Abnormal Psychology ADHD Essay

Name
Chua Mu Fen Kelda
Student No.
32510115
Unit Code
PSY 213
Unit Name
Abnormal Psychology
Class Code
PSY 213 B
Local Lecturer’s name
Miss Mel Cheang
Assignment No. (ie. 1,2,3) or ‘short answer’
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PSY 213: Abnormal Psychology
Chua Mu Fen Kelda (32510115)
Tutor Name and Class Code: Mel Cheang (PSY 213 B)
Question 1: Is ADHD caused by poor parenting?
Nature and Nurture of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Does Poor Parenting Cause ADHD?
Number of Words: 1485
Date of Submission: 3rd November 2014

Nature and Nurture of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Does Poor Parenting Cause ADHD?
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a psychiatric disorder that is most commonly diagnosed in children (Hay, Bennett, Levy, Sergeant & Swanson, 2007). ADHD is defined as a symptom of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsivity (APA, 2013). As according to the American Psychological Association (2013), three to five percent of children are diagnosed with ADHD. Children show inattention and hyperactivity or impulsivity, hoxwever some will show only one of the two symptoms mentioned (Ford, Goodman, & Meltzer, 2003). There have been controversies on factors that contribute to the etiology of ADHD (Bailey, 2009). There have been speculations on the causes of ADHD. Debates about factors causing ADHD have been strongly discussed concluding in two factors. Firstly, ADHD is a disorder with neurobiological correlation (Rohde, Szobot, Polanczyk, Schimitz, Martins & Tramontina, 2005) and hereditability (Swanson, Flodman, Kennedy Spence, Moyzis, Schuck, Murias, Moriarity, Barr, Smith & Posner, 2000). On the other hand, ADHD could be due to the development of the child, parental methods and the child’s learning abilities (Singh, 2008). These factors can be further classified into two areas, nature and nurture.

In this paper, I will first state the factors that contribute to the etiology of ADHD. Secondly, this paper will then take on the stance of ADHD being a neurodevelopmental disorder and not caused by poor parenting. Next, treatment methods for ADHD will be discussed. Finally, I will conclude that ADHD is a neurological disorder.
In the early stages of a child’s development, parenting is seen as a vital role towards building characters and behaviors of a child (Rogers, Wiener, Maron & Tannock, 2009). Rogers and colleagues suggested that parenting does not cause ADHD. Parenting skills are needed to help nurture a child for his/her future. Parental involvement of a child’s development may defer. However, parents are not the only concern affecting the behavioral and mental problems of a child. Many parents with ADHD children experience the ‘blame game’ (Harborne, Wolpert & Clare, 2014), where parents get blamed for the way their children behave.

The study conducted by Rogers and colleagues (2009) amplifies that importance and challenges towards parenting a child with ADHD. It was further suggested that parents have lower self-efficacy in their ability to engage their child. This could perhaps result in a mindset of poor parenting. On the other hand, studies have shown that there is relationship between parenting and ADHD (Ellis & Nigg, 2009).

Children with ADHD tend to perform worst academically (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). They also display behavioral challenges such as being inattentive and overactive. This in turn may cause parents to lose control and stability of their parenting methods. The child’s condition and parenting style may be in constant conflict. Hence, parents may react in a negative manner, causing struggles between the child and the parent (Rogers et al, 2009).

Parental involvement in children’s learning will allow better performance in academic achievements. Eccles and Harold (1996) stated that parental involvement is positively correlated with the parent’s beliefs of the child’s academic performance. Therefore, parents should be more involved in their child’s learning to allow better development of the child, especially in academic context.

Besides parenting, environmental factors suggest a higher risk of developing ADHD. Environmental factors include a child’s exposure to substances like alcohol, nicotine and cocaine. Other factor that increases the risk of ADHD includes prenatal and postnatal environmental conditions and delivery procedure (Biederman & Faraone, 2005). Environmental factors are present only as a risk of ADHD; however, it is still a consideration on how ADHD is caused. In present context, it is not easy for parents to handle stress from their work and children. Pressman and colleagues (2006) studied family environmental factors with ADHD children (Pressman, Loo, Carpenter, Asarnow, Lynn, McCracken et al., 2006). Results show that parents of children with ADHD experience a higher level of stress in the household (Pressman et al., 2006). Stress factors include under achieving and being disorganized. Pressman et al. (2006) also added the strong relation between impairment of the child with ADHD and their family environment, stating that ‘different processes and mechanisms’ are contributing factor even with affected siblings pairs.

