Beowulf, a poem written by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, is considered one of the most important works in all of English literature. However, it was almost a forgotten work. Written in the Anglo-Saxon era, only one Beowulf manuscript survived into modern times, and it was almost destroyed in a fire in the 1700s. While it survived the fire, it continued to languish. However, when interest in Old English documents surged in the 1900s, people became interested in Beowulf again, although it was initially seen as a historical document rather than as a piece of literature. Beowulf only became famous in the 1900s because of the work of J.R.R. Tolkien, an Oxford scholar who became well known for his fantasy literature. Tolkien wrote a paper about Beowulf, which reintroduced it to the world as a work of literature, not merely a historical document.
In modern times, Beowulf is considered to be a critical piece of English literature, though its lengthy neglect belies its role in helping shape the English poetry that followed it. After its rediscovery in the early 1900s, Beowulf did begin to impact writers, notably Tolkien, who borrowed heavily from the heroic epic. Moreover, to call Beowulf an English work is to ignore the Germanic influence on Old English. English is considered a romance language, tracing its etymological roots to Latin and French, yet Old English is far more Germanic than Romantic.
Like most ancient works, Beowulf developed from a pre-existing oral tradition, so that the author who wrote the poem did not actually create the characters or the storyline of the poem, but captured oral tradition in writing. Beowulf was written in approximately 700 A.D., and while it is a retelling of an oral tradition, the consensus is that Beowulf was written by a single poet. Though it describes events in Scandinavia, Beowulf was written in England. It marked a transitory period, as the Anglo-Saxons were assimilating into English
life, but still shared some of the attributes of life from Scandinavia. In this way, it provides insight into the time period in which it was written, as well as the time period it describes. However, most of the story predated the arrival of Anglo-Saxons in Great Britain and referenced actual historical figures, such as members of the royal families of Sweden and Denmark. Therefore, the story reflected the type of narrative myth that formed the basis of oral histories in many societies. However, it was also composed by an author whose living conditions would have differed dramatically from those of the people described in the story.
Understanding the actual history underlying Beowulf is essentaial to understanding the poem because it contains references to actual history. Many modern people believe that Anglo-Saxon is synonymous with people from the British Isles. However, the Anglo-Saxons and the Scandinavians actually conquered those islands, first in the fourth century A.D.—though they were driven back by the Romans, who had previously settled in Great Britain—and then again in the second half of the fifth century, around 450 A.D. They actually brought the Germanic languages to Great Britain, and these Germanic languages provided the foundation for Old English.
One of the more interesting features of Beowulf is that it is very much a pagan story, but it is being told by a Christian poet. This was not, in and of itself, unusual for the time period. While the Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians who settled Great Britain were typically pagan, they largely adopted Christianity, which had spread to Great Britain during the Roman occupation. Thus, the author was Christian, which becomes evident in his telling of the events of the story, but the characters in the story were not. Instead of being governed by a Judeo-Christian system of ethics and morals, the characters were defined by a heroic code that applied prior to the adoption of Christianity. The conflict between the author’s own ethical belief system and the behavior of the characters becomes evident in different parts of the poem. The poem discusses the Germanic code of comitatus. Comitatus was the bond between a Germanic feudal lord and his warriors, and it compelled the warriors to fight to the death for their lords and avenge the death of a fallen lord, but also compelled the lords to protect the warriors. It was considered shameful for a warrior to leave the field before his lord and for the lord to leave the field before his warriors.
The concept of comitatus was important because of how dangerous life was England in the Middle Ages. Beowulf is a dark story that relies upon a hero to drive back mythical danger. However, while monsters may not have been a real danger, life in the Middle Ages was difficult and threatening. The Anglo-Saxons who had come to settle in England were used to living in small groups of people who supported a powerful king. In turn, the king granted protection to those loyal to him. It was an early feudal system, not taxed by the aristocracy that would mar feudalism as it developed in England, and it provided mutual benefits for the kings and their followers.
Because Beowulf is a poem, the literary devices used within it are of some importance, though they are frequently lost in the translation from Old English to modern English. Two important literary devices in Old English poetry were alliteration and the kenning. In Old English poetry, each line was broken into halves, and each half contained two stressed syllables for a total of four stressed syllables per line. Up to three of these syllables could feature alliteration, but the last stressed syllable could not. This alliteration was to help scops (old English poets) remember the stories, as they had to recall them from memory without the assistance of writing. Alliteration was also the critical poetic element in poetry during the Middle Ages, because poetry in that time period lacked any set rhyming pattern; in fact, there is very little rhyming in Beowulf. Another literary device used throughout Beowulf is the litote. A litote is a comparative rhetorical device that uses the negative of an opposite to make an affirmative statement. Litotes also employ understatements. For example, in Beowulf, the edge of a weapon is described as “not useless to the warrior now.” The “not useless” part reflects the idea that it is useful, and because it is more than useful, that phrase is an understatement.
