Ap Psychology Chapter 1 Summary

Outlined Notes 2011
Chapter 1

Sex – designated based on biology, naturally born body parts Biological, based on chromosomes and anatomy, influenced in utero by progesterone levels
Gender – socially constructed and expressed, it is not stable or innate Can change based on: self, culture, in relation to others gender
Transgender – have the physical characteristics of one sex buy identify internally strongly as the other sex
Intersexed – people who have biological qualities of both sexes – hermaphrodites – based on pre and post birth hormonal influences, biology influences how we develop but does not determine how we behave or our personality or how we treat differences
Transsexual – a person who had a surgery and/or hormonal treatments
to make the body match more closely to the sex they identify with

Gender development – defined by society and expressed by individuals as they interact with other in the media and their society – learned and dynamic, it’s a social and symbolic construct that varies across cultures, over time within a given culture, over the course of an individual’s life span, and in relation to the other gender.

Chromosomes – XX: Female XY: Male

Patriarchy – ideology, structures, and practices created by men

Androgyny – these individuals embody qualities that we consider both feminine and masculine

Chapter 2

Biological theories of gender – maintain that biological characteristics of the sexes are the basis of gender differences Survival of the fittest – sociobiology Three primary influences
Chromosomes – several genes that control intelligence and social skills are located only in the X chromosomes
Hormones – sex hormones affect development of the brain and body
Brain specializations – differences in the formation of the brain that would give one sex an advantage over the other: men’s left loves generally are better for linear thinking, sequential information, spatial skills and abstract, analytical reasoning – women’s right lobes are better at imagination and artistic activity and holistic, intuitive thinking

Interpersonal theories of gender
Psychodynamic theory – emphasized interpersonal relationships within the family that affects a child’s sense of identity
Relationships, especially early ones, are central to development of human personality and gender identity as children internalize in a more passive way.
Mothers generally encourage more and earlier independence with their sons and talk with them less about emotional or relational issues.
Psychological theory – stresses the learning and role modeling between children and a variety of other people including parents
Emphasized the power of others’ communication to teach lessons about gender and to provide models of masculinity and femininity
Social Learning Theory – individuals learn to be masculine or feminine through imitation, observation, experimentation, and responses from others – likely to develop patterns that others approve – views children as relatively passive
Cognitive Development Theory - Assumes that children play active roles in developing their own identities using others to define themselves; motivated by an internal desire to be competent - children go through several stages in developing gender identities
Gender constancy - the understanding that one is male or female and that this
Does not change - same sex models become very important and as they grow children will look for role models (magazines, TV, blogs, etc.)

Cultural theories of gender Anthropology – shows that cultures profoundly shape gender
Symbolic Interactionism Theory - key role of communication in socializing new members into the understandings and values of a given culture: parents, peers, teachers tell children who they are.
Gender roles are both external and assigned and value-defined by
culture

Critical theories of gender
Standpoint Theory - Offers insights into how a person’s social location with a culture shapes his or her life. Focuses on how gender, race, and class influence our positions in society.
Social world consists of very different positions within the social hierarchies and all perspectives are limited.
Standpoint is earned through critical reflection on power relations and through engaging in the struggle required to construct an oppositional stance.
People in positions of power have a vested interest in preserving their place in the hierarchy leaving views of social life more distorted.

Chapter 3

First wave of feminism – 1840-1925 Began with abolitionists – the Grimke sisters 1838
Liberals – Stanton, Mott, Anthony – thought that women should be allowed to vote because they were citizen and equals
1918-1920 – Paul and Burns spearheaded the nonviolent protests Women’s suffrage Hunger strikes Cult of Domesticity – it’s a woman’s duty to vote to empower workers, family, etc. Men and women were not alike – public vs. private spheres Women’s virtue would reform politics Few women voted 1925: child labor law failed to be ratified