There have been considerations of genetic contribution to the neurodevelopment of ADHD (Levy, Hay, & Bennett, 2006). Family studies have shown the higher risk of ADHD in future generations (Cortese, 2012). Nigg (2005) stated that the hereditability of ADHD could be the key factor towards ADHD. Studies have shown that approximately 60% of children have ADHD due to hereditability from previous generations (Minde, Hectman, Ochs, Bouffard, Greenfield et al., 2003). ADHD heritability studies conducted shown approximately 75 – 91 percent heritability across twin, sibling and twin-sibling relationships (Levy, Hay, McStephen, Wood & Waldman, 1997). Research on twin studies has reported a monozygotic probandwise concordance rate and dizygotic concordance rate of 51 and 33 percent respectively (Sherman, McGue & Iacono, 1997).

Studies pointed towards neuropsychological deficits with many studies resulting in executive functions among children with ADHD (Rapport, Orban, Kofler & Friedman, 2013). Over the past decade, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been used to examine the different areas of the brain (Krain & Castellanos 2006). MRI research focuses on areas such as the prefrontal cortex and cerebral cortex.

A Neuro-cognitive model describes ADHD as a dysfunction due to disturbances in the frontal-dorsal striatal circuit and particular dopaminergic branches. Recent studies reported an approximate of four percent of reduction in overall brain size of children with ADHD (Krain & Castellanos, 2006). However, there is no substantial evidence in research to allow conclusions of the brain variations causing ADHD behaviors (Six & Pnksepp, 2012).

Neurobiological factors are considered as a cause of ADHD. Tripp and Wickens (2009) suggested that ‘genetic factors in ADHD are likely to involve multiple genes of moderate effect’. Perhaps, this allows understanding on how genetics may be an influence to the etiology of ADHD.

A child’s food consumption has sparked many controversies in relation to ADHD. ADHD can be contributed by the habits of the child’s diet (Pelsser, Frankena, Toorman et al., 2011). Millichap and Yee (2012) suggested that different diets might allow reduction of symptoms in association of ADHD. These include sugar-restricted, addictive/preservative free, fatty acid supplements and more. The article added that Omega-3 supplements are one of the latest dietary treatments (Millichap & Yee, 2012).

A study conducted in Australia by Howard and colleagues (2011) identified two dietary patterns. These patterns include “healthy” and “western” (Howard, Robison, Smith, Ambrosini, Piek & Oddy, 2011). Howard and colleagues suggested that “healthy” diet pattern could perhaps lower the risk of ADHD. Fish, vegetables, fruits and whole-grain food are some of the listed “healthy” food available for consumption (Howard et al., 2011). Hence, we can understand how dietary patterns play a risk in causing ADHD.

From the mentioned etiologies, there is no definite cause of ADHD. Parenting styles are vital in a child’s development. Parents can also cause a child to behave in certain manner. However, parents are not the only factor contributing to the cause of ADHD. Genetically, there are evidences on hereditability of genes from generations to generations. There is a higher risk of having ADHD in children from parents who were diagnosed with ADHD. Environmental factors and biological factors cannot be solely identified in finding the cause of ADHD.

Medication is one of the most common treatments for ADHD (Corkum, McGonnell & Schachar, 2010). However, there is many other treatment methods for ADHD, methods that can substitute medication will also encourage a child and not be seen as having a disorder. Such treatment includes therapy and dietary factors as mentioned previously, a “healthy” diet as suggested by Howard and colleagues (2011).

Therapy is commonly used for ADHD. Harbone, Wolpert and Clare (2004) suggested that diagnosing a child with ADHD it is important to pay attention to sensitivity of the child and their family. Harbone, Wolpert and Clare (2004) added that paying attention to sensitivity is important because parents receive constant blaming of their child’s difficulties.

