Apush Chapter 7 Summary

Chapter 7 pgs.182-194
The Rise of Cultural Nationalism
Patterns of Education
• Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republic
• By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay o Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor
• Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant, late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training
• Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans
very little schooling- literacy rate very small
• Higher education not public, private contribution and tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education
Medicine and Science
• Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled with introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments.
• Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives
Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation
• After Europe independence people wanted cultural independence, literary and artistic achievements to rival those of Europe
• Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Language established national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created
• High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature o Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes o Washington Irving wrote American folk tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle o Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism
Religious Skepticism
• Revolution detached churches from government and elevated liberty and reason, by 1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”
• Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason.
• Skepticism led to “universalism” and “Unitarianism”, at first within New England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God
• Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches and denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801
The Second Great Awakening
• Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists successful at combating New Light dissenters
• By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy
• Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God and Christ into daily life reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety with belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith and works
• Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order and social stability to people searching for identity
• Women particularly drawn to revivalism because women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for
• Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom
• Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture
• Stirrings of Industrialism
Technology in America
• America imported technological advances from England. Brit government attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America
• American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and
• Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever.
• In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820-30s as north became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture
• His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War with France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products
Transportation Innovations
• Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system
• To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Europe in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade between Europe and Western hemisphere
• Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship
• Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention with their Clermont
• Turnpike era began 1792 with corporate construction of turnpikes, but because needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas
The Rising Cities
• America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns of more than 8,000 in 1800 census o yet there were signs of change
• Major US cities such as New York and Philadelphia large and complex enough to rival secondary cities of Europe
• Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance, dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing

Chapter 8 pgs.218-225
A Growing Economy
Banking, Currency, and Protection
• War of 1812 stimulated manufacturing, but after war produced chaos in shipping and banking- need for new Bank of the United States charter its expiration 1811 and not renewed, protecting new industries, transport systems
• After expiration of charter state banks offered different currencies at different values- confusion and counterfeiting. Congress passed new charter for Bank of US 1816- its size and power essentially forced state banks to issue safer currency
• Manufacturing had grown tremendously due to imports being cut off, textile industry increased exponentially between Embargo of 1807 and War. Factories in NE no longer family operations. Francis Lowell developed new loom 1813 in Boston Manufacturing Company- first process of both spinning and weaving
• After war English ships swarmed American ports, wanted to reclaim old markets with prices below cost. 1816 Congress passed tariff to protect “infant industries” from competition aboard- farmers objected because paid higher price
Transportation
• Without transport network manufacturers couldn’t access raw materials and send finished goods to markets in US- should fed government finance roads?
• 1807 Jefferson’s Sec Treasury Albert Gallatin proposed revenue from Ohio land sale goes to fund National Road. Crucial Lancaster Pike built in PA- both allowed for the beginning of transport of commodities like textiles
• Steam-powered shipping (advancements of Robert Fulton) expanded on rivers and Great Lakes. Steamboats on Miss. stimulated already agricultural economy of South and West because cost to transport products to market lowered
• Despite progress of turnpikes and steamships serious gaps in transportation. 1815 John Calhoun introduced bill to use federal funds to finance internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it in 1817 because believed unconstitutional
• Remained to state governments and private enterprise to build needed transit networks
Expanding Westward
• The Great Migrations
• Westward movement affected economy, factor in Civil War, people forced together. o Population and economy pressures, land availability, decreased Indian resistance
• Immigration and natural growth increased Eastern population, agricultural lands occupied. Slaves in S limited work opportunity. West attractive because War of 1812 lessened Native opposition by pushing Indians west and establishing forts on Great Lakes and Miss. R., government “factor system” of goods to Indians
• White Settlers in the Old Northwest
• Shelters primitive, clearings in forest for crops to supplement game and domestic animals, rough existence with poverty and loneliness
• Migrants journeyed westward in groups, some formed communities and schools, churches, other institutions. Mobility a large part of life
• Farm economy based on modest seized farms with grain cultivation and livestock
• The Plantation System in the Southwest
