Annotated Bibliography: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Research paper
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
(1066)
Ms HOLIN Sophie
British Civilization
Mrs BRAY & Mrs CARON
Université Catholique de Lille
November 29th 2007
This text is an extract from the Peterborough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which is a collection of annals narrating the Anglo-Saxon history. The first edition of these annals was written during Alfred the Great’s reign; that is to say during the ninth century. But there are different versions according to the regions. That is why each manuscript shows its author’s subjectivity. These chronicles are a primary source of the time, as well as the Bayeux Tapestry. They were written by monks, that is why we can feel the religious dimension and morality throughout the work. They collected the pieces of information and gathered them in the annals. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle omits some key elements of the English history, is written very simply and avoids long explanations. These elements enhance the biased dimension of the texts. Moreover, …show more content…
the manuscripts were copied, sent to monasteries where they were updated; that is why some elements are more or less developed according to the regions. In this extract, it is obvious that the year 1066 is turning point in English history, with the coronation of a Norman Duke, William of Normandy. And this turning point raises one main question:
What led to the Norman victory of 1066, and their sudden domination of England?
Thus, the most important thing before dealing with the year 1066 is to be recalled of the historical background of the two main battles of 1066, such as Edward’s several pretenders and the reasons why the rebelled. Then, we must focus on the external elements which led to this turning point, such as the battle of Stamford Bridge and the divine elements like the comet-star which appeared soon after Kind Harold’s coronation. Finally, we must have a look at William the Conqueror’s accession to the English throne.
On January 5th 1066, Edward the Confessor, King of England from 1042 to 1066, died ("when the king [Edward] died" l.2). During his reign, King Edward had the cathedral of Westminster, located in London, built. It was one of his greatest achievements. Westminster Abbey was to be the place where Edward 's successor would be crowned, and where all the kings of England would be crowned from that moment on. Nevertheless, the succession matter was to raise a problem: King Edward was heirless. It had been said that his marriage with Queen Edith was a spiritual one, and that is why they did not produce an heir, what kings and queens are expected to do. However, even if Edward was heirless, several men were interested in the English throne. The most likely to be king was Harold Godwinson. Harold had become Earl of East Anglia in 1044 and Earl of Wessex in 1053, upon his father 's death. He ruled these two regions perfectly well, was a feared soldier and a valorous defender. Moreover, he was the Queen 's brother and had been the King 's right hand for more than twelve years. Harold was definitely the most coherent choice to succeed the King. That is perhaps why, on his deathbed, a few minutes before dying, the king said to Harold Godwinson 'I commend [Queen Edith] and the entire kingdom to your protection '[1]. There were several witnesses to the king 's last words; thus, it was reported to the Witan that the dying king had chosen his successor. The Witan, which was an Anglo-Saxon council, approved Edward 's choice. Indeed, with the threat of an invasion from overseas, it was risky to have such a young king as Edgar, Edward the Exile 's son. The Witan proclaimed Harold new King of England. His coronation took place on January 6th 1066, the very same day and in the very same place as Edward 's burial at Westminster Abbey.
Harold was the new King of England. He had been chosen by Edward and by the Witan. Yet, this succession raises a major problem, which is to change England 's destiny. Indeed, in 1064, Edward the Confessor sent Earl Harold to France to ask the Duke William of Normandy whether he would be interested in succeeding to the English throne. Edward had already promised to William in 1051 that he would be his successor. Therefore, in the summer 1064, Duke William acquainted Earl Harold that he had already accepted Edward 's offer. Harold stayed for a few days in Normandy. William had thus the opportunity to make Harold a proposition. William proposed to Harold a sort of agreement between them. It stipulated that as long as King Edward was alive, Earl Harold would keep an eye on William 's interests at court and, in return, William would ensure Harold 's position when crowned King of the English. Harold accepted the offer, and swore before God he would be William 's man. Earl Harold then returned to England, probably forgot about this promise, and continued ruling his earldoms. But when, in January 1066, Harold 's brother, Tostig, came to William and announced the coronation of the new King of England, the Duke of Normandy got furious. His first reaction was to send Harold a message, telling that it was time for him to honour his oath on holy relics. William wanted Harold to abdicate and wished he accepted the coronation for England 's sake. He might did not want to let England without a king to rule the country, waiting for William. However, Harold 's answer was not the one he had expected. Harold had definitely decided to be King of England, and was ready for fighting. He ordered the construction of an invasion fleet. William was given honourable reasons, he thought, for invasion. Harold had sworn on holy relics that he was to let the throne to William. But the customs are different in England and in Normandy. In England, if someone, and especially the king, swears something on his deathbed, it prevails upon any previous oath. Since the customs are different in the two countries, the problem could only be resolved by war.
