Age Of Ideology

As the nineteenth century began in Europe, fledgeling ideologies rapidly gained popularity and clashed with the familiar conservative mindset of the past. Common among the wealthy and aristocratic, conservatism was well accepted by people of power. Conservatives focused on traditional beliefs: strong monarchies, the mercantilist policy of holding one’s assets close, agrarian economies, and rigidly defined class structures. As the lower classes of Europe grew impatient with their lack of rights and poor living conditions under this system, they began to embrace alternative options. An “Age of Ideology,” the early nineteenth century brought rise to emerging ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism, and socialism, all of which challenged traditional
However, there were a few clearly defined differences. Nationalists were primarily concerned with cultural heritage as a unifier above that of simple geographic location. They desired for each cultural group to have its own political autonomy. Intense pride was held in heritage, and the different European cultures were regarded as fundamentally different from each other. One’s “country” was based on their geographical placement, but their “nation” was based off shared common culture with others. Religion was used as an expression of and method for achieving cultural unity. This ideology was especially dangerous for multiethnic regions such as Austria, and therefore faced strong opposition in the nineteenth century. Strong advocators of nationalism included Johann Herder and Giuseppe Mazzini. Johann Herder, a German philosopher, claimed that every people had its own collective spirit or genius, called a ‘volksgeist.’ This communal existence was to be expressed through culture and language. Meanwhile, Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy, an organization which was devoted to unifying Italy. He desired to create a spirit of cooperation and hope which would inspire people to commit to something greater than themselves. Despite its unifying potential, a downside of nationalism was that it created a “we” versus “them”
The earlier utopian socialism originated in France with influential thinkers such as Count Henri de Saint-Simon. According to Saint-Simon, society was divided into two classes: parasites (lawyers, clergymen, aristocracy) and doers (industrialists, scientists, engineers). The doers of society would plan the economy and government to lead their community towards equalized success. Further socialist thinkers such as Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, and Pierre Proudhon offered support for an organized society which was cooperative and community oriented. Later, with the development of “scientific,” or Marxian socialism, new ideas emerged. In Karl Marx’s The Communist Manifesto, he claimed that societal evolution was based on repeating class struggles. He determined that the final struggle would be a revolution in which the proletariat (working class) rose up and defeated the bourgeoisie (middle class). Socialism as a whole described government as an essential agent of both economic and social change. Socialists endeavored to create societies where everyone worked hard and got what they needed, but were often anti-capitalist, anti-property, and anti-religion. Socialism failed to succeed at this time because it had few specific political ideals and pushed a radical agenda which even liberals and nationalists did not agree