure that you pronounce the word correctly and that you hear all the syllables. Many people spell words wrong because they pronounce them wrong. Probably, for instance, is commonly misspelled as probaly. Take the time to look at what you’ve written and pronounce it correctly.
· Pay special attention to words that aren’t spelled the way they’re pronounced. Many people misspell words containing silent letters (debt, sign, exhaust, knife, night, pneumonia). Others have trouble with two-letter combinations that sound like one letter
(phone, rough, school).
· Many people also have trouble with homonyms, words that sound alike but have different meanings. Two/too/to, there/their/they’re, your/you’re, hear/here, no/know, and weather/whether are just a few examples.
· Keep a list of words you’ve misspelled and looked up. Use your list as a reference when you write, edit, and proofread your work. When typing, people tend to make the same sorts of mistakes. If you type your work on a typewriter or word processor, study it and see if you notice any patterns in your spelling typing errors. Pay attention to the details shown in Figure 11.
FIGURE 11—Common
Typos
COMMON TYPOS
Common Mistake
Typing Error
Dropped letters
Ther car is red.
Added letters
Theirr car is red.
Transposed letters
Thier car is red.
Wrong letters
Rheir car is red.
Substituted letters
Yjrot vst od trf/
Spacing errors
Thei rcar is red.
Wrong word
There car is red.
Corrected sentence: Their car is red.
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Presenting
The final stage of the writing process is presenting—giving the final copy to the intended audience. Professional writers, and some classroom teachers, call this stage publishing. We’re calling it presenting.
Every time you pick up a magazine, newspaper, print advertisement, flyer, brochure, report, or anything else in print, you’re reading what some other writer has presented.
You present your writing when you send notes and letters to friends and relatives. In your working life, you’re likely to present writing in various forms, from resumes to business letters to reports on projects.
Once you’ve reached the presenting stage, most of the hard work has already taken place. Now, before sending your work out into the world, make sure that it’s as perfect as you can make it. Carefully proofread it. Be sure that it’s formatted according to the conventions of the medium you’re using, and that it’s presented as cleanly and neatly as possible.
The final step in a writing project is presenting it for someone to read.
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English in Action 4
Write a letter to a friend or relative. Follow the writing process you’ve just learned about.
First, find a focus by brainstorming, clustering, freewriting, research, or journal writing.
Plan your letter by choosing the main points you’ll make. Organize your thoughts with an outline or web. Write a first draft. Then revise, proofread, and present the letter to your intended audience.
Choose one of these suggested topics, or invent one of your own.
What you did (or plan to do) on vacation
How you feel about writing
A major event or decision in your life
Developments at work
Your children’s activities
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your practice writing to the school. You may, however, send the letter to the person for whom you wrote it.
Practice Exercise 2
Questions 1–5: Answer the following questions.
1. List the stages of the writing process as discussed in this study unit.
________________________________________________________________________________
2. During the first stage of the writing process, you must first define your _______,
_______, and _______.
3. Name and briefly describe five prewriting activities that can help you decide what to write about.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the difference between outlining and webbing?
________________________________________________________________________________
5. What does revision mean? How is revising different from editing?
________________________________________________________________________________
(Continued)
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Practice Exercise 2
Questions 6–12: Read each sentence and draw a line through the cliché. Write a replacement for each cliché.
6. I thought that Robertson had won the game fair and square. _______________________
7. This medicine will either kill you or cure you. ____________________________________
8. Shirley believes in this policy heart and soul._____________________________________
9. I’ve been leading a dog’s life since Mona went to Cincinnati. _______________________
10. Benton decided to surrender and face the music. _________________________________
11. I know where you’re coming from, Alan, but we still have to work within company policy.______________________________________________________________________ 12. If we aren’t careful, this contract is going to come apart at the seams. ________________
Check your answers with those on page 43.
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a unit of thought that focuses and develops a single subject. Thus, a good paragraph is said to be unified. It’s also said to be coherent, from the Latin word meaning “to stick.” All the sentences in a paragraph should “stick together,” flowing logically from one meaning to the next. A unified, coherent paragraph may be developed in several ways.