Before the poem was put into writing, it would have been a piece of performance art. The scop would not simply recite the poem; he would sing it to an audience. The audience would normally be familiar with the stories told by the scop. The role of the scop is actually discussed in Beowulf, which features a scop in Hrothgar’s court. The poet who wrote Beowulf would have heard the story from scops and taken that oral tradition and written the poem. However, whether the poet was a scop who performed the poem in front of audiences is not known.
Cast of Characters
Beowulf – Beowulf is the protagonist and titular character in the poem Beowulf. Beowulf is an accomplished warrior from Geatland who travels to Denmark to help the Danish king, Hrothgar, when his land is threatened by the monster, Grendel. Beowulf not only kills Grendel, but also kills Grendel’s mother. He returns to Geatland, where he eventually becomes king and reigns for 50 years of peace and prosperity. However, Geatland begins to face a threat from a dragon, and even though Beowulf is an old man, he goes to defeat the Dragon. While he manages to vanquish the Dragon, he receives a fatal wound during that battle.
King Hrothgar – King Hrothgar is the Danish king at the beginning of the novel. He has been a successful king and has built a mead hall, Heorot, where his warriors gather to celebrate each evening. Their revelry wakens a monster, Grendel, who comes each night and terrorizes them. Hrothgar’s men try to vanquish Grendel, but cannot. When Beowulf, who owes Hrothgar a favor because Hrothgar once helped Beowulf’s father, comes to Denmark and offers to help fight Grendel, Hrothgar accepts the offer. Hrothgar ends up playing a fatherly role to Beowulf, and helps shape the king that Beowulf will become.
Grendel – Grendel is the monster threatening Denmark. He is one of the antagonists of the poem. He is said to be descended from Cain. The sound of the revelry from Heorot disturbs him, so he goes to Heorot at night to terrorize the warriors there. Grendel manages to defeat most of the warriors he encounters, but Beowulf manages to cut off his arm, which proves to be a fatal wound.
Grendel’s mother – Grendel’s mother is another key antagonist in the poem. She is known simply as Grendel’s mother and is not given a name. She is referred to as a “swamp-hag,” and she clearly has more power than a regular woman, as she is able to defeat a warrior. She is characterized as less human than Grendel; however, her desire to avenge her son’s murder makes her relatable to the reader.
The Dragon – The Dragon is the third of the antagonists Beowulf faces in the novel. The Dragon guards a treasure, and a thief disturbs him. He begins to terrorize Geatland, where Beowulf rules as a wise, old King. Beowulf kills him, but the Dragon fatally wounds Beowulf, as well.
Shield Sheafson – Shield Sheafson is the founder of Hrothgar’s line of Danish kings. He began life as an orphan and became a warrior-king, and has mythical status among the Danes.
Beow – Beow is Shield Sheafson’s son and is another highly admired Danish king.
Halfdane – Halfdane was Beow’s successor as the king of Denmark. He was also Hrothgar’s father.
Wealhtheow – Wealhtheow is Hrothgar’s wife.
Unferth – Unferth is one of Hrothgar’s warriors. Although he has not tried to fight Grendel, he belittles Beowulf, suggesting that he will be unable to fight Grendel.
Hrethric – Hrethric is Hrothgar’s oldest son and the next in line for the Danish throne. His cousin, Hrothulf, blocks his ascension to the throne. Beowulf serves as his mentor, preparing him to be a king.
Hrothmund – Hrothmund is Hrothgar’s second son.
Hrothulf – Hrothulf is Hrothgar’s nephew. He wants to be king and takes the throne from his cousin, Hrethric, who is the rightful heir to the throne.
Aeschere – Aeschere is Hrothgar’s advisor and one of Grendel’s victims.
Hygelac – Hygelac is Beowulf’s uncle. He is the king of the Geats. He rewards Beowulf for what he has done in Denmark.
Hygd – Hygd is Beowulf’s aunt and Hygelac’s wife. She has all of the positive attributes one would want in a queen; she is intelligent and beautiful. She is a foil to Queen Modthryth.
Wiglaf – Wiglaf is one of Beowulf’s relatives. He is a warrior that helps Beowulf when Beowulf goes to fight the Dragon. This is notable because Beowulf’s other warriors abandon him, which contravenes the principles of comitatus.