• Cotton longs in Old South had lost much fertility but market continued to grow for it, Black Belt of SW lands could support thriving cotton
• First arrivals small farmers, wealthier planters followed buying and clearing smaller lands. Brought with them slaves, eventually mansions grew up from simpler log cabins symbolizing emergence of a newly rich class
• Rapid growth in NW and SW resulted in new states after War of 1812: Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819
• Trade and Trapping in the Far West
• Trade began to develop between western regions in US in 19th century and beyond
• Mexico (controlled Texas, CA, and Southwest) won independence from Spain 1821, opened territories to trade in order to grow their fortunes. US merchants such as William Becknell displaced Indian traders and inferior Mexican products lost out to new US traders- Mexico lost its markets it in own colonies
• Fur traders such as Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company eventually extended to Rockies, instead of pelts from Indians increasingly trapped their own
• Trappers (“mountain men”) first wedge of white movement, changed society by interacting with Indians and Mexicans. 1822 Andrew and William Ashley founded Rocky Mountain Fur Company, recruited trappers to live permanently in Rockies (Utah, New Mexico)
• Lives of trappers bound up with expanding market economy- relied on fur companies for credit, depended on Eastern merchants for livelihood
• Eastern Images of the West
• People in East only dimly aware of trappers’ world and their reshaping of it
• Explorers dispatched by US government to chart territories. 1819/1820 Steven Long sent by War Department to explore, wrote influential report with dismissive conclusions for future settlement (like Zebulon Pike 15 years before)

Chapter 10 pgs.262-295
The Changing American Population
The American Population, 1820-1840
• Population dramatically increased, began to concentrate in industrial centers of Northeast and Northwest, provided labor force for factory system
• Growth because of improvements in public health (decrease in number and intensity of epidemics), high birth rate, lower infant mortality rates
• Immigration did not contribute greatly until 1830s because of Europe wars and US economic problems. Immigrant boom caused by lower transport costs, increased US economic opportunity and less econ opportunity in some Europe areas
• Immigrant and internal migration led to growth of cities because agriculture in New England less profitable (some moved west also). By 1810 NY largest city
Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860
• By 1860 26% of free state populations lived in towns or cities
• Booming agricultural economy of west led small villages and trading posts to become cities. Benefited from Mississippi R, centers of Midwest trade
• By 1860 American population greater than that of GB and approaching France and Germany. Urban growth from flow of people from Northeast farms (competition from Europe farms and Western farms) and influx of immigrants abroad
• Majority of immigrants from Ireland and Germany. German industrial revolution had caused poverty, and because of collapse of liberal 1848 revolution. In Ireland unpopular English rule and “potato famine” of 1845-1849
• Most Irish settled in eastern cities and became unskilled laborers o had little money, many were young women- domestic/factory work in cities
• Most Germans moved to Northwest, farming or business in towns (many were single men)
Rise of Nativism
• Some native-born Americans saw opportunity in immigration o Industrialists and employers wanted cheap labor, land speculators and politicians hoped would populate west and increase demand for goods, increase influence
• Some (Nativists) hostile to foreigners and immigration
• Some racist, some argued newcomers socially unfit and did not have sufficient standards of civilization, o workers feared low immigrant wages would steal their jobs, Protestants feared Irish Catholics and Rome, many upset because voted Democratic
• Tension and prejudice led to secret societies to combat “alien menace”, o Native American Association 1837, 1845 Native American Party, peak in 1850s with combination in Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner
 Wanted to ban Catholics form office, restrict naturalization, force literacy tests for voting
• Secret order known as Know-Nothings turned to party politics, after 1852 election formed American Party, success in 1854 East elections, declined after
Transportation, Communications, and Technology
The Canal Age
• 1790-1820s “turnpike era”, but roads not adequate for nation’s growing needs
• Traffic on large rivers such as Miss. and Ohio had been mainly flat barges that could not travel upstream, by 1820s steamboats and riverboats carried western and southern crops quickly, from New Orleans ocean ships to Eastern ports
• Farmers and merchant’s unhappy because more direct route could lower transport costs and product costs. By 1820s economic advantages of canals had generated boom in expanding water routes to West. Too expensive for private companies, states of Northeast constructed them
• NY’s Erie Canal began July 4, 1817 to connect Hudson R and Lake Erie. Opened 1825, tolls repaid construction costs, and gave NY access to Great Lakes, Chicago, growing Western markets. NY now competed with New Orleans
• Water transport system expanded when Ohio and Indiana connected Lake Erie and Ohio R. Increased white settlement, but primacy of NY power and hinterland control alarmed other Atlantic cities. Most attempts limited successes or failed
The Early Railroads
• Railroads played secondary role in 1820s/30s, but laid groundwork for mid-century surge. Emerged form technological (tracks, steam-powered locomotive) and entrepreneurial innovations
• In 1830s no real rail system, most lines simply connected water routes and not links to other rail systems. Some states and corporations also limited their ability to compete effectively against canals
The Triumph of the Rails
• After 1840 rail gradually supplanted canals. 1850’s track age tripled. Most comprehensive and efficient system in northeast, but no region untouched
• Trend toward consolidation of short lines into longer lines (“trunk lines”), connected Northeast with Northwest, from these other railroads traveled into interior of nation. Main Northwest hub was Chicago
• Lessened dependence of West on Miss. R
• Capital to finance railroads came from private investors, abroad, and local governments. Fed government gave public land grants to railroads, states for RRs
Innovations in Communications
• Magnetic telegraph lines along tracks aided train routing, but also allowed instant communication between cities, linked N and NW at exclusion of S
• 1844 Samuel Morse first transmitted. Low cost of construction made it ideal solution to long-distance communication. By 1860 Western Union Telegraph company had been founded linking most independent telegraph lines
• In journalism Richard Hoe’s 1846 steam cylinder rotary press allowed rapid and cheap newspapers, telegraph increased news speed. 1846 Associated Press formed to promote cooperate wire transmission