Because of the oath between Harold and William, the threat of a Norman invasion is obvious. There is a second threat for England. The two Godwinson brother 's relationship is complicated. This is partly due to the year 1064. Indeed, in 1055, after Earl Siward 's death, King Edward named Tostig Godwinson as Earl of Northumbria, Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire. Tostig was as good as Harold at making war, and that was what Edward was looking for. Northumbria was vital for English defence, but was a lawless land. Tostig was thus able to impose his own laws, and he became thus one of the most powerful earls of the kingdom. However, the Earl 's sense of governance and justice did not really please the Northumbrians. They had had enough of taxes, brutal and irrational rules. That is why, in 1064, King Edward sent one of his best men, Earl Harold, to talk to his own brother about his behaviour and the way he ruled his Earldoms. Tostig took all the king 's reproaches as Harold’s and this interview increased the stormy dimension of their relationship. Tostig’s way of governing did not change, and Edward sent him with his family to Flanders in November 1065. When he heard of his brother’s coronation, he went to Normandy to meet with Duke William. Tostig was trying to find an ally to revenge on Harold. These two men had a common foe, and William, once King of England, could give Tostig Northumbria back. Duke William declined the offer, even knowing that Tostig had a fleet. He knew him by reputation. Tostig absolutely wanted to find allies and men to defeat Harold II. In fact, William chose other advisors to build up his invasion war plan. The only one named is his half-brother, the Bishop Odo of Bayeux, who also had the Bayeux Tapestry created.
In the first months of 1066 AD (“on the eve called ‘Litania major’” ll.4,5), a comet-star appeared in the English sky. It was getting brighter and brighter, until the week that followed Harold’s meeting with the Witan to discuss of the war plans. We now know that it was Halley’s Comet, a cyclical comet which appears barely each 76 years. But at the time, and it is clearly shown in the Bayeux Tapestry[2], people did not know about that. This comet-star was seen as a prediction that a catastrophe was to happen. The comet-star appeared soon after Harold II’s coronation and it was said that it was a “bad omen”, because it was linked with the Norman and Norwegian threats, which occurred in the same year. The intellectuals of the day claimed that this sign foretold the arrival of a new King, as it was the case in Bethlehem. The star over Bethlehem on Christmas’ eve predicted the arrival of Jesus Christ, king of Jerusalem.
After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the time of King Herod, Magi from the east came to Jerusalem and asked, “Where is the one who has been born king of the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him.” When King Herod heard this he was disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. When he had called together all the people’s chief priests and teachers of the law, he asked them where the Christ was to be born. “In Bethlehem in Judea,” they replied.[3]
This is the same for William and Harold. King Harold can be compared to King Herod, and William to Jesus Christ, to a certain extent. Duke William is the heir of the English throne. The idea that Harold was a man unfit to be king can be felt in line 6, since the allusion to the comet-star is followed by a list of the bad events that happened in 1066, and all the reference made about the “sins of the nation” (l.55). This phrase refers to, among other things, the Anglo-Saxon sins such as the murder of King Edward’s brother by Godwin, the broken oath of Harold to William and the Harold’s coronation by Archbishop Stigand, who had been banned by the Pope. The prediction of a catastrophe and a new king to arrive, as well as the “sins” of the English nation, definitely helped the Norman victory of 1066, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The battle of Stamford Bridge is also an element which, involuntarily, led to the Norman victory at the battle of Hastings. Indeed, it helped a lot the Norman landing at Pevensey since most of the English troops were away, and eliminated two rivals: Tostig Godwinson and King Harald Hadrada of Norway. After having been turned down by the Duke William of Normandy, Tostig and his men continued their quest for a great and powerful ally. He and his fleet landed along the English coasts, trying to find allies. At each stop he met rebuff, because the local populations did not want to join them. And if the people, for example the inhabitants of the “Isle of Wight” (l.6), did not accept to join Tostig’s cause, they had to give him money and provisions. They landed on the English coasts, every time “committed outrages” (l.7). The troops were allowed to set the towns afire, to pillage, to rape and to murder, for example in Sesley and Sandwich. He went as far as Sandwich where he discovered that his brother was on the way to this city, coming with a massive force. Tostig sailed north with his fleet. He landed in Lindsey with his sixty ships, where he was attacked by Earls Edwin and Morkar. Tostig was driven away from the land, and still had not found any ally. Now, if he wanted to defeat Harold II, he had to find a partner, since the king’s naval force was so huge. Tostig Godwinson was friend with “the king of the Scots” (l.17), who was Malcolm III. Tostig proposed to Malcolm III to march to England in order to defeat the new King of England, Harold II. But the problem was that they would have had to march through Northumbria and Mercia. It was impossible for King Malcolm since the Scots were seen as enemies in Northumbria. The only solution was to go to England by sea. But there was another problem because if the Scottish army was at sea, Scotland would be defenceless during a while, which would be too risky. Nevertheless, Tostig “abode there all the summer” (ll.17,18). King Malcolm sent him to Harald Hadrada, King of Norway.