The Topic Sentence: Stated or Implied
Typically, a paragraph begins with a topic sentence, a statement of the main idea or subject. Note how the italicized topic sentence orients the reader to what follows in this paragraph:
One of the most attractive features of word processing is the efficiency of editing documents. Mistakes are easy to fix, especially with the selections provided in the menu. The menu lists possible options for the user, such as “save” or “print.” Even better, you can do editing on screen—add this, delete that, substitute something here, rearrange something there. Or, if you prefer, you can edit a printout, called a hard copy. Either way, you don’t have to retype the whole document. Simply move the cursor (a blinking light or marker that indicates your position on the monitor) to the exact spot in the document where you want to add, delete, or move text. You can move the cursor up, down, left, or right.
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The topic sentence doesn’t have to be the first sentence. The topic sentence can appear anywhere in the paragraph. Many paragraphs build up to the main point, saving the topic sentence for last. Here’s an example:
The neighbor’s dog dug up my dahlia bulbs at eight o’clock in the morning. At nine, the water heater burst and soaked the family room carpet. My son was sent home from school with poison ivy at ten o’clock, and at eleven the rain started. The roof started leaking at noon. Some days just aren’t worth getting up for in the morning.
Can you identify the topic sentence in the following paragraph?
Accuracy isn’t the only goal in technical documents. You have to make sure the letter or report is clear, concise, and logical—in other words, readable. What makes writing readable? Writing teachers often urge their students to think of their purpose, medium, and audience as they write. Why is this document being composed? What form will it take? Who will read it and what are their needs? To communicate effectively, good writers keep these questions in mind.
The statement that best pinpoints the topic of this paragraph is the second sentence: You have to make sure the letter or report is clear, concise, and logical—in other words, readable. The remaining sentences in the paragraph somehow relate to readability. The first sentence doesn’t mention readability outright, but it leads up to the point through logical comparison.
In some paragraphs, the main topic is so obvious to the reader that it doesn’t have to be stated at all. This often happens in paragraphs that give directions or tell a story. What is the topic of the following paragraph? Computers were first intended to do quick mathematical calculations. Today’s computers can also be used to file information, create graphics, process data, and manage accounts. They also perform many other functions that help businesses run smoothly and keep costs down. Some offices use word processors that aren’t full-scale computers. They look something like electronic typewriters and use computer technology for the sole purpose of creating written documents.
Remember that each sentence in a paragraph contributes to the topic.
So some aspect of the topic must be present in each sentence. Could the topic here be “Why Computers Were Invented”? No. Only the first sentence touches on that. The same goes for “Computers and
Mathematics.” This paragraph has a more general purpose. Let’s try
“Computers in Today’s Offices.” No, that still isn’t right; then the first
The Writing Process, Part 1
27
sentence wouldn’t belong. A title such as “Some Uses of Computer
Technology” best sums up the paragraph.
Computer technology can not only help you compose a piece of writing, it can also be an interesting topic for writing.
Here’s another paragraph in which no single sentence states the topic.
However, the topic is clear from the information that’s given.
The snow on the roads had packed and frozen during the night.
As Ann drove slowly to work, she saw several empty cars that had skidded off the road into the snowbanks. The car radio blared news of an eight-car pileup on a highway, and it cautioned drivers to use an alternate route. Drifting snow had closed another highway, according to the announcer.
In this paragraph, could the topic be “Ann’s Driving Skills”? Since
Ann’s driving is mentioned in only one sentence, this couldn’t be the topic. How about “The Value of a Car Radio”? The radio isn’t mentioned in the first two sentences, so this couldn’t be the topic, either.
To determine the topic, decide what subject is mentioned in each sentence. The topic could be “Snow Storm Causes Hazardous Driving
Conditions.”
Go back and read these two example paragraphs again to find the details that tell you the topics.
28
The Writing Process, Part 1
Unity: Sticking to a Topic
Although paragraphs don’t have to begin with a topic sentence, beginning with the topic is usually an effective strategy. Putting the topic up front helps the reader predict the information that follows.
Wherever the topic sentence appears—the beginning, middle, or end of the paragraph (or not at all)—every sentence in the paragraph should contribute to supporting or developing the topic.