Ecgtheow – Ecgtheow is Beowulf’s deceased father. He was Hrothgar’s friend, and a favor that Hrothgar did for him is what has placed Beowulf in debt to Hrothgar. Ecgtheow and Hygelac were brothers-in-law.
King Hrethel – King Hrethel was the one who acted as a guardian to Beowulf after Ecgtheow’s death.
Breca – Breca is one of Beowulf’s childhood friends. Breca and Beowulf were in an epic swimming match.
Sigemund – Sigemund was a mythical figure who slayed a dragon. Beowulf is favorably compared to Sigemund, which is high praise for Beowulf. The fact that Sigemund was linked to a dragon foreshadows Beowulf’s involvement with the Dragon.
King Heremond – King Heremond was a mythological king who was evil and is compared unfavorably to Beowulf.
Queen Modthryth – Queen Modthryth was a wicked queen and is compared unfavorably to Hygd.
Plot Summary
King Hrothgar of Denmark is the feudal lord in an area that contains a swamp where a horrible monster, Grendel, lives. Hrothgar has been a very successful king, and he builds Heorot, a mead hall, as a gathering place for his warriors. They gather there nightly, drinking and listening to the scops singing stories. They are very loud, which angers Grendel. Grendel comes to Heorot each night, killing the warriors. Even though the warriors are accomplished fighters, they are unable to defend themselves against Grendel. Despite the best efforts of several great warriors, Grendel terrorizes them for years. Heorot, which was once a happy and bustling hall, has become a place of terror.
A Geatish (Swedish) warrior named Beowulf decides to come to Denmark to help Hrothgar by defeating Grendel. Beowulf has multiple motives for helping Hrothgar. First, he wants to pit himself against the legendary monster, Grendel. Second, he feels that he owes Hrothgar. Hrothgar had helped Beowulf’s father, Ecgtheow, by paying a fee to get Ecgtheow out of a feud. Hrothgar welcomes Beowulf and accepts his offer of help. Hrothgar holds a feast to honor Beowulf. Beowulf is not welcomed by all of Hrothgar’s men; a Dane named Unferth believes that Beowulf has not earned his reputation and will not be able to defeat Grendel. Beowulf responds to Unferth’s taunts by reminding the group of his previous adventures. Beowulf’s boastful speech helps change the somber nature of the feat, and the warriors feast into the night. Grendel finally arrives, and Beowulf goes unarmed to meet him in battle. Though the battle is fierce, Beowulf is the victor. He does not kill Grendel during their fight, but he does manage to rip Grendel’s arm from his body. Though Grendel flees to the swamp, the wound is a fatal one, and the warriors know that Grendel will no longer trouble them. They hang the severed arm in Heorot.
Hrothgar and his warriors are thrilled that Grendel is dead. Hrothgar throws a feast in Beowulf’s honor. They think that they are free from danger now that Grendel is dead, but there is another, more dangerous threat to the men. Grendel’s mother wants to avenge Grendel’s death. Grendel’s mother is not as monstrous as her son, but she is clearly more than a mere human. She is able to kill Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s advisors. Because of the code of comitatus, Hrothgar and his warriors need to avenge Aeschere’s death. They all head to the swamp where Grendel lived, looking for Grendel’s mother, who has disappeared into the swamp. Grendel follows her into the swampy water, finding her in her lair. The two fight, and Grendel’s mother proves to be a very able opponent. Using a sword that was forged for a giant, Beowulf manages to kill Grendel’s mother. He also finds Grendel’s corpse. He beheads the corpse, and brings the head to Hrothgar. Hrothgar celebrates Beowulf’s dual victories and showers him with affection and gifts. Although Hrothgar treats Beowulf very well, Beowulf needs to return home, and he departs from Denmark.
The poem then helps explain the ideas of fealty. Beowulf returns home to Geatland. When he is there, he and his warriors meet with their king, Hygelac, and their queen, Hygd. Beowulf tells them of his victories over Grendel and Grendel’s, mother, and because of the feudal system, those victories are considered to be Hygelac’s victories, as well. Beowulf gives them most of his treasure. The relationship is a reciprocal one, and Hygelac rewards Beowulf for his accomplishments.