Tostig knew how to convince Hadrada to join him. He knew about Hadrada’s claim to the English throne, once possessed by Canute and Hadracanute. Hadrada’s predecessor, King Magnus, would have logically been King of England instead of King Edward. Hadrada considered himself as the real heir of England, and Harald Hadrada would be able to give Tostig Northumbria back, once crowned. Tostig had a fleet, he had men, and he was determinate. Hadrada accepted the alliance. Tostig had found an ally, a powerful leader and partner. By late July, their army was almost gathered and started to march to York. Their aim was to capture the city. But defenders, commanded by Edwin and Morkar, had already settled on the road to York, “along the Ouse” (l.22). Their defence line made at Gate Fulford was totally devastated by Hadrada and Tostig’s troops. They won the battle. York’s officials had to give them city to, to claim Harald Hadrada as their king, and to join them in their conquest of the English throne. To secure this promise, Tostig and Hadrada asked for hostages. These ones were to be “brought to them” (l.39) in Stamford Bridge a few days after. The news of what happened in York rapidly reached London, and King Harold was told of the events. The two troops had to confront and to fight for the throne. Harold decided to gather his troops and to march to York, to re-establish his power there and to take his army to Stamford Bridge, to take the enemies by surprise. The Norwegians did not expect any attack, and were taken by surprise at Stamford Bridge, where they were to be given the hostages. They expected Harold to stay in the south of England because of the threat of a Norman invasion. Hearing of the Norwegian invasion, Harold decided to march north, towards York. Harold first landed to “Tadcaster” (l.35), where he collected an army and prepared his war plan. On the way to York, Harold’s army met the Norwegian one. The Norwegians had taken their armour off, since it was a hot day and they had a ling march to do; this was a very bad point for them. Plus, one third of their army was missing; they stayed in York. The battle was long and cruel. Both sides lost many men. It was a bloody and decisive battle. But after a long time fighting, Tostig and Hadrada’s invasion had been defeated; both were slain during the battle. The surviving Vikings capitulated to Harold, and only twenty-four ships went “home to Norway” (l.46).
Duke William was persuaded he had good reasons for invading England. First, William was convinced that he was the legitimate heir of the English throne. Indeed, the throne had been promised to him. He was ready to fight for the English throne, but had to wait for a while since the wind was not favourable to cross the Channel. He could have thought that a bad weather was a disadvantage for his invasion plan. But in fact it was not, it was rather an important advantage. Indeed, not knowing when William would come, King Harold was unable to gather his men and to get prepared for the battle. Moreover, he did not know when to call the fyrd, which were soldiers called by the King in time of danger, but which could only fight for two months. Harold faced a dilemma, since he could not call the fyrd too late, but he couldn’t call it too early in the year. Plus, he was not sure whether William’s troops would come in only one fleet or several ones, whether he had allies, how many men they were, which arms they had, and even whether he would land at several sites or not. The other advantage William had was that another invasion was prepared by Tostig Godwinson, which also preoccupied Harold. The battle of Stamford Bridge was a great advantage for the Normans since the English soldiers were less numerous and tired after the battle. But Harold had a great advantage: he perfectly knew about English winds, and thus he knew that William would come ashore by early September, since the wind was beginning to stream out of the north-east was getting warmer and fairer. But the problem was that he still did not know where they would attack. William’s plan was to attack Harold’s troops and to invade England before the autumn of 1066. He was an organised warrior, and gathered as large a fleet as he could. On the 27th of September, the wind was south and warm. It was exactly what the Normans were waiting for. They immediately got ready to sail out, but crossed the Channel once the night had fallen. It was, according to William, another advantage since they could not be seen by the English fleet.
The battle of Hastings is considered as the most important battles in English history. Duke William’s conquest altered the whole destiny of England, ending the Anglo-Saxon era. The kingdom was strong, rich, and powerful and one of the most advanced countries of Europe at the time. Landing during the night between the 27th and the 28th of September on the coasts of Pevensey, the Norman troops established and constructed a castle. But this element is not mentioned in the Peterborough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
A commander, presumably on Odo’s advice, now orders a fortification to be built at the port of Hastings[4]
They had an easy landing since Harold’s ships had left to stop the Norwegian invasion. That is why Stamford Bridge can be considered as an involuntary contribution to the Norman victory of 1066. Harold was not given a long time to enjoy his victory, since William’s troops landed on the 28th of September. The date was really well chosen. The king and a large part of his military force were in Yorkshire, whereas for all the summer they were present on the coasts. The Norman troops had a long time to establish and since they were far from fortifications it was easier to settle. Moreover, they had a long time to prepare the battle, and also to have a rest before fighting. They brought horses and sophisticated weapons, things that the English troops did not have. Exhausted and diminished, the English troops were weakened. They were walking south to London, where William’s message waited for them. It said that Harold must repent, and that they were waiting for them in Hastings. He decided not to wait for the fyrd, it would have been too long. Harold told his troops to form a shield wall at the top of the hill, which held off William’s army in the first attacks, since the arrows battered on them. They suffered a lot of this wall formed by the English. The Saxons thought they had won the battle when hearing a cry telling that Duke William was dead. They broke down the shield wall. Thus, the Norman horsemen took the advantage of the fact that the English soldiers were on foot and weak, they could easily charge at them. If the wall had been kept intact, the English troops could have been victorious at Hastings. The battle lasted all day, and “there was slain King Harold” (l.53), Leofwin and Girth, Harold’s brothers.