• NY’s major papers Horace Greeley’s Tribune, James Bennett’s Herald, and Henry Raymond’s Times. In 1840s/50s journalism fed sectional discord, most major magazines and newspapers located in North. New awareness of differences
Commerce and Industry
The Expansion of Business, 1820-1840
• Business grew because population, transportation revolution, and new practices
• Retain distribution became more efficient with specialty stores in cities
• Individual and small merchant capitalist companies dominated, but some larger businesses gave way to corporations- combined resources of large number of shareholders o Grew 1830s because states passed easy incorporation laws o Limited liability meant stockholder risked only value of investment if corps failed
• Great demand for capital led businesses to rely on credit, but gold and silver standards of government led to too little money, led private banks to issue less stable notes
• Bank failures frequent, insecure deposits. Credit difficulty limited growth
The Emergence of the Factory
• Before War of 1812 most manufacturing occurred in private households in small workshops. Technology and demand led to factories- began in New England textile industry, large water-driven machines increased production
• 1820s factory system in shoe industry, by 1830s spread throughout Northeast. By 1860 value of manufactured goods roughly equal to agricultural goods. Largest manufacturers located in the Northeast, large amount of people employed
Advances in Technology
• Developed industries relatively immature, fine items came from England. But by 1840s rapid machine technology advances, sophisticated textile industry
• Manufacture of machine tools (tools used to make machinery) improved by government supported research for military (at Springfield Armory, MA) - turret lathe and universal milling machine in early 19th century. Later precision grinder
• Better machine tools allowed for wide use of interchangeable parts, new uses
• Industrialization aided by new energy sources: coal replacing wood and water in factories. Allowed mills to be located away from streams, easier expansion
• Technological advances due to American inventors, increasing number of patents. Included Howe-Singer sewing machine, Goodyear vulcanized rubber
Innovations in Corporate Organization
• Merchant capitalists still prominent 1840s; their clippers were fastest sailing ships afloat at time. By mid-century merchant capitalism declining because British competition stealing export trade, greater profits found in manufacturing than trade. Industry grew in NE because this merchant class could finance factories
• By 1840s corporations spreading rapidly, especially in textile industry. Ownership moving from families and individuals to many shareholders
Men and Women at Work
Recruiting a Native Work Force
• In factory system’s early years recruiting labor difficult because of farms and small cities. New farmlands in Midwest and new farm machinery and techniques increased food production, decreased need for labor. Transport allowed importation of food from other regions—people in New England left for factories
• Some recruitment brought whole families form farm to the mill with parents and children, but Lowell/Waltham system enlisted young women
• Labor conditions relatively good in early years of system, better than Eur. Lowell system used young, unmarried women but had good housing and food
• Even well-treated workers found transition from life on farm to in factory difficult- regimented environment, repetitive tasks. Women had little other choice because barred from manual labor, unthinkable to travel in search of opportunity
• Competitive textile market of 1830s/40s manufactures had difficulty maintaining high standards and conditions, wages fell. Union of Factory Girls Association struck twice, but both failed. Eventually immigrants filled jobs
The Immigrant Work Force
• Increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 boom for manufacturers- large and inexpensive labor source. Little leverage with employers, lack of skills and native prejudice led to low, intermittent wages—great poverty
• Irish workers predomination in the 1840s textile industry, arrival led to deteriorating working conditions. Less social pressure on owners to maintain decent environment, piece rates instead of daily wages to speed production
• Factories becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, dangerous places to work, hours long, wages declining. Still however, condition better than England and Europe
The Factory System and the Artisan Trade
• Factory system displaced skilled artisans- had been embodiment of republican independent worker. Unable to compete with factory-made goods for fraction of artisan’s prices. Early 19th century began to form organizations and first labor unions to protect position. 1820s/30s trade unions developed in cities
• Interconnected economies of cities made national unions or federations of local unions logical. 1834 National Trade’s Union
• Labor leaders struggled with hostile laws and courts, common law made worker combination as illegal conspiracy. Panic of 1837 also weakened movement
Fighting for Control
• Workers at all levels in industrial economy tried to improve position by making 10-hour workday or restricting child labor. Laws changed little
• 1842 MA Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v Hunt that unions were legal and strikes lawful, other states gradually agreed. Unions still largely ineffective 1840-50s
• Artisans and skilled workers unions more successful 1850s, but their unions more like preindustrial guilds that restricted admission to skilled trades
• Working class of 1840-50s had only modest power- limited by numerous immigrant laborers who could replace strikers, ethnic division led to worker disunity. Industrial capitalists had great economic, political and social power
Patterns of Industrial Society
The Rich and the Poor
• Commercial and industrial growth raised average income of Americans, but wealth distributed unequally o Slaves, Indians, landless farmers, many unskilled workers little change. Small percentage of families owned majority of wealth
• There had always been wealthy classes from beginning but extent and character was changing o Newly wealthy merchants and industrialists settled in cities- found new ways to display wealth in mansions, social clubs, clothing…
• Large population of destitute people in growing urban areas- little resources, often homeless o Included recent immigrants, widows, orphans, and people with mental illness o Free blacks=only menial jobs, little pay, no vote, no public schools
Social Mobility
• Class conflict quelled because working standards declined but living standard improving, opportunity for social mobility for workers captured imagination
• Geographic mobility more extensive than Europe, Western lands “safety valve” for discontent. Also travel form city to city to search for new opportunity
• Opportunity to participate in politics expanded, ballot tied people to community
Middle-Class Life
• Fastest growing group in America middle class.