Beowulf eventually becomes the king of Geatland. Hygelac dies in a war against the Shillings, and his son ascends to the throne. When the son dies, Beowulf becomes king. Beowulf has a long and peaceful reign. When Beowulf becomes an old man, a dragon begins to terrorize the Geats. Beowulf knows that he must go fight the Dragon to protect his people, but he also knows that he is an older man, and he feels like he is facing danger in going to fight the Dragon. Together with Wiglaf, Beowulf is able to Defeat the Dragon. However, the Dragon does manage to bite Beowulf; his bite is poisonous, and Beowulf dies from the wound.
While Beowulf has managed to save his people from the danger of the Dragon, his efforts may have been in vain. With their impressive and heroic king dead, the Geats fear that they are now vulnerable to attack. Therefore, his death leaves them feeling vulnerable and exposed to danger. However, they do honor Beowulf as a great king. They build a funeral pyre and burn Beowulf’s body, and they bury his remains with some treasure.
Beowulf
Beowulf is the titular hero of the poem Beowulf. He is considered the perfect hero for two reasons: his ability to vanquish heroes, and his careful and wise leadership of his people. Beowulf experiences significant growth throughout the poem, and the poet explores his growth by examining Beowulf’s conflict with three major antagonists over the course of the poem: Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the Dragon. While Beowulf is successful in his battles against each of these antagonists, he approaches each of them in a different manner, which helps demonstrate his growth over the course of the poem. This growth is a critical component of Beowulf’s development and of his heroic nature. He is remarkable as a warrior and as a king, which during his time period would have been important, as warriors would swear loyalty to another warrior who had successfully led them into battle or protected them, elevating him to the status of king. Still, successful kings had to be able to do more than lead men in battle. Therefore, because Beowulf is considered a great warrior and a great king, one expects a transition from the fearless warrior he is during his youth to the wise and more cautious king he becomes in his older years.
The poem opens when Beowulf is a young man. He enters the story as he is stepping off of his ship, having just arrived in Denmark from Geatland. His appearance is physically impressive, and he is immediately described as possessing an inordinate amount of strength. He is said to have the strength of 30 men in his grip. Furthermore, he carries himself with pride.
While he is young, he has already gained a reputation as a great warrior. He entered an epic swimming match with his childhood friend, Breca, which, even though he lost, he helped establish his reputation as physically capable. He has also proven himself in various battles, so that he has a reputation as a strong warrior. Beowulf killed a tribe of giants and drove enemies from Geatland. He has come to Denmark from Geatland to help the Danish people. They have been terrorized by Grendel for 12 years by the time Beowulf arrives to help them. The fact that Beowulf is very young, probably in his early 20s, when he arrives in Denmark explains why he did not come to Denmark earlier. Furthermore, one may wonder why a warrior from Geatland would be concerned about a monster in Denmark, but the Danish king, Hrothgar, was a good friend to Beowulf’s father, Ecgtheow, and once provided shelter to him during a dangerous feud, even issuing payment to settle the conflict. Beowulf would then have owed Hrothgar some measure of loyalty and aid. However, it would be wrong to view Beowulf’s helping the Danish as simply a man repaying a debt; Beowulf was also eager to prove his reputation as a hero. The emphasis on reputation may seem somehow shallow, but reputation was regarded as highly important during this time period. A king’s reputation could keep his people safe, so a man who thought he might be king, as Beowulf believed he might be one day, would want to have a reputation that would dissuade people from invading his land and place him in a stronger diplomatic position.
Before Beowulf goes to conquer Grendel, the poet describes a feast that Hrothgar throws in his honor. The feast provides an opportunity for people to challenge Beowulf’s credentials. Unferth, one of Hrothgar’s warriors, challenges Beowulf’s qualifications. He brings up a swimming match between Breca and Beowulf when they were young men, and suggests that because Beowulf was foolish to have entered the match in the first place, deriding him for not winning the match. However, Unferth’s challenge gives Beowulf the opportunity to respond to Unferth’s questioning of his ability. Beowulf states that he did not lose the swimming match to Breca, and that he was the stronger swimmer but stayed with Breca rather than abandon him. He also states that he killed nine water monsters on the fifth night of this swimming match. This foreshadows Beowulf’s later killing of Grendel’s mother in the swamp. It also gives Beowulf the opportunity to challenge Unferth by asking him about his own reputation. Unferth killed his brothers, but has failed to attempt to kill the monster, Grendel. Beowulf even suggests that Unferth has failed Hrothgar by failing to go after Grendel. This verbal confrontation with Unferth demonstrates that Beowulf is capable of winning non-physical confrontations as well as physical battles, and helps highlight his abilities as a future diplomat.