After the battle of Hastings, Duke William had to reach London to be crowned King of England. He stayed for about a week in Hastings “to know whether the people would submit to him” (l.61) He went to Kent, especially in Dover. The cruel aspect of the future king is enhanced in lines 62 and 63, when the author says “ravaged all the country that he overran”. Then, he moved on to the west of London in Wallingford where he met Archbishop Stigand and received his allegiance, even if English people wanted “child Edgar” (l.64) as king. While William was marching towards London, Edgar was proclaimed new king of England. William then moved on to Berkhampstead, where he was proclaimed king of England, with the approval of Edgar and his advisors, members of the Witan. Indeed, to crush the English resistance and gain the throne, William started devastation in London and around the city. Edgar had little choice left and was obliged to submit (“who submitted then for need, when the most harm was done” ll.65,66). Nevertheless, at the time, apart from Kent England was not under Norman control yet. William is seen as “evil” in line 76. He is the one who “harassed the miserable people”. The author, whom we don not know the name, shows one more time his subjectivity. On Christmas Day, William was crowned King of England by Archbishop Aldred, the same one that supported Harold II. Archbishop Aldred is the one who triggered the shouts at Westminster Abbey, the day William was crowned. As a matter of fact, during the coronation, Normans set afire several houses because they heard shouts coming from the Westminster Abbey of London. These were in fact shouts of acclamation, since the Saxons accepted William as their king. The Normans thought the Saxons were opposing the coronation. He was later called “William the Conqueror” because of the invasion he ran. William achieved his dream, the dream of being King of England, but this dream cost many Norman and English lives. The last lines of the extract are consecrated to William’s reign, which indicated that these elements were added later to the manuscript. There is a reference to the fact that he took with him English important people such as Archbishop Stigand and Abbot Leofric, who died in 1072 and was buried in his cathedral (“taking with him Archbishop Stigand” l.74, “In that same expedition was Leofric, Abbot of Peterborough” ll.77,78, “and came home, and died soon after” l.78) on his return to Normandy. He also put his followers at power, as for example the Bishop Odo of Bayeux (“lived here [in England] afterwards” l.75). Indeed, Bishop Odo was nominated Earl of Kent and was occasionally regent, when William was abroad.
The Norman invasion definitely changed the course of English history.
William the Conqueror had been king of England until 1087, when he died. The year 1066 is a clear historical turning point. Indeed, it witnessed the growth of the French domination in power, which implicated a new art of work, a new culture. Language changed a lot, because of the French influence, and William crushed any form of resistance. In the extract there is a slight reference to the architectural contribution of the Normans, who built “castles widely through this country” (l.75), the Normans also built several castles. The most known of them is the castle of Hastings[5]. William also put to power his fellow followers, taking the previous English noblemen’s responsibilities down. But the most important change is the raise of a new system: the feudal system. This new system was characterized by the absence of a central authority and a new
hierarchy. It is often said that the battle of Hasting was the battle which was at the core of the turning point in English history. But in fact it was the result of many other events. One of the major elements was Tostig and Harald Hadrada attempt of invasion. But, as we can see it in the extract, there are also external elements which led to the Norman victory at Hastings, such as divine elements. In the extract, God seems to be on the Norman’s side since the English sinned. This fact is clearly expressed in the appearance of the comet-star, which was at the time said to be a bad omen, it predicted a catastrophe and a new king to arrive.
Appendix
1st appendix : The appearance of the comet-star, seen as a “bad omen”
Halley’s comet
2nd appendix: the castle of Hastings, built by the Normans
Bibliography
Books
BRIDGEFORD, Andrew, 1066: The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, Harper Perennial - 2004
PATTERSON, Benton Rain, Harold & William: The Battle for England 1064-1066, Tempus – 2004
MORGAN, Kenneth O., The Oxford History of Britain, Oxford University Press – 2001
Websites
http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon22.html (William the Conqueror) http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon20.html (Edward the Confessor) http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/battle1066.html (Battle of Hastings) http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1339049 (Battle of Hastings) http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_04.shtml (The Norman invasion) http://www.britannia.com/history/hastings.html (Conquest and Resistance) http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/1066.html (Extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/3/3/7/13375/13375.htm (The two rival heirs) http://www.wikipedia.fr (biographies of several characters quoted in the extract) http://uk.geocities.com/guildfordian2002/AngloSaxon/FallOrthodoxEngland.htm -----------------------
[1] Andrew BRIDGEFORD, 1066, The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, page 108 (ll.11,12)
[2] Appendix I
[3] Matthew 2:1-12, NIV, (Bible)
[4] Andrew BRIDGEFORD, 1066, The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, page 131 (ll.19,20)
[5] Appendix II
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
(1066)
Ms HOLIN Sophie
British Civilization
Mrs BRAY & Mrs CARON
Université Catholique de Lille
November 29th 2007
This text is an extract from the Peterborough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which is a collection of annals narrating the Anglo-Saxon history. The first edition of these annals was written during Alfred the Great’s reign; that is to say during the ninth century. But there are different versions according to the regions. That is why each manuscript shows its author’s subjectivity. These chronicles are a primary source of the time, as well as the Bayeux Tapestry. They were written by monks, that is why we can feel the religious dimension and morality throughout the work. They collected the pieces of information and gathered them in the annals. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle omits some key elements of the English history, is written very simply and avoids long explanations. These elements enhance the biased dimension of the texts. Moreover, …show more content…
the manuscripts were copied, sent to monasteries where they were updated; that is why some elements are more or less developed according to the regions. In this extract, it is obvious that the year 1066 is turning point in English history, with the coronation of a Norman Duke, William of Normandy. And this turning point raises one main question:
What led to the Norman victory of 1066, and their sudden domination of England?