Economic development offered opportunity to own and work for businesses, land no longer=wealth
• Middle class life most influential cultural form of urban America, good neighborhoods, women stayed in home to care for children, cast-iron stoves used to cook, diets improved with new access to meats, grains, dairy
The Changing Family
• Movement of families from farms to cities where jobs, not land, most important. Patriarchal system of inherited farm land disappeared
• Work moved out of home and into shop, mill, and factory. Family as principal economic unit gave way to individual wage earners. Even farms became commercialized because larger lands required more labor than just family
• Changing family role led to decline in birth rate by mid-19th century. Deliberate effort to limit family size result of future planning. Secular, rational o Women and the “Cult of Domesticity”
• Growing distinction between workplace and home led to distinction in societal roles of men and women. Women had long been denied legal and political rights, little access to business, less access to education at high
levels
• Middle class husband seen as wage earner, wife to engage in domestic activities- “guardians of domestic virtues”, central role to nurture young
• “Separate sphere” female culture emerged. Women seen as having special qualities different than men-custodians of morality and shape home to be refuge from competitive marketplace. Provide religious, moral instruction to kids
• By 1840s few genteel women considered working, seen as “lower class”, owners rarely hired women anyway because of “cult”. But Working-class women couldn’t afford to stay home, many went into domestic service
Leisure Activities
• Leisure time scarce for all but wealthy, vacations rare, Sunday often only day of rest and Church. Reading expanded, new newspapers, magazines, books for affluent. Theaters, minstrel shows, public sporting events increasingly popular
• Circus amazed people o lectures also very popular
The Agricultural North
Northeastern Agriculture
• After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of Northwest. Rural population declined. Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and became laborers. Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable dairy products
The Old Northwest
• Some industry o industrial growth, before Civil War- much served agriculture or relied on agricultural products
• Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market, international market for American food
• Growth of factories and cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold most goods to people in Northeast and dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern industry found market for products in prosperous West
• To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840-50s, new farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow
• Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick and thresher revolutionized grain production
• NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property
Rural Life
• Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to share tasks difficult for single family
• Rural life not always isolated, but less contact with popular culture and public social life than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy

Chapter 12 pgs.320-334
The Romantic Impulse
Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting
• Europe felt that they alone at center of artistic world, but paintings within US popular because felt they had artistic traditions of their own: wonder of nation’s landscape, shoe power of nature thru wild outdoor scenes- “awe and wonder”
• First great school of American painters from Hudson River School in NY: Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand. Hoped to express “wild nature” that existed in America but not Europe
• Literature and the Quest for Liberation
• Early 19th century American literature unpopular, British novelist Sir Walter Scott was. But even during 1820s great American novelist James Fennimore Cooper- evocation of wilderness, adventure, westward expansion- his “Leatherstocking Tales were The Last of the Mohicans and The Deerslayer
• Cooper’s novels showed effort to produce truly American literature, ideal of independent individual with natural inner goodness, fear of disorder
• Later American romantic works included: poet Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855) - celebration of democracy, individual liberty. Other works more bleak- Herman Melville’s Moby Dick (1851) of individual will but tragedy of pride and revenge, writer Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” (1845) established him as literary figure- humans exploring deeper world of spirit and emotions
• Literature in the Antebellum South
• Southern writers wanted to create American literary culture as well, but often produced historical romances for eulogies of plantation system of Upper South. Most famous William Gilmore Simms- believed duty of intellectual to defend southern lifestyle and slavery, sectional
• Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper focused not on “cavaliers” but on ordinary people and poor whites
• The Transcendentalists
• New England writers who focused on distinction between “reason” and inner capacity to grasp beauty and emotional expression vs. “understanding” and repression of instinct and imposed learning- goal to cultivate “reason”
• Centered in Concord, MA. Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson- essays “Nature” (1836) argued self-fulfillment thru communion with nature, “Self-Reliance” (1841) called for individual fully explore inner capacity, unity with universe
• Emerson a nationalist, lecture “The American Scholar” (1837), argued beauty from instant vs. learning, therefore Americans can still have artistic greatness
• Henry David Thoreau- people should seek self-realization by not conforming to society’s expectations and responding to own instincts. His Walden (1845) of him living simply in the woods, essay “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849)- government that required violation of personal mortality not legitimate
• The Defense of Nature
• Some uneasy with rapid economic development, feared impact on natural world. Nature not just for economic activity (farmers, miners) or for study by scientists- but vehicle for human inspiration, realize truth within the soul
• Visions of Utopia
• Transcendentalism spawned communal living experiments
• Brook Farm established by George Ripley 1841 in MA, create community that would permit full opportunity for self-realization, equal labor, share leisure
• Conflict between individual freedom and communal society led to dissenters: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852) submission equals oppression, The Scarlet Letter (1850)
• French philosopher Charles Fourier’s idea of socialist communities led Robert Owen 1825 to create experiment New Harmony in Indiana, economic failure
• Redefining Gender Roles
• Transcendentalism and utopian communities led to some sense of feminism
• Margaret Fuller’s Women of the Nineteenth Century (1844)- feminist ideas
• John Humphrey’s Oneida Community “Perfectionists” rejected traditional ideas of family and marriage, communal raising of children o An Lee’s Shaker Society committed to celibacy, equality of sexes, God neither male or female
The Mormons
• Mormons effort to create new and more ordered society thru Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Began upstate NY by Joseph Smith with his 1830 Book of Mormon. Began looking for sanctuary for follower “New Jerusalem”
• Ideas of polygamy and secrecy led surrounding communities to fear them. Mob killed Smith, his protégé Brigham Young led exodus to new community in present Salt Lake City, Utah. Family structure very important
• Belief in human perfectibility, but not individual liberty. Organized, centrally directed society- refuge from disorder and insecurity of secular world
• Members mostly people dislodged by economic growth and social progress of era
Remaking Society
Revivalism, Mortality, and Order
• Reform because rejection of Calvinist doctrines and preached divinity of individual (Unitarians, Universalism), and because of Protestant revivalism
• New Light revivalists believed every individual capable of salvation. Charles Finney important leader- predestination and human helplessness obsolete
• Revivals in “burned-over district” in upstate NY (economic change because where Erie Canal had been built). Successful among those who felt threatened by change (including the prosperous worried about social changes), and women
The Temperance Crusade
• Alcohol seen as responsible for crime, disorder, poverty. Large problem in West where farmers made extra grain into whiskey, in East as leisure activity
• Earlier temperance movement revived by new reformers- 1826 American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 1840 Western Temperance Society.
