Childhood, Stress, Prenatal, Coping
Abstract
The major issues that will be addressed in this research are, how a stressed mother affects prenatal development of the fetus, how children living in families with poverty have lower cognitive and language development from stress, and the long-lasting effects that this stress may leave on the child. As well as, research into various coping mechanisms to lessen the effects of stress-induced poverty of a developing child.
Keywords: Childhood, Poverty, Stress, Prenatal, Coping
Table of Contents-
Introduction
The central research problem that will be discussed in this paper is the connection between poverty and stress. Specifically, how the stress induced from poverty affects a child’s life and development from their prenatal …show more content…
existence to their growth into an adult. Poverty-induced stress not only directly affects children but also can affect their caregiver or parent, which in turn can affect the relationship they have with the child. In 2014, the Census Bureau estimated that there is a total of 15.5 million people under the age of eighteen living in poverty in the United States, or 21.1% of all children in the United States. Living in poverty can create such stressors such as food insecurity, housing difficulties, and at home violence. The effects of poverty can create a continuous circle of families growing up, and staying, in poverty. Understanding the effects that poverty induced stress has on both parents and their children finding the coping mechanisms that work against these stressors are essential in ending the negative effects that are caused.
Methodology
The methods that can be used to analyze how poverty-induced stress affects children include following families who have financial instability resulting from living along the poverty line. In these families, child development, and the effect of growing up in poverty, can be followed from before birth to adulthood. The research that is conducted is based on previous academic literature and studies that have investigated the effects that stress has on families who are living in poverty. The methods can be seen below:
Method I Prenatal Stress has many harmful effects, and being pregnant can create many stressors. Not only can a pregnant woman be uncomfortable with her changing body, poverty can create such stressors such as housing issues, food insecurity, and harmful relationships. To investigate the effects of a mother’s prenatal cortisol levels how it can predict acute stress on their child postnatal, a study was done in “Prenatal Cortisol Exposure Predicts Infant Cortisol Response to Acute Stress” (O’Connor, Bergman, Sarkar, & Glover. 2012). In this study they gathered a group of women and babies and obtained samples pre-natal from 116 and post-natal from 114. In the first part of the experiment, amniocentesis was performed on the mothers in order to test the cortisol levels during their pregnancy.
As well as this procedure they were tested using “The Spielberg State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)” in the prenatal and postnatal appointments. This is a test that “is a widely used index of anxiety symptoms and has considerable validity, reliability, and clinical Utility” (O’Connor et al. 2012). During the postnatal visit the mothers also completed the “Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EDPS)” which is used to test mother depression. The infants were tested postnatally by swabbing for saliva before and after the “Strange situation”, which is a test of separation and reunion of the mother and child which would test the parent-child relationship quality and the acute stress reaction.
There are other studies that investigate the effects of stress on child development during the prenatal period. In Tess Lefmann and Terri Combs-Orme’s research “Prenatal stress, Poverty, and Child Outcomes” (2014), they investigate and accumulate information what stress is, and the specific effects it has on developing fetuses such as Reduced Uterplacental Blood flow, Trans-placental Transport of Maternal Stress Hormones, and Fetal Programing, and how this ultimately affects brain
development.
Method II Childhood Parental stress due to poverty is also linked to childhood developmental issues and delays. In “Poverty and Language Development: Roles of Parenting and Stress” (Perkins, Finegood, & Swan, 2013) there are two theoretical models that are used to connect poverty with the language development issues in children. These two models are “The family stress model” and the “parental investment model”. Perkins, et al, (2013) believe that the family stress model “connects poverty with parental emotional distress that affects parenting” and the “parental investment model involves focus on basic needs that affects children’s language”. Using these two models gives understanding to the roles have on their developing children. In “Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation, and Coping” by Gary W. Evans and Pilyoung Kim, (2012), their methods include summarizing models of “major components of the chronic stress model of childhood poverty” (Evans et al., 2012) and summarizing a model of children in poverty who deal with many stressors and how that “damages their biological and psychological regulatory systems” (Evans et al., 2012).