Beowulf is probably best known for his confrontation with the monster Grendel, though Grendel may be the least dangerous of the three major antagonists he faces in the poem. Grendel is described as a monster, and he is clearly not simply a human. However, because he is not a human, Grendel does not know about fighting with an actual man. For example, Grendel uses no weapons when he attacks Hrothgar’s men; Beowulf decides that he will also refrain from using weapons in their confrontation. This decision reveals Beowulf’s strength of character. Furthermore, this decision also helps protect Beowulf during the confrontation, because Grendel is actually protected from weapons, and had Beowulf relied upon weapons, he may have been in greater danger. The confrontation between Grendel and Beowulf demonstrates Beowulf’s ability to assess an enemy, while also showing his practicality as a ruler; he watches Grendel eat one of the Geats who has accompanied him to Denmark, and observes Grendel’s style of attack. When Grendel goes to grab Beowulf, Beowulf has seen how to defeat him. He grabs Grendel and refuses to let go, managing to rip Grendel’s claw from the shoulder socket. Grendel runs away, but Beowulf knows that the wound is a fatal one.
However, the defeat of Grendel is a short-lived victory, because Grendel’s mother is coming to avenge his death. No one is even aware that Grendel’s mother is a threat. While Grendel has been attacking Heorot for twelve years, his mother has not previously been a problem for the people of Denmark. When she attacks Heorot, seeking to avenge her son’s death and also to get his claw, it genuinely surprises the people there. However, Beowulf does not allow this surprise to keep him inactive; the morning after Grendel’s mother attacks, he tracks her to the swamp. He dives into the swamp, recalling the earlier accounts of him defeating monsters in the water, and goes after Grendel’s mother. However, while he would not use weapons against Grendel, he arms himself for his conflict with Grendel’s mother. He uses a magic sword to kill her. Once he has defeated Grendel’s mother, Beowulf beheads Grendel’s corpse, bringing his head back as a trophy.
Beowulf and Hrothgar establish an interesting relationship, and Beowulf stays with Hrothgar even after he has defeated the two monsters. Hrothgar is a wise ruler who has earned the loyalty of his warriors, and he gives Beowulf advice on how to be a good ruler. Hrothgar warns Beowulf of the dangers of pride, helping him understand that boasting may help establish his reputation, but he has to be careful of being too boastful. He also helps teach Beowulf about transitioning from a young warrior to an old king, preparing Beowulf for the experiences he will face in the future. Beowulf returns to Geatland, where he serves as a willing warrior for his uncle, the king. Beowulf has prepared for the possibility of being a king, but has not been motivated by that ambition. When his cousin ascends to the throne, Beowulf does not challenge him, and even supports him. However, when his cousin is killed, Beowulf becomes the king. He is a very effective ruler, though the poem does not go into significant detail about his rule. Instead, his rule is compared to Hrothgar’s, because, like Hrothgar, Beowulf’s success as a king is largely attributable to the reputation he built long before becoming a king.
The end of Beowulf’s reign as king is marked by trouble, which presents another similarity to Hrothgar, whose peaceful rule was destroyed by a monster. After a thief steals a flagon from a dragon’s treasure, the Dragon begins to terrorize the countryside. Beowulf seems to feel that even though he is an old man, he will be able to conquer the Dragon. However, while he is confident, he also senses that the Dragon poses a real danger to him. He knows that his death will leave Geatland vulnerable. However, his pride prompts him to go into battle against the dragon, perhaps without giving adequate consideration to the negative consequences. Beowulf has the thief lead him to the Dragon’s lair. Beowulf is accompanied by 11 warriors. It quickly becomes apparent that Beowulf is not going to be able to defeat the Dragon on his own, but 10 of his warriors have run away. This violates their code of honor, which decrees that no man is to leave the field before the king, nor is the king to leave the field before any of his men. However, one warrior, Wiglaf, has stayed with his king and helps Beowulf kill the Dragon. They do manage to defeat the Dragon, but at a great cost: The Dragon inflicts a fatal poisonous wound on Beowulf.
Most of Beowulf’s life is straightforward, but his death leads to questions about him. Was Beowulf’s death the result of him having too much pride? He was an old man by the time the Dragon began to terrorize his land. Hrothgar experienced a similar problem and did not try to vanquish Grendel on his own; Beowulf would not have lost face if he had sent his warriors against the Dragon instead of attempting to kill him by himself. By insisting that he be involved in the killing of the Dragon, Beowulf brought about his own death, leaving Geatland vulnerable. On the other hand, Beowulf was an old man, at least in his seventies, by the time the Dragon began terrorizing Geatland. Whether or not he challenged the Dagon, Beowulf’s advancing age and somewhat imminent death already made Geatland vulnerable to its enemies; at least killing the Dragon has ensured that the people of Geatland are safe from the current threat.