Dan decided to write a paragraph describing a black locust tree. He freewrote the following in his journal:
The black locust tree has flowers that look like sweet peas, it has seed pods, and it has deeply pitted bark. I remember reading somewhere that it was almost wiped out during the ice ages.
When I was a child, I always knew that when I smelled its blossoms, school would soon be over for the school year.
All of Dan’s information is interesting, but does all of it describe the tree? Some of it does, some of it doesn’t. So the next step is to sort through the information and select only those sentences that describe the tree. As he sorts through the sentences describing the tree and as he adds details, Dan realizes that the textures of the tree’s various parts present quite a contrast. He uses this fact about texture for the basis of his first sentence—his topic sentence.
The black locust tree presents an interesting contrast in textures.
Round, golden-green leaflets that look and feel like suede unfurl late in May. Its smooth, off-white, sweet-pea blossoms appear soon after. The rugged, vertical ridges of its black trunk contrast with the soft colors and smooth textures of the flowers and leaves. The twisted, bumpy seed pods with satin linings cling to the sparse, brittle branches long after the leaves have dropped.
Notice that every sentence in Dan’s paragraph contains a reference to the texture somewhere on the tree, thus fulfilling the promise of the topic sentence. The paragraph has unity; every sentence and every word belongs.
Here’s another example of a descriptive paragraph. As you read, identify the topic sentence. See if you can state the main theme of the paragraph in one brief phrase. Ask yourself, “What single idea holds all the sentences together as a unified whole?”
Ben is a striking man. Big and solid like a football pro, he is tanned a rich brown from working in the sun. His silver-white hair and his ice-blue, transparent eyes are startling against his dark skin. Although he has a slender nose, his thick lips and puffy eyelids give his face a sensual look.
The Writing Process, Part 1
29
The topic sentence begins the paragraph. Each sentence shows a different aspect of Ben’s striking appearance.
Not all paragraphs are descriptive, of course. More often than not, writers write to relate ideas. The idea expressed in a paragraph might be something that can’t be seen or felt, but that you know about through reading or through conclusions reached by your own mental processes. For example, you might write to express thoughts on topics such as these:
· Why the crime rate is so high
· What should be done with the space program
· How your local government can function better
· Why dinosaurs became extinct
· How homeowners can improve their lawns
Dan decided to follow up on his recollection that the locust tree was almost wiped out during the ice ages. He went to the library and found some fascinating ideas. Then he wrote this paragraph:
The detective work of scientists has revealed that the black locust tree, which flourishes today in the Appalachians, was almost wiped out during the ice ages. As glaciers crept south through the
Appalachian Mountains, the black locusts fell before the crushing mountains of ice. The tree survived only in the summits of the southern Appalachians, where the glaciers didn’t reach. As the glaciers melted and receded, the hardy locust gradually reclaimed much of its former range. Today you can drive through the northern Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania and see tall stands of this hardy, thorny tree.
Notice, again, that the first sentence is the topic sentence. It tells the reader about the idea that the paragraph will develop. Every sentence gives further information about that idea.
30
The Writing Process, Part 1
English in Action 5
The best way to learn how to write is to start writing. Here are two projects to get you started! 1. Think of an item, a person, or an animal that you feel you can describe well. Your subject can be anything from a baseball bat to a well-loved hat to your grandmother to the squirrel outside your window. When you’ve decided what you’re going to describe, take some scrap paper and freewrite a few sentences about your subject. The sentences should describe anything and everything about it in sensory detail—its size, shape, color, texture, smell, sounds, and so on. Write anything that comes to mind that might help a reader envision the subject vividly. Then sort through your sentences, as Dan did in his description of the locust tree, and pick out those sentences that you think belong together in a paragraph.
Do you see any all-inclusive sentence that you can use as a topic sentence? If so, put that sentence first. If not, think of a new sentence that sums up the theme of the other sentences in the paragraph. There must be something they all have in common; otherwise, you wouldn’t have chosen them for your paragraph! Begin the paragraph with your topic sentence. Arrange your remaining sentences in some sort of logical order. Now you have a first rough draft.