Thus, the most important thing before dealing with the year 1066 is to be recalled of the historical background of the two main battles of 1066, such as Edward’s several pretenders and the reasons why the rebelled. Then, we must focus on the external elements which led to this turning point, such as the battle of Stamford Bridge and the divine elements like the comet-star which appeared soon after Kind Harold’s coronation. Finally, we must have a look at William the Conqueror’s accession to the English throne.
On January 5th 1066, Edward the Confessor, King of England from 1042 to 1066, died ("when the king [Edward] died" l.2). During his reign, King Edward had the cathedral of Westminster, located in London, built. It was one of his greatest achievements. Westminster Abbey was to be the place where Edward 's successor would be crowned, and where all the kings of England would be crowned from that moment on. Nevertheless, the succession matter was to raise a problem: King Edward was heirless. It had been said that his marriage with Queen Edith was a spiritual one, and that is why they did not produce an heir, what kings and queens are expected to do. However, even if Edward was heirless, several men were interested in the English throne. The most likely to be king was Harold Godwinson. Harold had become Earl of East Anglia in 1044 and Earl of Wessex in 1053, upon his father 's death. He ruled these two regions perfectly well, was a feared soldier and a valorous defender. Moreover, he was the Queen 's brother and had been the King 's right hand for more than twelve years. Harold was definitely the most coherent choice to succeed the King. That is perhaps why, on his deathbed, a few minutes before dying, the king said to Harold Godwinson 'I commend [Queen Edith] and the entire kingdom to your protection '[1]. There were several witnesses to the king 's last words; thus, it was reported to the Witan that the dying king had chosen his successor. The Witan, which was an Anglo-Saxon council, approved Edward 's choice. Indeed, with the threat of an invasion from overseas, it was risky to have such a young king as Edgar, Edward the Exile 's son. The Witan proclaimed Harold new King of England. His coronation took place on January 6th 1066, the very same day and in the very same place as Edward 's burial at Westminster Abbey.
Harold was the new King of England. He had been chosen by Edward and by the Witan. Yet, this succession raises a major problem, which is to change England 's destiny. Indeed, in 1064, Edward the Confessor sent Earl Harold to France to ask the Duke William of Normandy whether he would be interested in succeeding to the English throne. Edward had already promised to William in 1051 that he would be his successor. Therefore, in the summer 1064, Duke William acquainted Earl Harold that he had already accepted Edward 's offer. Harold stayed for a few days in Normandy. William had thus the opportunity to make Harold a proposition. William proposed to Harold a sort of agreement between them. It stipulated that as long as King Edward was alive, Earl Harold would keep an eye on William 's interests at court and, in return, William would ensure Harold 's position when crowned King of the English. Harold accepted the offer, and swore before God he would be William 's man. Earl Harold then returned to England, probably forgot about this promise, and continued ruling his earldoms. But when, in January 1066, Harold 's brother, Tostig, came to William and announced the coronation of the new King of England, the Duke of Normandy got furious. His first reaction was to send Harold a message, telling that it was time for him to honour his oath on holy relics. William wanted Harold to abdicate and wished he accepted the coronation for England 's sake. He might did not want to let England without a king to rule the country, waiting for William. However, Harold 's answer was not the one he had expected. Harold had definitely decided to be King of England, and was ready for fighting. He ordered the construction of an invasion fleet. William was given honourable reasons, he thought, for invasion. Harold had sworn on holy relics that he was to let the throne to William. But the customs are different in England and in Normandy. In England, if someone, and especially the king, swears something on his deathbed, it prevails upon any previous oath. Since the customs are different in the two countries, the problem could only be resolved by war.