Method III Coping Getting above the poverty line may be difficult for families already living below it. If living in poverty cannot be controlled to reduce stress, then methods to cope with the stress are needed. “Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation and Coping” by Evans et al, (2013), not only investigates the models for childhood stress, it also investigates a model on how poverty-induced stress effects self-regulation in children and how they can adapt with coping strategies. Another study that investigates different coping strategies can be found in “Adolescents Coping with Poverty-Related Family Stress: Prospective Predictors of Coping and Psychological Symptoms” (Wadsworth, Berger, 2006). In this study a group of adolescents, from an area with high unemployment rate, were followed for a group of time. The parents as well as the adolescents were given Reponses to Stress Questionnaires(RSQ) that are used to indicate times of stress, reasons for it (such as family conflict), as well as their economic strain for the previous six months. The participants also were given a questionnaire regarding how they responded to the stressors. This questionnaire focused “on the three volitional coping factors and involuntary (engagement) stress reactivity” (Wadsworth et al, 2006) including Primary Control coping (problem solving, emotional expression, and emotional regulation), Secondary control coping (positive thinking, cognitive restructuring, acceptance, and distraction), as well as disengagement coping (cognitive and behavioral avoidance, denial, and wishful thinking). Followed by Involuntary stress reactivity which includes emotional arousal, impulsive action, intrusive thoughts, physiological arousal, and rumination.
Results
Throughout the numerous studies there is no argument against the negative effects that poverty-induced stress can have on childhood development. Seen below are the results of the different studies of poverty-induced stress effecting prenatal development, childhood development, and self-regulation. As well as the coping strategies to reduce those effects:
Results I Prenatal Revisiting O’Connor et al, (2012) study, “Prenatal Cortisol Exposure Predicts Infant Cortisol Response to Acute Stress”, the results ultimately show that the children who were exposed to low levels of amniotic fluid cortisol had an increase over time in cortisol when responding to the “Strange Situation” stressor. Also, the children who were exposed to higher levels of amniotic fluid cortisol showed a higher pre-stress cortisol levels which slightly decreased over time. This test also resulted in showing that girls had a higher pre “Strange Situation” cortisol level then the boys did. The combined results showed that only the amniotic fluid cortisol was able to predict the infant cortisol levels. The other indexes of prenatal stress did not affect the results. Ultimately this proves that prenatal exposure to cortisol does affect the HPA Axis function of children, due to the higher prenatal exposure which “predicted higher initial levels and a dampened response to the acute separation-reunion stress. (O’Connor et al., 2012). One of the models of this study that received much support was that an anxious pregnant lady has elevated cortisol levels, and this “maternal prenatal cortisol exposure is directly associated with fetal exposure” (O’Connor et al., 2012). Other data in this study suggests that prenatal anxiety gives greater fetal exposure to maternal parental cortisol. As well as a model of prenatal exposure to cortisol altering the developing HPA axis of the child.
The major issues that will be addressed in this research are, how a stressed mother affects prenatal development of the fetus, how children living in families with poverty have lower cognitive and language development from stress, and the long-lasting effects that this stress may leave on the child. As well as, research into various coping mechanisms to lessen the effects of stress-induced poverty of a developing child.
Keywords: Childhood, Poverty, Stress, Prenatal, Coping
Table of Contents-
Introduction
The central research problem that will be discussed in this paper is the connection between poverty and stress. Specifically, how the stress induced from poverty affects a child’s life and development from their prenatal …show more content…
existence to their growth into an adult. Poverty-induced stress not only directly affects children but also can affect their caregiver or parent, which in turn can affect the relationship they have with the child. In 2014, the Census Bureau estimated that there is a total of 15.5 million people under the age of eighteen living in poverty in the United States, or 21.1% of all children in the United States. Living in poverty can create such stressors such as food insecurity, housing difficulties, and at home violence. The effects of poverty can create a continuous circle of families growing up, and staying, in poverty. Understanding the effects that poverty induced stress has on both parents and their children finding the coping mechanisms that work against these stressors are essential in ending the negative effects that are caused.
Methodology
The methods that can be used to analyze how poverty-induced stress affects children include following families who have financial instability resulting from living along the poverty line. In these families, child development, and the effect of growing up in poverty, can be followed from before birth to adulthood. The research that is conducted is based on previous academic literature and studies that have investigated the effects that stress has on families who are living in poverty. The methods can be seen below:
Method I Prenatal Stress has many harmful effects, and being pregnant can create many stressors. Not only can a pregnant woman be uncomfortable with her changing body, poverty can create such stressors such as housing issues, food insecurity, and harmful relationships. To investigate the effects of a mother’s prenatal cortisol levels how it can predict acute stress on their child postnatal, a study was done in “Prenatal Cortisol Exposure Predicts Infant Cortisol Response to Acute Stress” (O’Connor, Bergman, Sarkar, & Glover. 2012). In this study they gathered a group of women and babies and obtained samples pre-natal from 116 and post-natal from 114. In the first part of the experiment, amniocentesis was performed on the mothers in order to test the cortisol levels during their pregnancy.