Take a coffee break. Walk around the block. Listen to some music. Weed your garden. Do something enjoyable to clear your mind for a few minutes before you return to your draft. Once your mind is clear, it’s time to revise your work—to see it again. Using the guidelines given earlier, rewrite until you’re satisfied that you have a well-written, clear, interesting paragraph.
2. Write a paragraph about an idea that you have. It might be an idea of how something can be improved or why you think a certain event happened. It might be something as simple as your plan for catching an elusive mouse or as complicated as various ways to discipline children. If you can’t think of a new idea, you might consider some of the ones we’ve mentioned already (for example, the crime rate, or one of the journal writing topics we gave you).
The subject you choose should be one that you know well. Choose a subject that you feel strongly about and can write about from experience or from ideas already in your mind.
Again, follow the writing process from prewriting exercises through planning, organizing, drafting, and revising. Remember that your sentences and paragraphs will be more interesting to your reader if you use specific details—strong nouns and verbs, colorful modifiers (adjectives and adverbs)—and a direct, lively style.
After you’ve written the final version of your paragraphs, you can turn to the answer section on page 41 for some helpful self-evaluation suggestions. Hold on to your paragraphs.
You’ll be working with them again later.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
The Writing Process, Part 1
31
Coherence: Making Sentences Flow
One of the delights in watching a skillful athlete or a talented dancer perform is seeing how every body motion flows out of one movement and into another. The continuous stream of motion gives the movements power and clarity. If your writing is to be clear and readable, every sentence must flow easily like an athlete’s or a dancer’s movements. Sentences must go from one to another without any break in the forward motion of your thought. Sentences that abruptly start and stop leave readers wondering where they’ve come from or where they’re going.
Here are four suggestions to help you achieve a graceful and dynamic sentence flow:
1. Transitional words and phrases draw attention to relationships.
They help a reader follow the direction of your argument. We can categorize these transitional words or phrases according to the four types of relationships they indicate:
a. The relationship of continuation: again, also, similarly, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next to, continue, likewise
No one can doubt Herb’s honesty. Besides, he had no motive for embezzlement.
b. The relationship of conclusion: as a result, consequently, hence, in conclusion, so, then, therefore, thus, accordingly, to sum up, in short, in brief
This new sealing compound will be popular throughout the building industry. We should, therefore, begin marketing it at once.
c. The relationship of contrast: but, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, yet, notwithstanding, instead, conversely, in spite of, still, nor
Pauline led her department with energy and determination.
Nevertheless, her progress up the corporate ladder was slow.
d. The relationship of comparison or illustration: for example, to illustrate, that is, in other words, in fact, as has been said, as is well known, as a matter of fact
India is not a poor country. As a matter of fact, it possesses large reserves of iron and coal.
2. The deliberate repetition of key terms over one or two sentences will highlight each step in the advance of your thought and will aid reader comprehension. You must be careful, however, that
32
The Writing Process, Part 1
the word or phrase is central to your meaning and that you don’t overuse it. Examples:
The by-products of our new promotional campaign have been numerous. One by-product is the increased consumer familiarity with our company and its range of services.
Nature’s wonderful engineering reaches its peak in the design of the hand. The hand has 25 joints capable of 58 separate motions. With these 58 motions people play, hunt, build, dance, destroy, love, and shape their aspirations with endless variety.
The symbolism of American Indian art flows from myths.
These myths are social creations of the tribe that celebrate and perpetuate its communal life.
3. Verbal links are used to hook the beginning of one sentence to the end, to something near the end, or to the whole of the previous sentence. Bill lay down beneath the tree. There, the rustling leaves formed a cool canopy over him.
Sentences not linked in a smooth flow break the reader’s train of thought. Such breaks tend to slow down or prevent effective communication. Before you hang any wallpaper, drop a plumb line. By this means you’ll keep all the strips in vertical alignment. (If the reader doesn’t know what a plumb line is, he or she has to stop and find out what one is.)