Because of the oath between Harold and William, the threat of a Norman invasion is obvious. There is a second threat for England. The two Godwinson brother 's relationship is complicated. This is partly due to the year 1064. Indeed, in 1055, after Earl Siward 's death, King Edward named Tostig Godwinson as Earl of Northumbria, Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire. Tostig was as good as Harold at making war, and that was what Edward was looking for. Northumbria was vital for English defence, but was a lawless land. Tostig was thus able to impose his own laws, and he became thus one of the most powerful earls of the kingdom. However, the Earl 's sense of governance and justice did not really please the Northumbrians. They had had enough of taxes, brutal and irrational rules. That is why, in 1064, King Edward sent one of his best men, Earl Harold, to talk to his own brother about his behaviour and the way he ruled his Earldoms. Tostig took all the king 's reproaches as Harold’s and this interview increased the stormy dimension of their relationship. Tostig’s way of governing did not change, and Edward sent him with his family to Flanders in November 1065. When he heard of his brother’s coronation, he went to Normandy to meet with Duke William. Tostig was trying to find an ally to revenge on Harold. These two men had a common foe, and William, once King of England, could give Tostig Northumbria back. Duke William declined the offer, even knowing that Tostig had a fleet. He knew him by reputation. Tostig absolutely wanted to find allies and men to defeat Harold II. In fact, William chose other advisors to build up his invasion war plan. The only one named is his half-brother, the Bishop Odo of Bayeux, who also had the Bayeux Tapestry created.
In the first months of 1066 AD (“on the eve called ‘Litania major’” ll.4,5), a comet-star appeared in the English sky. It was getting brighter and brighter, until the week that followed Harold’s meeting with the Witan to discuss of the war plans. We now know that it was Halley’s Comet, a cyclical comet which appears barely each 76 years. But at the time, and it is clearly shown in the Bayeux Tapestry[2], people did not know about that. This comet-star was seen as a prediction that a catastrophe was to happen. The comet-star appeared soon after Harold II’s coronation and it was said that it was a “bad omen”, because it was linked with the Norman and Norwegian threats, which occurred in the same year. The intellectuals of the day claimed that this sign foretold the arrival of a new King, as it was the case in Bethlehem. The star over Bethlehem on Christmas’ eve predicted the arrival of Jesus Christ, king of Jerusalem.
After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the time of King Herod, Magi from the east came to Jerusalem and asked, “Where is the one who has been born king of the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him.” When King Herod heard this he was disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. When he had called together all the people’s chief priests and teachers of the law, he asked them where the Christ was to be born. “In Bethlehem in Judea,” they replied.[3]
This is the same for William and Harold. King Harold can be compared to King Herod, and William to Jesus Christ, to a certain extent. Duke William is the heir of the English throne. The idea that Harold was a man unfit to be king can be felt in line 6, since the allusion to the comet-star is followed by a list of the bad events that happened in 1066, and all the reference made about the “sins of the nation” (l.55). This phrase refers to, among other things, the Anglo-Saxon sins such as the murder of King Edward’s brother by Godwin, the broken oath of Harold to William and the Harold’s coronation by Archbishop Stigand, who had been banned by the Pope. The prediction of a catastrophe and a new king to arrive, as well as the “sins” of the English nation, definitely helped the Norman victory of 1066, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The battle of Stamford Bridge is also an element which, involuntarily, led to the Norman victory at the battle of Hastings. Indeed, it helped a lot the Norman landing at Pevensey since most of the English troops were away, and eliminated two rivals: Tostig Godwinson and King Harald Hadrada of Norway. After having been turned down by the Duke William of Normandy, Tostig and his men continued their quest for a great and powerful ally. He and his fleet landed along the English coasts, trying to find allies. At each stop he met rebuff, because the local populations did not want to join them. And if the people, for example the inhabitants of the “Isle of Wight” (l.6), did not accept to join Tostig’s cause, they had to give him money and provisions. They landed on the English coasts, every time “committed outrages” (l.7). The troops were allowed to set the towns afire, to pillage, to rape and to murder, for example in Sesley and Sandwich. He went as far as Sandwich where he discovered that his brother was on the way to this city, coming with a massive force. Tostig sailed north with his fleet. He landed in Lindsey with his sixty ships, where he was attacked by Earls Edwin and Morkar. Tostig was driven away from the land, and still had not found any ally. Now, if he wanted to defeat Harold II, he had to find a partner, since the king’s naval force was so huge. Tostig Godwinson was friend with “the king of the Scots” (l.17), who was Malcolm III. Tostig proposed to Malcolm III to march to England in order to defeat the new King of England, Harold II. But the problem was that they would have had to march through Northumbria and Mercia. It was impossible for King Malcolm since the Scots were seen as enemies in Northumbria. The only solution was to go to England by sea. But there was another problem because if the Scottish army was at sea, Scotland would be defenceless during a while, which would be too risky. Nevertheless, Tostig “abode there all the summer” (ll.17,18). King Malcolm sent him to Harald Hadrada, King of Norway.