• Growth led to factions: which alcohol to ban, method (law v. conscience)
• Trying to impose discipline on society- Protestants vs. Catholic immigrants for which drinking social ritual, disturbing to old residents of communities
Health Fads and Phrenology
• Interest in individual and social perfection led to new health theories, also threat to public health by cholera epidemics 1830s/40s led to city health boards
• Because boards found few solutions Americans turned toward nonscientific theories to improve health: “water cure (hydrotherapy)”, Sylvester Graham’s new diet theories, German “phrenology” 1830s thru efforts of Fowler brothers- shape and regions of skull important indicator of character and intelligence
Medical Science
• Science of medicine lagged behind other tech. and scientific advances because lack of regulation led many poorly educated people to be physicians, absence of basic knowledge of disease- vaccination, anesthesia result of luck vs. study
• Without appetence of scientific methods and experimentation little learned about treating and transmission of disease
Reforming Education
• Reform toward universal public education-by 1830 no state had system (some limited state versions [MA, etc.])- reflection of new belief on innate capacity of every person, society’s obligation to tap that, expose kids to social values
• Greatest reformer Horace Mann- educated electorate essential to work free political system. Academic year lengthened, better teacher salaries and training
• By 1850s tax-supported elementary schools in all states. Quality of education varied widely- Horace Mann’s MA professional and trained, elsewhere some barely literate, limited funding. West dispersed pop=less opportunity, South blacks barred from formal education, only 1/3 children nationwide in school
• School reform achievements: US literacy rate highest in world, new emphasis led to new institutions to help handicapped- greater Benevolent
• School efforts to impose set of social values on children seen as important in industrial nation- thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, respect for authority

Rehabilitation
• “Asylums” for criminals and mentally ill. Antiquated jails replaced with new penitentiaries and mental institutions, jailing debtors and paupers decreased
• Reform and rehabilitate inmates- rigid discipline to curb criminal “laxness”, solitary confinement to contemplate crimes. Overcrowding became problem
• Idea properly structured institution to prevent moral failure and rescue people from failure led to orphanages, almshouses for poor, homes for “friendless” women
The Indian Reservation
• Main US Indian policy had been relocation to make way for expanding white civilization. Reform led to idea of reservation- enclosed area for Indians to live in isolation from white society. Served economic interest of whites, but also attempt to teach ways of civilization in protected setting
The Rise of Feminism
• Women 1830s/40s had to deal with traditional limitations and new role in family to focus energy on home and children, leave income-earning to husbands
• Resentment over limitations. Leaders of women’s movement (Grimke sisters, Stowe sisters, Lucrecia Matt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dorothy Dix)
• 1848 organized convention at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights- led to “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” stating all men and women equal, call for women’s suffrage. Many women in feminist movement Quaker
• Progress limited in antebellum years- only few became physicians, ministers
• Women benefited from association with other reform movements (very important abolition), but led some to consider their demands secondary to slave rights

Chapter 8 pgs.225-233
The Era of Good Feelings
The End of the First Party System
• James Monroe, Madison’s Sec of State, elected Republican president 1816. WITH Federalist decline faced party faced no serious opposition, after War of 1812 no serious international threat- wanted republic without partisan factions
• For Sec of State chose New Englander and former Federalist John Quincy Adams, John Calhoun named Sec of War- Monroe took pains to include northerners, southerners, easterners, westerners, Feds and Republics in Cabinet
• After election national goodwill tour, re-elected 1820 without any opposition
John Quincy Adams
• Committed nationalist, important task promotion of American expansion
• US already annexed W Florida, 1817 began negotiations with Spanish minister Luis de Onis. Meanwhile, American commander in Florida Andrew Jackson used orders from Sec of War Calhoun to invade Florida to stop Seminole raids—known as Seminole war. Adams wanted to use as excuse to annex
• Onis realized he had little choice, Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florid and lands north of 42nd parallel to US, o US gave up Texas claims

The Panic of 1819
• Panic followed period of high foreign demand for US goods, rising prices had stimulated land boom in western US. Availability for easy credit to settlers and speculators- from government, state and wildcat banks
• 1819 management at Bank of US tightened credit, led to series of state bank failures, led to financial panic- those in West blamed it on bank
• Depression for 6 years followed, but growth ultimately continued
Sectionalism and Nationalism
The Missouri Compromise
• Missouri applied for statehood 1819, although slavery already established NY Rep James Tallmadge’s Amendment gradual emancipation- controversial
• Since beginning new states had come into Union in pairs (1 from N, 1 from S), Missouri entrance would increase power of North over South
• Maine had also applied for statehood, Henry Clay threatened South would block entrance in Missouri not permitted to be a slave state
• Compromise in Maine-Missouri Bill, Senator Jesse Thomas’s Amendment to ban slavery in rest of Louisiana Ter. north of MO’s 3630’ border also passed
Marshall and the Court
• John Marshall chief justice from 1801-1835. o Strengthened judicial system at expense of executive and legislature, increased fed power over states, advanced interest of propertied and commercial classes