The demonstrative pronouns this, these, that, and those are an easy and convenient method for referring the reader to some part of the preceding sentence. However, you must always be sure that the pronoun’s antecedent—the word it refers to—is clear. Clear:
You won’t help the problem of our production shortfalls by your perpetual harping. That can only hamper creative solutions to our present as well as our future troubles.
Unclear: Blue chip stocks were falling, and my broker advised me to invest in selected mutual funds. This led me to revise my portfolio.
In the first example, the pronoun that refers to perpetual harping.
In the second, it’s unclear whether this refers to the falling blue chip stocks or to the broker’s advice. The easiest way to avoid ambiguity is to give a fuller statement of what the pronoun
The Writing Process, Part 1
33
refers to, as this advice led me to revise my portfolio. In this last example, the demonstrative pronoun this has been replaced with the demonstrative adjective this and the noun advice.
4. Parallel repeats of similar word patterns, either within or between sentences, will lay down even tracks over which your meaning may roll without interruption. Examples:
For individual women, the balance of rewards and costs in having children may appear more favorable than the balance of autonomy and energy expended in pursuing a career.
(Parallel repeat within a sentence)
The issue is not whether we will ignore or help the poor. The real question is whether the poor will endure passively or explode in violence. (Parallel repeat between sentences)
English in Action 6
Take out the paragraphs you wrote for English in Action 5. Your sentences should all be unified. Each sentence should clearly relate to the topic. Ask yourself, are your sentences coherent? Do they flow one to the next in a smooth and logical way? Consider the techniques you’ve just learned about coherent style. Can you improve your paragraphs by applying these techniques?
After you’ve made corrections, put your work aside for a day or more. Then, reread with a fresh eye. Check that every sentence in the paragraph works with every other sentence to form a unified, coherent whole.
This is a self-directed exercise. Do not send your answers to the school.
Paragraph Structure
Just as there are many ways to come up with ideas and many ways to express them, there are many ways to arrange details in paragraphs.
Writers often place details in spatial order, chronological order, order of importance, or order of comparison and contrast.
Spatial order. When a real estate agent describes a house from front door to back door or from top to bottom, that person is ordering ideas spatially. To arrange details in spatial order means to place them in the order of their locations in space or in relationship to one another.
Here’s an example:
My mother always plants her garden the same way. She begins in the middle with peas. On both sides of the peas she plants lettuce. The next row on the right side contains broccoli, and the
34
The Writing Process, Part 1
next row on the left side contains cabbage. Beside the broccoli she plants beets; beside the cabbage, radishes. She finishes the right side with several rows of corn. The left side, which faces the lawn, ends with several rows of flowers that bloom throughout the summer.
Use special order to describe parts of your subject—such as plants in a garden—according to their locations.
Chronological order. To arrange details in chronological order means to arrange them in the order of time in which they occurred. Stories that begin “Once upon a time” are usually told in chronological order.
You’ll find chronological order the easiest way to organize paragraphs that explain the steps of how to do something, whether it’s how to get to your house, how to make your special fish chowder, or how to do your job.
Order of importance. Writers often arrange supporting details in the order of importance, either from the most important to the least important, or from the least important to the most important. In newspaper articles, press releases, and business reports, the most important information usually goes first, so readers can find the main points right away. If your purpose is simply to relay information quickly, and if that’s what your audience expects from you, place details in order of most to least important.
In other cases, the more effective organization is from least important to most important. This structure is more dramatic and more likely to
The Writing Process, Part 1
35
hold the reader’s interest. If your purpose is to entertain, captivate, or build a persuasive argument, and your audience expects to be engrossed rather than to gloss, place details in order of least to most important. Order of comparison and contrast. Another common way to develop a paragraph is to compare the similarities and contrast the differences between things. This may be done two ways.
1. You can show all the aspects of the first object and then all the aspects of the other object. Your paragraph will be composed of two halves generally equal in style and sentence structure.
My older daughter is the shortest girl in her class. She has brown hair, brown eyes, and a contagious giggle. My younger daughter is the tallest girl in her class. She has blond hair, blue eyes, and a contagious giggle.
2. Or, you can alternate aspects of the two subjects being compared and contrasted. Be careful to treat only one aspect at a time and make certain that the aspects are comparable.