Second wave of feminism – 1960-1995 Liberal and cultural ideologies coexisted
Included activists: Betty Friedan (Feminine Mystique), Gloria Steinem (If Men Could Menstruate), Marlo Thomas
Often associated with radical feminism – oppression of women is the fundamental form of oppression on which others are modeled Grew out of the New Left politics Protested the Vietnam War Fought for civil rights New Left men treated women as subordinates Radical feminism strategies Public events Missile Dick Chicks Radical Cheerleaders Muslim feminists Women’s health movement
Lesbian feminism – only women who love and live with women – putting women first Women Identified Not all lesbians are feminists – not all lesbian feminists are radical lesbians Committed to ending discrimination Advocated equality in all spheres of life Betty Friedan – The Feminine Mystique – dissatisfaction, political issue National Organization for Women – 1966 Effective in gaining passage of laws and policies Lobbying, public forums, drafting legislation, conventions
Criticized for their narrow, white middle class focus, shows more attention to diverse women now
Separatism – communities where women live independently with mutual respect
They believe it is impossible to reform patriarchal culture so they exit mainstream society They believe women and men are different
Revalorism – focuses on appreciating women’s traditional activities They believe that women are more nurturing, cooperative, life-giving More complete history of America Lilith Fair
Ecofeminism – 1974 Connection between efforts to control women and quest to dominate nature Animal rights, peace activists, vegetarians
Seeks to bring consciousness of humans’ interdependence with other forms of life Womanism – 1970s Believe that men and women are mainly alike
African American women highlighted ways gender and racial oppression intersect
Recognized that black women are more often single, have less formal education, bear more children, are paid less and assume financial responsibility
Addresses the issues that affect lower-class black women by reforming social services with increased training and job opportunities
Multiracial feminism - Emphasizes multiple systems of domination and incorporated additional underrepresented voices - understands that race intersects other systems of domination
Meaning of gender varies as a result of:
Race
Economic class
Sexual orientation
Emphasis on women’s agency & highlights strengths of women
Challenges idea of universal woman
Power feminism – 1993 - Naomi Wolf argued it is self-defeating to focus on social causes of inequities - society doesn’t oppress women
Women have power to control what happens to them & should stop thinking of themselves as victims
Capitalize on power of majority status.
Only thing holding women back is belief they are victims
Appeals to white, successful, well-educated/ Less helpful to those without privilege
Emphasis on empowerment influential in shaping third wave

Third wave of feminism – 1995-Present
Recognizes that women differ in many ways including race, class, sexual orientation, body shape and size
Build Coalitions with men and other groups that work against various kinds of oppression
Engaging in everyday resistance incorporating structural changes in everyday life (i.e., challenging racist comments; confronting homophobic attitudes) Political is personal
Media Savvy- Use mass and social media to advance ideas (i.e., Tori Amos; R.A.I.N.N.; Blogs, Zines, social network sites)
Embrace Aesthetics and Consumerism May lead to commodification of own body Pornography creates pressure for women to accept sexual images of liberated women Women encouraged to explore sexuality on own terms
Individualism

Antifeminism –
Backlash Success of feminism leads to antifeminist efforts First Wave: anti-suffrage movement Second Wave: Total Women – stressed the view of women as sex objects Fascinating Womanhood – grounded in Biblical teachings
The STOP ERA Campaign – Phyllis Shlafly – argued that the ERA would undercut men’s willingness to support children, allow women to be drafted and take away gender specific bathrooms
Funded by corporate leaders and upper class as ERA was not consistent with economic and political interests Third Wave: Surrendered Wives, the War against Boys (& Men)

Chapter 4

Profeminists (progressive men, male feminists) Emerged in 1960s when some in New Left were ashamed when confronted with hypocrisy
Worked to bring attitudes and behavior in line with egalitarian ideology & joined forces with women to work for women’s rights
They endorse: Equal pay for equal work
End to discrimination
Increase in parental leave
Affordable child care
Want to develop emotional capacities society discourages in men; Argue men are forced to repress feelings & this diminishes men’s humanity
Encourage men to be more sensitive, caring, and open

National Organization for Men against Sexism (NOMAS) Workshops to expand men’s awareness of ways emotional development hindered
Condemn aggression, violence, emotional insensitivity
Issues:
End violence against women
End homophobic attitudes Develop and enrich men’s studies at colleges and universities
Rhetorical strategies: Group discussion on masculinity
Speak publicly in support of women’s rights and men’s development
Educational outreach
Enact traitorous identities

White Ribbon Campaign – Men’s antiviolence groups 1991 – Canada – in response to the Montreal Massacre Encourage men to take responsibility to speak out against violence against women
Present antiviolence workshops
Talk with other men about issue
Physical and emotional violence
Women not able to join
Praised by men and women
Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) – Men’s antiviolence groups Jackson Katz Trains men in mentoring other men to reject men’s violence
Aims to educate men about socialization that links violence to masculinity
Men likely to be violent if with violent peers
MVP aims to use power of peer influence to: Teach aggression and violence linked to views of masculinity
Call attention to role of bystander Criticism:
Group doesn’t go far enough in analysis
Violence woven into society’s definition of masculinity
Fathers 4 Justice – Father’s rights groups England – preforms dramatic stunts that often include humor