• Supported inviolability contracts in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) which held GA legislature could not repeal contract acts of previous legislature. Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions- states had given up some sovereignty by ratifying Constitution, therefore their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction
• “Implied powers” of Congress upheld in McCulloch v Maryland (1819) by upholding Bank of United States, attorney Daniel Webster argued establishment legal under “necessary and proper” clause, power to tax involved “power to destroy”. States therefore could not tax now-legal Bank
• Strengthened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce in Gibbons v Ogden(1824)- Fed government gave license to Thomas Gibbons for ferry even transport between NY and NJ even though NY state had granted Aaron Ogden monopoly- Marshall argued that Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce and navigation “complete in itself” and could exercise to the utmost
• Decisions established primacy of fed government over states in regulating economy, protected corporations and private economic institutions from local government
The Court and the Tribes
• Marshall court decisions with Natives affirmed supremacy of US and carved out position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure
• In Johnson v McIntosh (1825) Marshall described the basic right of Natives to tribal lands that preceded all other American law. Individual Americans could not buy or take land from tribes, only fed government could do that
• Worchester v Georgia (1832) invalidated law to regulate citizen access to Cherokee lands. Only fed government had power to do that, tribes described as sovereign entities with exclusive authority and territorial boundaries
• Marshall Court did what Constitution had not- establish place for Indian tribes in American political system. Sovereign, but fed government “guardian” over its “ward”
The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine
• US foreign policy mainly centered on Europe, but after War of 1812 Spanish Empire in decline with new revolutions, US developing profitable trade with Latin America rivaling GB as principal trading pattern
• 1815 US proclaimed neutrality in wars between Spain and rebellious colonies, 1822 President Monroe established diplomatic relations with 5 new nations
• 1823 Monroe announced policy (later known as “Monroe Doctrine”) that American continent not be considered subject of future colonization by European powers, any foreign challenge would be unfriendly
• Monroe Doctrine developed because Americans feared Spanish allies (such as France) would aid it in retaking lost empire, fear of GB taking over Cuba
The Revival of Opposition
The “Corrupt Bargain”
• In 1824 Republican caucus nominated William Crawford of Georgia for presidency, but other candidates received nominations from state legislatures
• Candidates included: Sec of State John Quincy Adams had little popular appeal, Speaker of the House Henry Clay had personal following and strong program in the “American System” to strengthen home industry and Bank, Andrew Jackson little political experience but a military hero and TN allies
• Jackson received more popular and electoral votes than other candidates but not majority, Twelfth Amendment (passed after contested 1800 election) required House of Reps to choose among top three candidates- Clay threw endorsement behind Adams because Jackson a political rival in West and Adams a nationalist and likely American system supporter
• Adams named Clay Sec of State, Jackson’s followers enraged at seeming “corrupt bargain”- haunted Adams throughout presidency
The Second President Adams
• Adams proposed nationalist program reminiscent of Clay’s American System but Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it. Southerners in Congress blocked delegates to international conference called by Simon Bolivar in Panama in 1826 because Haiti was sending black delegates
• Georgia wished to remove remaining Creek and Cherokee Indians from state to gain more land for cotton planters. Adams refused to enforce treaty made between Indians and Georgia. Governor defied president and proceeded with removal
• Adams supported tariff on imported goods 1828 because NE textile manufacturers complained of competition. To be passed concessions made to middle and west states on other tariffs—bill signed hated by all, called “tariff of abominations”
Jackson Triumphant
• By 1828 presidential election new 2-party system had begun to emerge from divisions between Republicans. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism, opposing them was Democratic Republicans of Andrew Jackson who called for assault on privilege and widening of opportunity
• Campaign of personal charges, Jackson’s wife Rachel accused of bigamy, she was so upset that she ultimately died- Jackson blamed opponents
• Jackson won decisive but sectional victory. Adams strong in New England and mid-Atlantic o Jackson believed victory similar to Jefferson’s 1800 win

Chapter 9 pgs.239-255
“President of the Common Man”
• Democratic party embraced no uniform ideological position, committed to offer equal protection and benefits by assaulting eastern aristocracy to extend opportunity to rising classes of the W and S, preserve white-male democracy thru subjugation of African Americans and Indians
• Jackson’s first targets entrenched officeholders of fed government, wanted to simplify official duties to make office more accessible. Removed nearly 1/5 of office-holders removed because misuse of government funds or corruption
• Jackson’s supporters embraced “spoils system”, making right of elected officials to appoint followers to office established feature of American politics
• Supporters worked to transform presidential nomination system- 1832 national party convention held to replace congressional caucus, considered democratic triumph because power from people and not aristocratic caucus
• Spoils system and convention limited power of entrenched elites (permanent officeholders, caucus elite), but neither really transferred true power to the people