My older daughter has brown hair and brown eyes; my younger daughter has blond hair and blue eyes. The elder is the shortest girl in her class, while the younger is the tallest in hers. However, they both have a contagious giggle.
Comparing and contrasting two people can give readers a clear picture of both of them.
36
The Writing Process, Part 1
Paragraph Length
Just as commas separate groups of words, paragraphs separate groups of related sentences into distinct units. Paragraphs also allow the eye a short break.
Today, there are two ways that we signal a paragraph:
1. By indenting the beginning of the opening sentence (about one inch in longhand or about five spaces in typewritten copy). Sometimes a line of space is inserted between indented paragraphs.
2. By not indenting the beginning of the opening sentence but by inserting a line of space between paragraphs. This is the method that’s used in many word processing and computer programs.
It’s the method that we’re using in this study unit.
A paragraph introduces a new topic or a new aspect of the same topic.
As we’ve discussed, a topic sentence at or near the beginning of the paragraph often states the controlling idea. All the other sentences in the paragraph should contribute to this idea. Of course, this assumes that the paragraph has more than one sentence. As a general rule, don’t write one-sentence paragraphs except in passages of dialogue or in brief transitions between main sections of your argument.
The three most common errors in paragraphing are
1. Failing to break written thoughts into enough paragraphs
2. Breaking written thoughts into too many paragraphs
3. Introducing irrelevant matter into paragraphs
Each of these errors can ruin the unity and coherence of a paragraph.
Insufficient Paragraph Breaks
The following paragraph develops two distinct though related topics.
Read it carefully and then decide where the paragraph separation should come.
Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues. In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers.
Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
The Writing Process, Part 1
37
Nuclear power has helped many communities is introducing a new aspect of the topic. A paragraph indentation there will tell the reader to watch for a new theme, in this case, the importance of nuclear power at certain times.
A technical subject, such as nuclear power, requires careful paragraph organization. Too Many Paragraph Breaks
The opposite fault—breaking material into paragraphs too often— produces a choppy, disconnected effect. No one can easily distinguish the topic from its development sentences in a group of short paragraphs.
Study the following paragraphs and decide whether each develops a single topic.
Key legislators, who are sympathetic to the emerging strategicarms treaty, are nonetheless urging delay in ratification.
The legislators have already had to face a number of controversial issues—Panama, Middle East jet sales, the Turkish arms embargo— all in an election year.
To add another touchy issue and give it the attention it deserves before the annual elections would be difficult.
No one wants to plunge into controversy just before a campaign.
All the legislators are up for re-election this year.
All of those paragraphs really center on a single theme: the reluctance of key senators to ratify a strategic-arms treaty. The sentences should therefore be grouped together as a single paragraph.
38
The Writing Process, Part 1
Irrelevant Matter
A third error, the introduction of irrelevant material into a paragraph, is especially distracting. (Irrelevant means not applicable or not necessary.) Irrelevant material breaks paragraph unity. It clogs the paragraph and hinders comprehension. See if you can discover the extra, irrelevant material in this paragraph.
The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. We don’t know for certain yet, since all the statistics haven’t yet been thoroughly sifted. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption.
Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. That would be a helpful boost, as all economists will agree, I think. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of next year. Wall Street has reacted to the upswing with a flurry of optimistic activity that no one could have foreseen. Investors have shown their interest in the capital-spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks.
The following sentences all interrupt the even flow of exposition in that paragraph by blocking it with extra or redundant information.
We don’t know for certain yet . . ., That would be a helpful boost
. . ., Wall Street has reacted . . .
Rewrite the paragraph without them and you’ll see how much more coherently it reads.
Composing unified and coherent writing is a process that can be learned. Clearly identify the purpose, medium, and audience for any writing project that you undertake. Follow the six primary steps of the writing process that we’ve presented in this study unit. If you do that, you should be able to write effectively. It’s hard work, but if you take it one step at a time, your chances for success are great.
The Writing Process, Part 1
39
Practice Exercise 3
In the following two examples, combine or separate sentences or passages as appropriate.
Delete any nonessential passages. Start a new paragraph only when a new topic is introduced. 1. Arson destroys neighborhoods as surely as mass bombing.