Tostig knew how to convince Hadrada to join him. He knew about Hadrada’s claim to the English throne, once possessed by Canute and Hadracanute. Hadrada’s predecessor, King Magnus, would have logically been King of England instead of King Edward. Hadrada considered himself as the real heir of England, and Harald Hadrada would be able to give Tostig Northumbria back, once crowned. Tostig had a fleet, he had men, and he was determinate. Hadrada accepted the alliance. Tostig had found an ally, a powerful leader and partner. By late July, their army was almost gathered and started to march to York. Their aim was to capture the city. But defenders, commanded by Edwin and Morkar, had already settled on the road to York, “along the Ouse” (l.22). Their defence line made at Gate Fulford was totally devastated by Hadrada and Tostig’s troops. They won the battle. York’s officials had to give them city to, to claim Harald Hadrada as their king, and to join them in their conquest of the English throne. To secure this promise, Tostig and Hadrada asked for hostages. These ones were to be “brought to them” (l.39) in Stamford Bridge a few days after. The news of what happened in York rapidly reached London, and King Harold was told of the events. The two troops had to confront and to fight for the throne. Harold decided to gather his troops and to march to York, to re-establish his power there and to take his army to Stamford Bridge, to take the enemies by surprise. The Norwegians did not expect any attack, and were taken by surprise at Stamford Bridge, where they were to be given the hostages. They expected Harold to stay in the south of England because of the threat of a Norman invasion. Hearing of the Norwegian invasion, Harold decided to march north, towards York. Harold first landed to “Tadcaster” (l.35), where he collected an army and prepared his war plan. On the way to York, Harold’s army met the Norwegian one. The Norwegians had taken their armour off, since it was a hot day and they had a ling march to do; this was a very bad point for them. Plus, one third of their army was missing; they stayed in York. The battle was long and cruel. Both sides lost many men. It was a bloody and decisive battle. But after a long time fighting, Tostig and Hadrada’s invasion had been defeated; both were slain during the battle. The surviving Vikings capitulated to Harold, and only twenty-four ships went “home to Norway” (l.46).
Duke William was persuaded he had good reasons for invading England. First, William was convinced that he was the legitimate heir of the English throne. Indeed, the throne had been promised to him. He was ready to fight for the English throne, but had to wait for a while since the wind was not favourable to cross the Channel. He could have thought that a bad weather was a disadvantage for his invasion plan. But in fact it was not, it was rather an important advantage. Indeed, not knowing when William would come, King Harold was unable to gather his men and to get prepared for the battle. Moreover, he did not know when to call the fyrd, which were soldiers called by the King in time of danger, but which could only fight for two months. Harold faced a dilemma, since he could not call the fyrd too late, but he couldn’t call it too early in the year. Plus, he was not sure whether William’s troops would come in only one fleet or several ones, whether he had allies, how many men they were, which arms they had, and even whether he would land at several sites or not. The other advantage William had was that another invasion was prepared by Tostig Godwinson, which also preoccupied Harold. The battle of Stamford Bridge was a great advantage for the Normans since the English soldiers were less numerous and tired after the battle. But Harold had a great advantage: he perfectly knew about English winds, and thus he knew that William would come ashore by early September, since the wind was beginning to stream out of the north-east was getting warmer and fairer. But the problem was that he still did not know where they would attack. William’s plan was to attack Harold’s troops and to invade England before the autumn of 1066. He was an organised warrior, and gathered as large a fleet as he could. On the 27th of September, the wind was south and warm. It was exactly what the Normans were waiting for. They immediately got ready to sail out, but crossed the Channel once the night had fallen. It was, according to William, another advantage since they could not be seen by the English fleet.
The battle of Hastings is considered as the most important battles in English history. Duke William’s conquest altered the whole destiny of England, ending the Anglo-Saxon era. The kingdom was strong, rich, and powerful and one of the most advanced countries of Europe at the time. Landing during the night between the 27th and the 28th of September on the coasts of Pevensey, the Norman troops established and constructed a castle. But this element is not mentioned in the Peterborough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
A commander, presumably on Odo’s advice, now orders a fortification to be built at the port of Hastings[4]
They had an easy landing since Harold’s ships had left to stop the Norwegian invasion. That is why Stamford Bridge can be considered as an involuntary contribution to the Norman victory of 1066. Harold was not given a long time to enjoy his victory, since William’s troops landed on the 28th of September. The date was really well chosen. The king and a large part of his military force were in Yorkshire, whereas for all the summer they were present on the coasts. The Norman troops had a long time to establish and since they were far from fortifications it was easier to settle. Moreover, they had a long time to prepare the battle, and also to have a rest before fighting. They brought horses and sophisticated weapons, things that the English troops did not have. Exhausted and diminished, the English troops were weakened. They were walking south to London, where William’s message waited for them. It said that Harold must repent, and that they were waiting for them in Hastings. He decided not to wait for the fyrd, it would have been too long. Harold told his troops to form a shield wall at the top of the hill, which held off William’s army in the first attacks, since the arrows battered on them. They suffered a lot of this wall formed by the English. The Saxons thought they had won the battle when hearing a cry telling that Duke William was dead. They broke down the shield wall. Thus, the Norman horsemen took the advantage of the fact that the English soldiers were on foot and weak, they could easily charge at them. If the wall had been kept intact, the English troops could have been victorious at Hastings. The battle lasted all day, and “there was slain King Harold” (l.53), Leofwin and Girth, Harold’s brothers.