In conclusion, parenting methods are not the only factors that contribute to a child’s development. Poor parenting is not the only factor contributing to the etiology of ADHD. A child’s development may fluctuate. A child with ADHD may have a slower development in terms of academic performances. With more awareness built for special methods to help children with ADHD, it is important to know how ADHD is caused. There are other factors causing ADHD in a child besides parenting styles. This includes neurobiological factors including genetics, dietary factors and environmental factors. With the different puzzle pieces formed together, future studies can start to clarify the cause of ADHD. Perhaps, with a combination of both nature and nurture factors (Thapar, O’Donovan & Owen, 2005), future research into the genetic etiology of ADHD can provide substantial evidence for diagnosis of ADHD. With continuous studies, the probability of finding an early avenue of diagnosis for ADHD could be seen.

References
Bailey S (2009). Producing ADHD: An ethnographic study of behavioural discourses of early childhood. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham, UK.
Biederman J, & Faraone, S.V. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. 366, 237–48.
Corkum P., McGonnell M., & Schachar R. (2010). Factors affecting academic achievement in children with ADHD. Journal Of Applied Research On Learning, 3(9), 1 – 14.
Cortese, S. (2012). The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD): What every clinician should know. European Journal of Pediatric Neurology, 16, 422-433.
DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD and learning difficulties: What is the connection? In G. J. DuPaul & G. Stoner (Eds.), ADHD in the schools:
Assessment and intervention strategies, 72−108.
Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1996). Family–school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? 3−34.
Harbone A., Wolpert M. & Clare L. (2014). Making sense of ADHD: A battle for understanding? Parents’ view of their children being diagnosed with ADHD. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9, 327 – 339.
Hay, D.A., Bennett, K.S., Levy, F., Sergeant, J. & Swanson, J. (2007). A twin study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder dimensions rated by the strength and weaknesses of ADHD-symptoms and normal behavior (SWAN) scale, Biol
Psychiatry, 61, 700 – 705.
Howard A.L., Robinson M., Smith G.J., Ambrosini G.L., Piek J.P. & Oddy W.H.
(2011) ADHD is associated with a “Western” dietary pattern in adoles- cents.
J Attention Disorder, 15(5), 403–411.
Krain, A. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006) Brain development and ADHD. Clinical
Psychology Review, 26, 433-444.
Levy F, Hay DA, Bennett KS, McStephen M (2006): Gender differences in ADHD subtype comorbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 368 –376.
Levy F., Hay D.A., McStephen M., Wood C. & Waldman I. (1997) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 737-44.
Milichap J.G, & Yee M. M. (2012). The diet factos in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics: Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 129(2), 330 – 337.
Minde, K., Eakin, L., Hechtman, L., Ochs, R., Bouffard, R., Greenfield, B., et al.
(2003). The psychosocial functioning of children and spouses of adults with
ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(4), 637–646.
Nigg, J.T., (2005). Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyper- activity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biol Psychiatry, 57, 1424–1435.
Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, et al. (2011) Effects of a restricted elimination diet on the behaviour of children with attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder (INCA study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 377(9764), 494–503
Pressman, L. J., Loo, S. K., Carpenter, E. M., Asarnow, J. R., Lynn, D., McCracken,
J. T., et al. (2006). Relationship of family environment and parental psychiatric diagnosis to impairment in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 346−354.
Rapport M.D., Orban S.A., Kofler M.J. & Friedman L.M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 1237 – 1252.
Rohde LA, Szobot C, Polanczyk G, Schmitz M, Martins S, Tramontina S (2005).
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a diverse culture: do research and clinical findings support the notion of a cultural construct for the disorder? Biol Psychiatry 57(11), 1436 –1441.
Rogers, M.A., Wiener, J., Marton, I. & Tannock, R. (2009). Parental involvement in children’s learning: Comparing parents of children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of School Psychology, 47, 167 – 185.
Sherman, D.K., McGue, M.K., & Iacono, W.G. (1997). Twin concordance for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of teachers ' and mothers ' reports. Am J Psychiatry. 154, 532 – 35.
Singh I (2008) Beyond polemics: Science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews.
Neuroscience, 9(12), 957–964.
Strock M., Barkley, R.A., Jensen, P.A., Menvielle, E. & Vitiello, B. (2003). Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder National Institute of Mental Health. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.cmf
Swanson, J.M., Flodman, P., Kennedy, J., Spence, M.A., Moyzis, R., Schuck, S.,
Murias, M., Moriarity, J., Barr, C., Smith, M. & Posner, M., (2000). Dopamine genes and ADHD. Neuroscience Bio-behavior. Rev., 24, 21–25.
Thapar A., O’Donovan M. & Owen M.J. (2005). The genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Human Molecular Genetics, 14(2), 275 – 282.
Tripp, G., Wickens J.R. (2009). Neurobiology of ADHD. Neuropharmacology, 57,
579 – 589.