Mythopoetic Men - 1980s-1990s Robert Bly
Aims to foster personal growth, bonding by encouraging men to rediscover mythic roots of masculine thinking and feeling and restore men to primordial spirit
Rhetorical strategy of often ridiculing male feminists
Men’s connections to earth and comradeship ripped asunder by modernization
Taken away from land and contact with natural life
Industrialization separated men from families
Need to recover male mode of feeling; to reclaim courage, aggression, virility
Qualities can be put to service of worthy goals
Iron John recounts ancient myths of manhood
Father hunger – grief born of yearning to be close to fathers and other men
Get in touch with their grief and rediscover masculine feelings and energies
Hold workshops and nature retreats:
Gather in woods
Beat drums and chant
Listen to poetry and stories
Movement received praise and blame
Father hunger highlights anguish men feel
Unwilling to confront gender inequality
Largely white, middle class
Movement has virtually disappeared

Promise Keepers – 1990 McCartney and Wardell Idea of filling stadium with Christian men
1991: drew 4,200 men-Two years later – filled 50,000-seat stadium
Believe men fallen away from responsibilities
Reconnection to commandments as the path
Evangelical Christianity
Urges men to be leaders of their families
Promotes values that build strong families
Call for male responsibility
Wives say marriages improved
Seven Promises: 1. Honor Jesus 5. Support the church 2. Pursue male relationships 6. Reach beyond barriers 3. Practice purity 7. Influence the world for good 4. Build strong families
Reservations from others:
Women can’t attend meetings
Men should lean only on each other
Why can’t husbands and wives be equal?
Elitist
Efforts to broaden membership and soften rhetoric
2003: Fortson, African American, became new head of movement
Assert homosexuality is a sin
Gays are leading immoral lives
Makes those who support gays uncomfortable
Some say more of a political than spiritual movement
Reached peak in 1997 – rally at national mall

The Million Man March – 1995 Farrakhan – leader of the Nation of Islam Goal – black men of all backgrounds atone for sins and reconcile
Pledged spiritual transformation and political action; Register to vote; Fight drugs, unemployment and violence; Recommit to wives and families; Active in churches and communities
Criticism:
Women are excluded
Encourages to base rage on racial identity
Antifeminist and antigay

The Million More Movement – 2005 Farrakhan Inclusive of all sexes, races, sexualities Focuses on racial disparities

Traitorous identity – criticizes attitudes or actions that are common and accepted among members of that group

Chapter 5

6 Connections between language and gender
1. Male generic language excludes women (i.e. spotlighting – highlighting a person’s sex: lady doctor, woman lawyer) 2. Language defines men and women differently Women defined by appearance/ men by activities, accomplishments, or positions
Reflects social views of women as passive and men as active when engaged in sexual activity
Reflects society’s view of women as defined by their relationships rather than independent agents 3. Language shapes awareness of gendered issues Naming-we name things that matter, ignore things that don’t
Creates awareness (i.e. sexual harassment and date rape)
As we modify language, we change how we see ourselves in the world 4. Language organized perceptions of gender Stereotyping women as emotional and weak and men as rational and strong
Polarized thinking or thinking of things as absolute opposites - erases transgendered people
Queer performative theory challenges & encourages us to see notice variations among women and men 5. Language evaluates gender
Continues to devalue females and femininity by trivializing, deprecating, and diminishing women & femininity
Labeled as immature, equated w/food, or animals; diminutive suffixes; derogatory names 6. Language allows self-reflection (androgyny)

Male generic language – mailman, spokesman, fireman, businessman

Speech community – a group of people who share norms about communication – when people share understanding about goals of communication, strategies for enacting those goals, and ways of interpreting communication

Feminine style Tend to regard communication as primary way to establish and maintain relationships
Features of Feminine Speech
Talk is essence of relationships used for fostering connections, support, closeness
Establishing equality
Support for others
Conversational “maintenance work”
Responsiveness
Personal concrete style (i.e. details)
Tentativeness (qualifiers and tag questions)

Masculine style
Tend to regard talk as a way of accomplishing goals, exerting control, and preserving independence, entertaining, & establishing status
Features of Masculine Speech
Effort to establish status and control (jokes, I-references, tendency not to self-disclose)
Instrumentality
Conversational command (rerouting conversations, interrupting)
Direct and assertive
More abstract and speak in general terms
Less emotionally responsive (minimum response cues)

Polarized thinking – thinking of things as absolute opposites

5 Gender based misinterpretations 1. Showing support 2. “Troubles talk” 3. The point of the story 4. Relationship talk 5. Public speaking

