The improvement of crossbows had the ability to pierce helmets and light body armor, which was highly dangerous. As soon as they took notice of the ability the crossbow offered, professional crossbowmen were then hired for wages. These men were feared until the Christian Church outlawed the crossbow. “The arrival in Europe of firearms based on the Chinese invention of gunpowder further transformed the medieval army” (417).
The Great Western Schism was a division in the Latin Christian Church between 1378 and 1416 due to rival claimants to the papacy existing in Rome and Avignon. Eventually, the papacy regained its independence and returned to Rome. The effect it had was it broke the pope’s ability to challenge the rising power of monarchies.
The Magna Carta was a document signed by King John of England in 1215 because of a negotiation. “[it] affirmed that monarchs were subject to established law, confirmed the independence of the church and the city of London, and guaranteed the nobles’ hereditary rights” (419). Basically the monarchies were not above the law: they had to obey