Story Symbols and Themes
Themes are the central topics or messages that the author is trying to convey.
Because Beowulf combines traditional Germanic ideas of heroism with the more modern Christian ethics of the poet who composed the poem, it can sometimes appear as if the themes in the novel compete with one another. However, there are several universal ideas that recur in the novel.
Reputation
Beowulf is a brave warrior who becomes a wise king, and both of these components are central to the man Beowulf is and how that man helps protect Geatland from outsiders. However, what the poem makes clear is that Beowulf would be nothing without his reputation. One part of that relationship was family lineage. A large part of the poem concentrates on men establishing their identities for other men. When Beowulf first comes to Denmark, he must introduce himself. He is judged not only on his accomplishments, but also on his father’s history. In fact, he comes to Hrothgar’s aid because of the relationship between Hrothgar and his father and a pre-existing debt resulting from that relationship. Therefore, Beowulf is elevated because of his father’s name, but he is also obligated because of his father’s name; the reputational impact of the name goes in both directions. Had he failed to come to Hrothgar’s aid after Hrothgar had helped his uncle, that would have created a negative mark against Beowulf’s reputation.
While part of a man’s reputation was dependent upon his kinship relationships, another part of the relationship was created by the man during his lifetime and reflected his own behavior. Beowulf established a relationship as an able and fierce warrior from a very young age. Moreover, it was not considered inappropriate for him to boast about his reputation. Instead, it was expected for him to tell about his accomplishments. Those accomplishments helped increase confidence that he would be able to tackle his next goal. However, the accomplishments also seemed to serve as a form of immortality; men who accomplished much in their lifetimes were remembered long after their deaths for those accomplishments, while men who did not faded into obscurity. This was important for generational transmission, as well, because a man could call upon his ancestor’s accomplishments to help bolster his own reputation.
Reputation served as more than a means of introduction; it also served as a means of protection. By building up a reputation as a fierce warrior in his youth—when Beowulf had the energy and stamina to defeat monsters, as well as an absence of responsibility to a group of followers—Beowulf was able to help guarantee peace as he aged. This was similar to Hrograth’s situation at the beginning of the story; the reason that his men were celebrating at the mead hall was because Hrograth had helped ensure that they would be free from invasion. While monsters threaten the end of both kings’ peaceful reigns, it is notable that they are not actually attacked by outsiders. Their reputations have established them as capable kings and helped to protect their people.
The Heroic Code
Another theme of the poem is the Germanic heroic code. It has to be explained in much of the poem because when the poet was writing the poem, the Germanic heroic code was no longer the default code for ethics and norms. Instead, Christianity had become the dominant ethical system. However, Beowulf’s behavior was not defined by the Christian code of ethics, but by an older code which was oftentimes in conflict with traditional Christian values and norms. Despite not being Christian-based, this code was well respected among the people who would have been the poet’s audience when the poem was written. According to this code, certain characteristics were considered virtuous, including courage, strength, loyalty, reputation, and diplomacy. When looking at the actions of those people considered heroic in the poem, including Beowulf, they are clearly in line with this heroic code.
However, it is important to recognize that many of these heroic traits would have stood in stark contrast to the Christian ideals that were being promulgated during that time. For example, the heroic code stressed the importance of vengeance, which went against Christian doctrine. Furthermore, the heroic code was unable to provide guidance in some of the circumstances mentioned in the poem. For example, when Hildeburh, a Dane, marries the Frisian king, her loyalties are divided when there is a war between the Danes and the Frisians. This is significant because loyalty is an important part of the code, and it demonstrates gaps where the code can offer no guidance. It then becomes impossible to judge the ethics or morality of a people according to a code that has become inapplicable.
Maturity versus Youth
One of the themes that appear throughout the poem is the transition from youth to maturity. The poem begins when Beowulf is a very young man and he is described in very positive terms for a man of his age. However, the poem is careful to distinguish between those values that are seen as beneficial for a young man and those that are seen as beneficial to an old man. This comparison is immediately made clear when the poet lauds Beowulf and Hrothgar, despite the two of them having very different responses to the monster Grendel. Beowulf is admired because of his willingness to go out and battle with the monster, while Hrothgar is admired for having the restraint not to put himself at risk and battle the monster. Beowulf seems to embody some of Hrothgar’s wisdom, allowing his reputation to protect his people as he advances into leadership as an older man. However, the poem begs the question of whether Beowulf acted with appropriate maturity when he went to slay the Dragon. Had he not done so, he would not have received the fatal wound that killed him. On the other hand, given how his warriors responded to the dragon, it appears that had he not done so, the Dragon may have continued to terrorize his people. This leads the reader to wonder whether Beowulf showed true maturity in going forth against the Dragon even though he realized his aging body put him at a disadvantage, or immaturity in putting himself at risk.