Chapter 6

Gendered nonverbal communication Nonverbal behaviors are 65-93% or more of the total meaning of communication
Nonverbal = all elements of communication other than words
Learned through interaction with others
Nonverbal communication related to gender and culture:
Expresses cultural meanings of gender
Men and women use to present themselves as gendered people

Functions of nonverbal communication Supplement verbal messages:
Repeat words
Contradict verbal message
Complement verbal message
Replace verbal message
Accent verbal message Regulate interaction
Women use to invite others into conversation
Men use to hold onto talk stage Establish relationship level of meaning
Responsiveness (inflection, eye contact, posture)
Women more responsive (smiles, eye contact, leaning forward, congruent postures)
Women more overtly expressive than men
Race/Ethnicity can influence Liking (Vocal warmth, touching, holding eye contact)
Signal we like or dislike others
Females socialized to be nice (more signals of liking, acceptance)
Also signal dislike (turning back, glaring) Power or control Power = degree we act as equal, dominant, deferential
Control = who defines topics, directs conversation, defers
Nonverbal behaviors assert or defer territoriality
Men generally take up more space
Women more likely than men to surrender territory

Artifacts Personal objects that influence how see self and express identity
Parents send messages through toys give to sons and daughters
Boys given toys that invite competition, active play
Girls given toys that encourage nurturing, attention to appearance In adult life, continue to reflect cultural views of masculinity and femininity
Men’s clothes not as colorful, more functional
Women’s clothes call attention to body, less functional
Meaning depends on cultural context
Advertisements for food, homemaking, child rearing feature women
Products associated with work, cars, sports feature men (or women in seductive poses)
Cosmetics industry multimillion dollar business
Some use artifacts to challenge existing perceptions
Men wear earrings
Women wear military boots

Proximity and personal space Proxemics refers to use of space
Different cultures have different norms
Primary means by which a culture designates who is important, privileged (i.e. strict patriarchies don’t allow women to own property)
Men head of table; have private spaces
Few women with families have private space

Territoriality Personal space we don’t want others to invade
Not equally respected
People with power more likely to enter space of those with less power
Men go into women’s spaces more than women enter men’s
How respond to invasion?
Women more likely to accept invasion and cede territory
Men more likely to challenge invasion

Haptics – touch Parents touch daughters more often and more gently
Boys learn to associate touching with control and power
Women initiate touches that express support
Men use touch to assert power and express sexual interest
Women may perceive men’s touch as harassing
Gay and lesbians may feel they can’t touch in public
Men tend to have more physical confidence
More willing to use physical force

Kinesics (facial and body motion) Women tilt heads, smile, condense body Men make large gestures, take up space, enter other person’s territory Women’s movements signal they are approachable, friendly, unassuming Men’s movements indicate they are reserved, in control Men more likely to use movements aggressively Women signal interest by sustaining eye contact Men do not sustain eye contact during conversations (Except when challenging others)

Paralanguage Vocal cues that accompany communication Difference between average male and average female pitch exceeds physiological explanations though there are some physiological difference) Women use higher pitch, softer volume, more inflection Men use lower pitch, greater volume in order to command conversational stage Women perceived as feminine assumed to be pretty, immature Men perceived as masculine assumed to be intelligent, mature

Physical appearance
Men and women pressured to meet cultural ideals
Concern about appearance not as much of a problem for males (87% at least somewhat satisfied)
Men with concerns tend to focus on musculature
Girls and women more dissatisfied with appearance
By age 5, many girls have negative self-images based on weight
Pressure to be thin contributes to epidemic of eating disorders
Ideals reflected in popular culture (i.e., Mannequins; shrinking size of Miss America)
African American women more satisfied with bodies, less prone to eating disorders
Physical appearance more closely linked to self-worth for gay men

Interpreting nonverbal behavior
Women more skilled at interpreting nonverbals and identifying emotions; reason is debated Biological view-Females’ right brain specialization may make more adept at decoding emotions
Cognitive development and social learning – females encouraged to be sensitive Women’s standpoint as caregivers Women outnumber men in caring professions Decoding skill results from women's standpoint as subordinate members of society

Cultural Values Women expected to emphasize communality-building and sustaining relationships Men emphasize agency-displaying power and initiative Western society values agency more than communality Masculine characteristics perceived as norm for healthy adults Different nonverbal styles are different NOT better or worse We can act as agents of change if we resist the social expectations of gender that are placed on us

Respecting styles Greater accuracy in interpreting others results from understanding and respecting differences Suspend judgment based on own perspectives Consider what others mean more thoughtfully Ask for clarification Make an effort to appreciate others Increases your range of options Empower yourself to create style that reflects identity assign to self