Only a few people commit the crime, but all residents must suffer the consequences.
How could it be otherwise, given the nature of the problem, with its tangle of social and economic issues?
Decaying buildings are torched by their owners to collect insurance money. This is a despicable crime and ought to be vigorously investigated and punished. Most arsonists escape punishment.
Burnt-out structures are, in turn, a haven for gangs and drug traffickers, who cause even more arson.
Once several blocks have been gutted, a kind of collective hopelessness grips those who can’t afford to move. The young may continue to set fires from hatred or from despair of ever escaping their crumbling prison.
The old and sick become the prey of robbery or random violence, their final years drawn into a whirlpool of fear.
The end comes when the municipal government gives up, curtails most services, and abandons the neighborhood.
2. Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues. In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers. Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
(Continued)
40
The Writing Process, Part 1
Practice Exercise 3
The sentences in the following paragraph are out of sequence. On a separate sheet of paper, determine the topic sentence and rewrite the paragraph with the sentences in the most meaningful order.
3. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption. Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. Investors have shown their interest in the capital-spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of the next year.
Indicate the type of order that would be most effective—spatial order, chronological order, order of importance, or comparison and contrast—to develop a paragraph on each of the following topics.
4. My Summer Vacation ________________________________________________________
5. How to House-Train Your Dog ________________________________________________
6. The Pros and Cons of Home Ownership_________________________________________
7. The Well-Organized Office ____________________________________________________
8. Project Feasibility Report______________________________________________________
Check your answers with those on page 44.
41
English in Action Answers
5
You might want to set your paragraph aside until tomorrow or even until next week. Then reread it, pretending that someone else has written it and that you’re trying to form a mental picture by reading the paragraph. Is the writing clear? Do all of the details carry through the idea of the topic sentence? Have you included all the important points that contribute to your subject? And why not complete the writing process by presenting your work? Let a family member or friend read the paragraph you wrote. Sometimes another person can offer an honest response that will help you to improve your writing. Choose someone who will be understanding of what you’re trying to accomplish. Before you give this person the paragraph to read, explain your purpose. In the case of your description, you want to know whether a clear picture forms in the reader’s mind as he or she reads it. With your second paragraph, you want to know whether the reader comprehends the idea.
After you’ve analyzed the paragraph, make any changes you feel are necessary.
42
English In Action Answers
NOTES
43
Practice Exercise Answers
1
Researching: Collect information from outside sources.
Journal keeping: Write in a journal every day, and turn to it when you’re looking for topic ideas.
1. False
2. False
3. True
4. A formal outline is strictly organized and follows a set format:
4. True
I.
5. True
A.
6. True
1.
2.
2
1. Prewriting
Planning
Writing the First Draft
Revising and Editing
Proofreading
Presenting (Going Public or
Publishing)
2. purpose, medium, audience
3. Brainstorming: Make a list of any ideas that come to mind about your general topic.
Clustering/webbing: This is a branching exercise. In the middle of a piece of paper, write your topic and circle it. Write and circle other ideas as they come to mind, connecting them with lines.
Freewriting: Without stopping, write sentence after sentence about your topic—whatever comes to mind.
B.
1.
2.
Webbing is a branching activity that shows the relationship between ideas.
The format is more flexible.
5. To revise is “to see again.” You read as if you were seeing the work for the first time and make changes to the overall organization of the piece. To edit is to make changes sentence by sentence and word by word to improve the flow of language and correct errors.
There are many ways to improve on these sentences. We’ve identified the clichés in each sentence and provided examples of possible answers.
44
Practice Exercise Answers
Possible
Revision
Cliché
6. fair and square
honorably
(or without cheating) 7. kill you or cure you
This medicine should cure you, but it may have negative side effects. 8. heart and soul
completely
9. leading a dog’s life
I’ve been lonely
10. face the music
accept the consequences. 11. I know where you’re I understand coming from your concerns
12. come apart at the seams this contract isn’t going to satisfy the client (or stand up in court) 3
1. Arson destroys neighborhoods as surely as mass bombing. Only a few people commit the crime, but all residents must suffer the consequences.