There are a number of concepts that help shape Beowulf’s themes, and these concepts are referred to as motifs. The major motifs in Beowulf are monsters, light and darkness, and the importance of the oral tradition.
Monsters
Monsters clearly play a central role in Beowulf. The poem describes in detail the battles between Beowulf and three monsters: Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the Dragon at the end of the poem. These monsters are seemingly inhuman, particularly in their physical appearance, but are otherwise imbued with very human emotions like jealousy, hate, maternal love, the desire for vengeance, and greed. In fact, while their actions are labeled monstrous, their motivations are very easy to understand. Grendel is jealous of the men’s revelry and upset that he has been excluded from their group. Grendel’s mother is motivated by grief and the desire to avenge the death of her son. The Dragon is motivated because someone has stolen from him. All of these motivations are very human. Moreover, the human-like form of two of the monsters highlights the relationship between the monstrous and the human.
Light and Darkness
Light and dark are recurring motifs in Beowulf. Near the beginning of the poem, the poet focuses on the contrast between the light of Heorot and the darkness of the swamp and Grendel’s lair. Civilization is seen as light, while the wild is seen as darkness. This is an important motif, which is both symbolic and very realistic; nature is literally dark. Light is one of the symbols of civilization. Light is also a hallmark of the Christian tradition, with Jesus being referred to as the light. Therefore, that Grendel and his mother, representing darkness, are linked to Cain shows a clear conflict between the darkness of the non-Christian world, including the pagan roots of the Beowulf story, and the light of the post-Christian world.
Oral Traditions
The poem repeatedly describes characters engaging in the oral transmission of stories. The poem features scops telling stories. It also features Beowulf describing his own history in an oral tradition. However, the motif goes beyond what is found in the text of the story; Beowulf was itself derived from the oral history. That it is being captured in writing is a transitory moment in history; the history of the people could not be passed along without that oral history. Symbols are concrete things used to represent abstract concepts.
Beowulf is replete with symbolism, largely because the Germanic tradition that formed the foundation of the poem’s story was heavily symbolic. Therefore, some of the symbols may have had two meanings: one in the context of the story, and the other to the poem.
The Mead Hall
The mead hall is a symbol of civilization and safety. There are two mead halls in the story: Heorot in Denmark and Hygelac’s hall in Geatland. They are described as places of light, which contrasts with the darkness of nature. They are also seen as places of warmth and camaraderie. Men gather in the mead halls to celebrate with one another. They are havens of safety. It is because they represent civilization and the union of men together against the wilderness that the monster, Grendel, who represents wilderness, attacks not just Hrothgar’s men, but specifically targets Heorot.
The Cave
Just as the mead halls represent society and civilization, the cave where Grendel and his mother live represents life outside of civilization. It is not that the cave represents the wild, though it is in the middle of a swamp in the wild; instead, it represents people outcast from society. The cave is a haven in the middle of a hostile environment. It also represents something magical, highlighting the fact that they are monsters. The cave is under water; therefore, Grendel and his mother must possess some ability to get to their cave. All of these elements highlight how separate the cave is from human society.
Beowulf
Beowulf, in his youth, symbolizes the perfect hero. Not only is he brave and physically able, but he is good-hearted. For example, in his swimming contest with Breca, he stayed in the water longer than necessary to ensure that his friend was safe. However, he symbolizes more than a good man; he has some of the elements one associates with other heroes. For example, though Beowulf is not considered divine, he has a supernatural strength that gives him the ability to fight monsters. This ability is crucial because without it, Beowulf would perish. However, it is also significant because Beowulf’s strength is not something he controls. In many ways, Beowulf’s extra-human capabilities make him more like the monsters he fights than the men he leads, which makes him similar to other mythological heroes.
Grendel
Grendel is a symbol of the danger of exclusion and jealousy. First, he is a descendant of Cain, and Cain is a well-understood biblical symbol for the corrosive power of jealousy. Second, the poem repeatedly describes Grendel as being jealous of the camaraderie that the men experience at Heorot. Grendel’s human-like features help demonstrate that jealousy can have a corrosive and monstrous impact on people.