“Our Federal Union”
Calhoun and Nullification
• Late 1820s many in SC came to see “tariff of abominations” as responsible for stagnation of state economy (really due to exhausted farmland unable to compete with new western lands). Some considered remedy thru secession
• Vice President Calhoun offered alternative in theory of nullification- idea like Madison and Jefferson’s KY and VA Resolutions of 1798-1799. Argued fed government created by states, therefore states final arbiter (not Congress or courts) of constitutionality. Convention could be held to null and void law within state
The Rise of Van Buren
• Appointed Sec of State 1829 by Jackson, also member of presidents of unofficial circle of allies in “Kitchen Cabinet”. After supporting Peggy Eaton in affair over acceptance into cabinet wife social circle gained favor with President
• By 1831 Jackson had chosen Van Buren to succeed him in WH, Calhoun’s presidential dream ended
• The Webster-Hayne Debate
• January 1830 proposal to temporarily stop western land sales led SC Sen. Robert Hayne to claim slowing down W growth means for east to retain political and economic power. Hinted at uniting S and W against “tyranny”
• Nationalist and Whig Sen. Daniel Webster attacked Hayne and Calhoun for challenging integrity of the Union. Debate ensued over issue of states’ rights vs. national power
• Jackson announced at Democratic Party banquet “Our Federal Union-It must be preserved”, lines drawn between Jackson and Calhoun
The Nullification Crisis
• 1832 tariff bill in Congress gave SC no relief from “tariff of abominations”, state convention held- voted for nullification of tariffs of 1828 and 1832, duties collection within state. Calhoun resigned VP became Sen., Hayne now Governor
• Jackson insisted nullification treason, strengthened federal forts in SC. 1833 Pres. proposed bill to authorize use of military to see acts of Congress obeyed
• No states supported SC, state it divided. Senator Henry Clay offered compromise that tariff would be gradually lowered so that by 1842 it would be at same level as in 1816. Compromise and force bill passed March 1833
• SC state convention met and repealed its nullification of the tariffs, but also nullified the force act (symbolic of null. legitimacy)
The Removal of the Indians
White Attitudes toward the Tribes
• In 18th century many whites considered Indians “noble savages” who had inherent dignity, by 19th century more hostile attitude especially among whites in W and territories, simply “savages”
• White westerners wanted removal because feared continued contact and expanding white settlements would lead to endless violence, and Indian lands valuable
• Only fed government had power to deal with Indians after Sup. Court decisions. Indians created new large political entities to deal with whites
The Black Hawk War
• In Old Northwest Black Hawk War 1831-1832 to expel last of Indians there
• Conflict notable for violence of white military efforts, attacked even when Chief Black Hawk was surrendering and killed Indians fleeing battle
The “Five Civilized Tribes”
• 1830s government worried about remaining “Five Civilized Tribes” in South- successful agricultural society, Constitution forming Cherokee Nation 1827
• Fed government worked in early 19th century thru treaties to remove tribes to West and open lands to white settlement o Negotiation process unsatisfying and slow
• Congress passed Removal Act 1830 to finance def. negotiations with tribes in order to relocate them West, pressure from state governments to move as well
• In GA Supreme Court decisions of Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832) seemed to protect tribal lands
• 1835 treaty signed with minority tribe in Cherokee nation ceding all land to GA, but majority of Cherokees refused to recognize its legitimacy o Jackson sent army under General Winfield Scott to drive them westward to reservation
Trials of Tears
• Forced trek to “Indian Territory” began winter 1838. Thousands died before destination, dubbed “Trail of Tears”
• Cherokees not alone: o 1830-1838 nearly all “Five Civilized Tribes” expelled from Southern states and relocated to Indian Territory created by Congress in Indian Intercourse Act of 1834
 Undesirable land far from whites o Only Seminoles in Florida resisted relocation. Under pressure had agreed to cede land and move to Indian Territory, many members of tribe moved o But 1835 minority led by Chief Osceola staged uprising
 Jackson sent army, conducted campaign of systematic extermination but successful guerilla warfare forced government to abandon war in 1842
The Meaning of Removal
• By end of 1830s almost all major Indian societies relocated to far less hospitable lands west of Mississippi on reservations surrounded by forts
• White movement west impossible to have stopped, but alternative to removal could have been some form of co-existence like in NW trading posts, TX
• BY mid-19th century Americans believed western lands had no pre-existing civilization. Natives could not be equal partners, were obstacles to be removed, “lacked intelligence, industry and moral habits for improvement”
Jackson and the Bank War
Biddle’s Institution
• Bank of United States in 1830s had HQ in Philadelphia, branches in 19 cities, by law only place government could deposit its funds
• Conducted private business issuing credit, bank notes used throughout country, restrained less well-managed state banks. President Nicholas Biddle had made bank sound and prosperous. Regardless, Jackson wanted to destroy it
• Opposition came from “soft-money” faction who wanted more currency in circulation. Made up of state banks, resisted Bank of US’s efforts to restrain free issue of notes from state banks
• “Hard money” faction wanted gold and silver to back currency, suspicious of expansion and speculation. Jackson supported hard-money
• Jackson did not favor renewal of bank charter after 1836 expiration. Biddle tried to save bank by granting financial favors to influential men, named Daniel Webster made legal counsel (gained Clay’s support). Recommended renewal bill 1832 to make bank issue in 1832 elections.