After the battle of Hastings, Duke William had to reach London to be crowned King of England. He stayed for about a week in Hastings “to know whether the people would submit to him” (l.61) He went to Kent, especially in Dover. The cruel aspect of the future king is enhanced in lines 62 and 63, when the author says “ravaged all the country that he overran”. Then, he moved on to the west of London in Wallingford where he met Archbishop Stigand and received his allegiance, even if English people wanted “child Edgar” (l.64) as king. While William was marching towards London, Edgar was proclaimed new king of England. William then moved on to Berkhampstead, where he was proclaimed king of England, with the approval of Edgar and his advisors, members of the Witan. Indeed, to crush the English resistance and gain the throne, William started devastation in London and around the city. Edgar had little choice left and was obliged to submit (“who submitted then for need, when the most harm was done” ll.65,66). Nevertheless, at the time, apart from Kent England was not under Norman control yet. William is seen as “evil” in line 76. He is the one who “harassed the miserable people”. The author, whom we don not know the name, shows one more time his subjectivity. On Christmas Day, William was crowned King of England by Archbishop Aldred, the same one that supported Harold II. Archbishop Aldred is the one who triggered the shouts at Westminster Abbey, the day William was crowned. As a matter of fact, during the coronation, Normans set afire several houses because they heard shouts coming from the Westminster Abbey of London. These were in fact shouts of acclamation, since the Saxons accepted William as their king. The Normans thought the Saxons were opposing the coronation. He was later called “William the Conqueror” because of the invasion he ran. William achieved his dream, the dream of being King of England, but this dream cost many Norman and English lives. The last lines of the extract are consecrated to William’s reign, which indicated that these elements were added later to the manuscript. There is a reference to the fact that he took with him English important people such as Archbishop Stigand and Abbot Leofric, who died in 1072 and was buried in his cathedral (“taking with him Archbishop Stigand” l.74, “In that same expedition was Leofric, Abbot of Peterborough” ll.77,78, “and came home, and died soon after” l.78) on his return to Normandy. He also put his followers at power, as for example the Bishop Odo of Bayeux (“lived here [in England] afterwards” l.75). Indeed, Bishop Odo was nominated Earl of Kent and was occasionally regent, when William was abroad.
The Norman invasion definitely changed the course of English history.
William the Conqueror had been king of England until 1087, when he died. The year 1066 is a clear historical turning point. Indeed, it witnessed the growth of the French domination in power, which implicated a new art of work, a new culture. Language changed a lot, because of the French influence, and William crushed any form of resistance. In the extract there is a slight reference to the architectural contribution of the Normans, who built “castles widely through this country” (l.75), the Normans also built several castles. The most known of them is the castle of Hastings[5]. William also put to power his fellow followers, taking the previous English noblemen’s responsibilities down. But the most important change is the raise of a new system: the feudal system. This new system was characterized by the absence of a central authority and a new
hierarchy. It is often said that the battle of Hasting was the battle which was at the core of the turning point in English history. But in fact it was the result of many other events. One of the major elements was Tostig and Harald Hadrada attempt of invasion. But, as we can see it in the extract, there are also external elements which led to the Norman victory at Hastings, such as divine elements. In the extract, God seems to be on the Norman’s side since the English sinned. This fact is clearly expressed in the appearance of the comet-star, which was at the time said to be a bad omen, it predicted a catastrophe and a new king to arrive.
Appendix
1st appendix : The appearance of the comet-star, seen as a “bad omen”
Halley’s comet
2nd appendix: the castle of Hastings, built by the Normans
Bibliography
Books
BRIDGEFORD, Andrew, 1066: The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, Harper Perennial - 2004
PATTERSON, Benton Rain, Harold & William: The Battle for England 1064-1066, Tempus – 2004
MORGAN, Kenneth O., The Oxford History of Britain, Oxford University Press – 2001
Websites
http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon22.html (William the Conqueror) http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon20.html (Edward the Confessor) http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/battle1066.html (Battle of Hastings) http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1339049 (Battle of Hastings) http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_04.shtml (The Norman invasion) http://www.britannia.com/history/hastings.html (Conquest and Resistance) http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/1066.html (Extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/3/3/7/13375/13375.htm (The two rival heirs) http://www.wikipedia.fr (biographies of several characters quoted in the extract) http://uk.geocities.com/guildfordian2002/AngloSaxon/FallOrthodoxEngland.htm -----------------------
[1] Andrew BRIDGEFORD, 1066, The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, page 108 (ll.11,12)
[2] Appendix I
[3] Matthew 2:1-12, NIV, (Bible)
[4] Andrew BRIDGEFORD, 1066, The Hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry, page 131 (ll.19,20)
[5] Appendix II