19th Century Imperialism

The long nineteenth century brought about extensive challenges to the traditional societies of Asia, as Western European imperialist nations rapidly industrialized and expanded their global spheres of influence through imperialism and colonialism. The three players in this war of modernization: China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan, were confronted with the paramount need to modernize and adapt to this new reality of Western dominance or risk being colonized themselves. While all three pursued programs of reform and modernization, China and the Ottoman Empire were too little too late. Slowed by domestic conservative opposition to change, they were unable to maintain pace with Japan, who most eagerly adopted Western models through a unique program of selective
Much like China, the Ottoman Empire remained a feudalistic and obsolete empire which severely lagged behind Europe in terms of modernization, industrialization, and social reformation. Eventually realizing the threat of European colonization, the Ottoman Empire embarked on a series of reform efforts aimed at modernizing and strengthening the ailing state in the face of Western encroachment. However, these initiatives were ultimately hampered by staunch religious conservatism and the empire's absolute sultanate. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Sultan Mahmud II in 1839, aimed at adopting Western military technologies, systems, and ideals, but faced intense opposition from religious leaders and entrenched patrimonial elite who perceived them as threats to Islamic traditions. Subsequent reform movements like the Young Ottomans advocated constitutionalism and adapted aspects of secular nationalism, yet struggled against the longstanding reliance on medieval theocratic ideologies and loyalty