• Bill passed Congress but Jackson vetoed it, could not be overridden. In 1832 Jackson and Van Buren elected despite opposition to bank over opposition Clay
The “Monster” Destroyed
• Jackson determined to destroy “monster” Bank quickly. To weaken it removed government deposits Secretaries fired because feared financial destabilization, third Roget Taney complied)
• When administration transferred funds from Bank to pet banks, Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates- hoped would cause financial distress and recession that would persuade Congress to re-charter Bank
• Financial conditions worsened winter 1833/1834, two sides blamed it on each other. Finally Biddle contracted credit too far for his own allies in the business community, began to fear his efforts to save ban threatening their own
• Biddle forced to grant credit in abundance on reasonable terms, tactics ended change of re-charter. End in 1836 empowered unstable bank system
The Taney Court
• Jackson moved against economic nationalism support of Supreme Court, after Marshall died 1835 named Roger Taney chief justice
• Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837) between company chartered by state for toll bridge monopoly and company applying to legislature to pay for toll-free bridge. Taney ruled that governments goal to promote general happiness took precedence over right of contract and property, therefore state had right to amend contract to advance well-being of community
• Reflected Jacksonians ideal that key to democracy expansion of economic opportunity that could not occur if corporations maintained monopolies and choked off competition from newer companies
The Changing Face of American Politics
Democrats and Whigs
• Democrats in 1830s envisioned expanding economic and political opportunity for white males, limited government but one that removed obstacles to opportunity, defense of Union, attacking corruption, radical branch called Locofocos
• Whigs favored expanding power of fed government, industrial and commercial development, knit country into consolidated economic system, cautious westward expansion because feared territorial growth would produce instability, embraced industrial future and commercial and manufacturing greatness
• Whigs supported by merchants and manufactures of NE, wealthy Southern planters, western commercialists. Democrats supported by smaller merchants and workingmen of NE, S planters suspicious of industry, agrarian westerners
• Above all wanted to win elections: Whigs connected with Anti-Masons to resent “undemocratic” Freemasons (such as Jackson and Van Buren). Irish and German Catholic immigrants supported Democrats because aversion to commercial development, Evangelical Protestants supported Whigs
• Whigs led by “Great Triumvirate” of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun. 1836 election Dems united behind Jackson’s choice of Van Buren for candidate, but Whigs could not agree on single candidate. Clay, White, and William Henry Harrison ran for regional interests, defeated by Van Buren
Van Buren and the Panic of 1837
• Van Buren elected on economic boom that reached height 1836- canals and railroads being built, easy credit, land business booming, government revenues from sales and 1833 tariff created surpluses that allowed reduction of national debt
• Congress passed 1836 “distribution” act to return surplus to states, used to fund highways, railroads, canals, created economic boom
• Withdrawal of fed funds strained state “pet” banks, forced to call in loans. Jackson issued “specie circular” that required payment for public land sales be in gold or silver or currency backed by them because feared rampant speculation
• Circular produced financial panic during Van Buren’s presidency banks and business failed, food riots- largest depression in American history to that point
• Both parties responsible for panic- surplus redistribution a Whig measure, Jackson’s circular, but also panics in England and W. Europe that caused those investors to withdraw funds from American banks, also crop failures
• Panic of 1837 led Democrats and Van Buren administration to pay price for no government intervention. Only success of VB creation of “sub treasury system” to replace Bank of US- government funds placed in independent treasury in Washington, no private banks could use money to fund loans and speculation
• The Log Cabin Campaign
• To win 1840 election Whigs supported only one candidate- William Henry Harrison for president and John Tyler for VP
• 1840 campaign first in which “penny press” carried news of candidates to larger audience of workers and tradespeople. Whigs, although represented affluent elements of pop, presented themselves as party of the common people
• Whig campaign effective at portraying the wealthy Harrison as a simple log cabin and cider man and VB as an aloof aristocrat--- Harrison won election
The Frustration of the Whigs
• Harrison died of pneumonia 1 month after inauguration, new President Tyler was a former Democrat who refused to let Clay and Webster control policy
• President supported bills abolishing independent treasury system and raising tariff rate, but refused Clay’s attempt to re-charter Bank and vetoed internal improvement bills sponsored by Whigs.
• Whigs kicked Tyler out of party, entire cabinet resigned. Tyler and some conservative southern Whigs who supported slavery and states’ rights prepared to join the Democratic Party
Whig Diplomacy
• Canada uprising caused tension leading to burning of an American steamship carrying arms and the subsequent arrest of a British citizen for burning 1837. Tension over Canada-Maine boundary led to small “Aroostook War” 1838
• Finally negotiations to reduce all tensions occurred between Sec of State Webster and British Lord Ashburton. 1842 Webster Ashburton treaty established new Maine border, GB refused to interfere with American ships-- relations improved
• Tyler administration established first diplomatic relations with China, Americans received same privileges as British such as “extraterritoriality” and port use
• Whigs lost White House in 1844 elections