Summary Resource Pointers – Parenting styles and ADHD
ADHD is the most common mental disorder that usually begins in childhood and can continue through adulthood.
A child’s level of inattention and hyperactivity or impulsivity behaviors affect their development
ADHD can affect children of all backgrounds.
Adolescents can have ADHD too.
Possible causes of ADHD include
Genetics
Environment
Diet and;
Parenting methods
Genetics include:
Hereditability of ADHD from parents
Environment include:
Exposure to drugs and substances like alcohol
Diet include:
Food addictive (e.g. coloring, fatty food)
Parenting methods include:
Neglecting your child
Abusive behavior
How to help your child? Patience and understanding
Consult professional help
Getting medication and therapy
Medication: to help the child to be focused and learn.
Therapy: Allow children to learn the ability to control their behavior.
Mixture of both – children are more receptive to both
Inform your child’s educators to allow unique study environments for your child.
Diet should include more omega-3 food types, fish, vegetables, fruits and whole-grain food.

PSY213 Psychology: Abnormal Behaviour 2014
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References: Bailey S (2009). Producing ADHD: An ethnographic study of behavioural discourses of early childhood Biederman J, & Faraone, S.V. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Corkum P., McGonnell M., & Schachar R. (2010). Factors affecting academic achievement in children with ADHD Cortese, S. (2012). The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): What every clinician should know DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD and learning difficulties: What is the connection? In G Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1996). Family–school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? 3−34. Harbone A., Wolpert M. & Clare L. (2014). Making sense of ADHD: A battle for understanding? Parents’ view of their children being diagnosed with ADHD Hay, D.A., Bennett, K.S., Levy, F., Sergeant, J. & Swanson, J. (2007). A twin study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder dimensions rated by the strength and Howard A.L., Robinson M., Smith G.J., Ambrosini G.L., Piek J.P. & Oddy W.H. (2011) ADHD is associated with a “Western” dietary pattern in adoles- cents Krain, A. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006) Brain development and ADHD. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 433-444. Levy F, Hay DA, Bennett KS, McStephen M (2006): Gender differences in ADHD subtype comorbidity Levy F., Hay D.A., McStephen M., Wood C. & Waldman I. (1997) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study Milichap J.G, & Yee M. M. (2012). The diet factos in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Minde, K., Eakin, L., Hechtman, L., Ochs, R., Bouffard, R., Greenfield, B., et al. (2003) Nigg, J.T., (2005). Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyper- activity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, et al. (2011) Effects of a restricted elimination diet on the behaviour of children with attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder (INCA study): a randomised controlled trial Rapport M.D., Orban S.A., Kofler M.J. & Friedman L.M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes Rogers, M.A., Wiener, J., Marton, I. & Tannock, R. (2009). Parental involvement in children’s learning: Comparing parents of children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Sherman, D.K., McGue, M.K., & Iacono, W.G. (1997). Twin concordance for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of teachers ' and mothers ' reports Singh I (2008) Beyond polemics: Science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 9(12), 957–964 Strock M., Barkley, R.A., Jensen, P.A., Menvielle, E. & Vitiello, B. (2003). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder National Institute of Mental Health Thapar A., O’Donovan M. & Owen M.J. (2005). The genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Tripp, G., Wickens J.R. (2009). Neurobiology of ADHD. Neuropharmacology, 57, 579 – 589.