After his death, Grendel’s body is given symbolic significance in the poem. First, Beowulf takes off Grendel’s claw, which he presents to Hrothgar to hang on Heorot. The claw becomes a symbol of Beowulf’s victory and of Grendel’s death. However, the claw has a different symbolic meaning for Grendel’s mother. For her, the claw is a symbol of her son’s death. It is also a symbol of the way in which her son has been ostracized by the men; even in death, he is reduced to a body part. When she goes to Heorot to avenge her son’s death, part of her motive is to seek Grendel’s claw. Grendel’s head, which Beowulf is able to get after defeating Grendel’s mother, symbolizes his victory over both Grendel and Grendel’s mother. However, it also symbolizes a victory of the masculine over the feminine. Grendel’s mother has supernatural powers and is motivated by a mother’s love, but Beowulf, with his adherence to the code of comitatus, is victorious over that mother’s love.
Grendel’s Mother
Grendel’s mother has an interesting role in the poem. She is the most significant female character, yet she remains unnamed. Instead, in referring to her as Grendel’s mother, the poet highlights the fact that she symbolizes motherhood. Her feelings for Grendel are not explored in the poem. Does she view her son as a monster, cringing when he goes out to prey on the men at Heorot? Does she encourage him to kill the men? The reality is that the reader has no idea how Grendel’s mother views his behavior before her son is killed. However, what is clear is that she is a mother whose child has been injured, and like the archetype of a mother, she will have her vengeance. Importantly, she does have her vengeance. She kills a man when she goes to Heorot, retrieves her son’s arm, and heads back to the cave. There is no indication that she ever intends to continue to terrorize the Danes like Grendel did or like the Dragon will eventually do to the Geats. Instead, the poet makes it clear that, as the mother, she is restoring her son’s body and avenging his death. She is the power of the feminine. It is important to keep in mind that Middle Age Christian teachings often linked the feminine to black magic, sorcery, and danger, all elements personified by Grendel’s mother. It is also important to realize that the feminine was supposed to be weaker than the masculine. Therefore, Beowulf’s victory over Grendel’s mother is not simply the victory of one man over one woman, but a symbol of the victory of this heroic code and its norms over the basic biological imperative of a mother’s love.
The Golden Torque
The golden torque is a necklace. Wealhtheow gives the golden torque to Beowulf. To the characters in the poem, it represents the relationship between Wealhtheow, a queen, and Beowulf. However, both of them are symbolic representations of their respective people. Therefore, while the necklace connects Beowulf to the Danish people, it also symbolizes the relationship between the Geats, represented by Beowulf, and the Danes, represented by Wealhtheow.
The Banquet
Because the mead hall is a place of revelry, the celebratory feast that Hrothgar holds to honor Beowulf after he defeats Grendel might easily be dismissed as simply another feast. However, it represents the restoration of civilization to the banquet hall. Heorot is meant to symbolize civilization, but Grendel has been terrorizing it, so that it has lost its connection with civilization. The banquet demonstrates human mastery over the banquet hall, thus reconnecting the trappings of civilization with the underlying protection and safety that humans associate with civilization.
The Dragon
It is impossible to ignore the very Christian overtones to Beowulf killing a dragon. During the Middle Ages, Christian lore was rife with tales of men who had conquered dragons; a man was even declared a saint because of his ability to slay dragons. Therefore, to some extent, there was a belief that dragons could be real. However, dragons were frequently linked to treasure, and the Dragon in Beowulf is no exception; he guards a treasure and is only terrorizing the Geats because the treasure was destroyed. This seems to dictate that the reader examine the role of the treasure and what it means to take part of that treasure. The Dragon has no use for the treasure; he never uses any of the treasure. Likewise, according to the poem, the men who initially hid the treasure with the Dragon never used the treasure, either. Thus, there is a vast treasure set aside so that no one else may use it, which the Dragon also fails to use. Furthermore, when Beowulf kills the Dragon, he gains the treasure, but Beowulf has sustained a deadly wound, and the treasure is buried with him. Therefore, this treasure, which causes widespread destruction and death, is never actually used by anyone in the story. To some, the Dragon’s real treasure is time, which can be guarded but not hoarded for use. The Dragon may also represent the inevitability of death. Beowulf goes off to fight the Dragon despite the fact that he is no longer a young warrior and the Dragon’s death represents a real danger to him. Beowulf seems to acknowledge that, dragon or no dragon, his time is coming to an end. Rather than delay the inevitable, he goes into a situation in which he knows he faces death, determined to die honorably if he must die.