Decaying buildings are torched by their owners to collect insurance money. Burnt-out structures are, in turn, a haven for gangs and drug traffickers, who cause even more arson. Once several blocks have been gutted, a kind of collective hopelessness grips those who can’t afford to move. The young may continue to set fires from hatred or from despair of ever escaping their crumbling prison. The old and sick become the prey of robbery or random violence, their final years drawn into a whirlpool of fear.
The end comes when the municipal government gives up, curtails most services, and abandons the neighborhood. 2. This paragraph breaks in the middle with a second topic sentence: “Nuclear power has helped many communities.”
A paragraph indentation here will tell the reader to watch for a new theme, in this case, the importance of nuclear power at certain times.
Here is the same material that has been divided into two paragraphs.
Proponents and opponents of nuclear plants disagree on a number of issues.
In particular, the question of safe disposal of nuclear wastes has created strong feelings and considerable conflict. Nuclear power has helped many communities. It provides the additional electricity desperately needed during stress periods such as extremely cold winters and hot summers. Nuclear power has proved to be an important supplement to fossil fuel sources, especially in areas where fossil fuel is scarce.
3. The increase in capital spending for the second half of the year may turn out to be a mainstay of the economy. There seem to be good grounds for making the assumption. Business plans for capital spending this year are so strong that they may spill over into the coming year. This could come as a welcome event, since many business analysts are now predicting a recession in the latter part of this year or the beginning of next year. Investors have shown their interest in the capital- spending sector by increased investment in business equipment, instruments and electronics, and movie and recreational stocks.
Practice Exercise Answers
4. chronological
5. chronological
6. comparison and contrast
7. spatial
8. Importance
45
46
Practice Exercise Answers
NOTES
Examination
47
The Writing Process, Part 1
98609700
Examination Instructions
Below is the examination for The Writing Process, Part 1. To complete this examination, follow these steps: 1. Use a word-processing program, preferably Microsoft Word, to complete the examination.
2. At the top of every page, include your name and student number.
3. Be sure to save your work.
If you do not have access to Microsoft Word, you must properly format your document by clicking on
SAVE AS, naming it using the student number_exam number format (e.g. 12345678_986097), and choosing FILE TYPE: Rich Text Format. This exam MUST be sent as a .doc or .rtf file to be graded electronically. Submitting Your Examination
1. Log onto the school Web site and go to My Courses.
2. Click on Take Exam next to the assignment you’ve completed.
3. Attach your file or files as follows:
a.
Click on the Browse box.
b.
Locate the file you wish to attach.
c.
Double-click on the file.
d.
Click on Upload File.
e.
Repeat steps a through d to upload any additional files.
4. Enter your e-mail address in the box provided. (Your e-mail address is required for electronic submission.) 5. Click on Submit Files.
48
Examination
Examination
Answer Questions 1–4 in one or two sentences.
Question 1 is based on the following paragraph.
A trip to the ocean can be a relaxing escape from the everyday pressures of life. A sailboat glistening on the horizon provides a mental escape to faraway places. The rhythm of the ocean beating against the sand is sedating music to a troubled mind. A slow, gentle breeze can relax your tensions. You should always be careful to avoid overexposure to the sun at the beach.
1. Type the sentences that answer the following questions:
a. What sentence is the topic sentence of the paragraph?
b. What sentence is unrelated to the topic and can be eliminated?
2. List four things to look for when you’re proofreading.
3. Complete the following two steps:
a. Define the term cliché.
b. Write one sentence that contains a cliché.
4. Name and explain two types of prewriting.
5. Choose one of the topics listed below and write a five-sentence paragraph using chronological order to arrange the details of the paragraph.
a. Signing on to my homepage is simple.
b. Writing a paper takes patience and time.
c. Let me explain how to make my favorite sandwich.
6. Choose one of the following topics. Write an eight-sentence paragraph that fully develops the topic.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Following instructions is very important.
Job training programs (such as Job Corps) are valuable to both employers and potential employees.
Advances in technology are making people less social.
A high school diploma is important to my future.
College is not for everyone.
Drunk driving can be stopped.
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