As well as this procedure they were tested using “The Spielberg State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)” in the prenatal and postnatal appointments. This is a test that “is a widely used index of anxiety symptoms and has considerable validity, reliability, and clinical Utility” (O’Connor et al. 2012). During the postnatal visit the mothers also completed the “Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EDPS)” which is used to test mother depression. The infants were tested postnatally by swabbing for saliva before and after the “Strange situation”, which is a test of separation and reunion of the mother and child which would test the parent-child relationship quality and the acute stress reaction.
There are other studies that investigate the effects of stress on child development during the prenatal period. In Tess Lefmann and Terri Combs-Orme’s research “Prenatal stress, Poverty, and Child Outcomes” (2014), they investigate and accumulate information what stress is, and the specific effects it has on developing fetuses such as Reduced Uterplacental Blood flow, Trans-placental Transport of Maternal Stress Hormones, and Fetal Programing, and how this ultimately affects brain
development.
Method II Childhood Parental stress due to poverty is also linked to childhood developmental issues and delays. In “Poverty and Language Development: Roles of Parenting and Stress” (Perkins, Finegood, & Swan, 2013) there are two theoretical models that are used to connect poverty with the language development issues in children. These two models are “The family stress model” and the “parental investment model”. Perkins, et al, (2013) believe that the family stress model “connects poverty with parental emotional distress that affects parenting” and the “parental investment model involves focus on basic needs that affects children’s language”. Using these two models gives understanding to the roles have on their developing children. In “Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation, and Coping” by Gary W. Evans and Pilyoung Kim, (2012), their methods include summarizing models of “major components of the chronic stress model of childhood poverty” (Evans et al., 2012) and summarizing a model of children in poverty who deal with many stressors and how that “damages their biological and psychological regulatory systems” (Evans et al., 2012).
Method III Coping Getting above the poverty line may be difficult for families already living below it. If living in poverty cannot be controlled to reduce stress, then methods to cope with the stress are needed. “Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation and Coping” by Evans et al, (2013), not only investigates the models for childhood stress, it also investigates a model on how poverty-induced stress effects self-regulation in children and how they can adapt with coping strategies. Another study that investigates different coping strategies can be found in “Adolescents Coping with Poverty-Related Family Stress: Prospective Predictors of Coping and Psychological Symptoms” (Wadsworth, Berger, 2006). In this study a group of adolescents, from an area with high unemployment rate, were followed for a group of time. The parents as well as the adolescents were given Reponses to Stress Questionnaires(RSQ) that are used to indicate times of stress, reasons for it (such as family conflict), as well as their economic strain for the previous six months. The participants also were given a questionnaire regarding how they responded to the stressors. This questionnaire focused “on the three volitional coping factors and involuntary (engagement) stress reactivity” (Wadsworth et al, 2006) including Primary Control coping (problem solving, emotional expression, and emotional regulation), Secondary control coping (positive thinking, cognitive restructuring, acceptance, and distraction), as well as disengagement coping (cognitive and behavioral avoidance, denial, and wishful thinking). Followed by Involuntary stress reactivity which includes emotional arousal, impulsive action, intrusive thoughts, physiological arousal, and rumination.
Results
Throughout the numerous studies there is no argument against the negative effects that poverty-induced stress can have on childhood development. Seen below are the results of the different studies of poverty-induced stress effecting prenatal development, childhood development, and self-regulation. As well as the coping strategies to reduce those effects:
Results I Prenatal Revisiting O’Connor et al, (2012) study, “Prenatal Cortisol Exposure Predicts Infant Cortisol Response to Acute Stress”, the results ultimately show that the children who were exposed to low levels of amniotic fluid cortisol had an increase over time in cortisol when responding to the “Strange Situation” stressor. Also, the children who were exposed to higher levels of amniotic fluid cortisol showed a higher pre-stress cortisol levels which slightly decreased over time. This test also resulted in showing that girls had a higher pre “Strange Situation” cortisol level then the boys did. The combined results showed that only the amniotic fluid cortisol was able to predict the infant cortisol levels. The other indexes of prenatal stress did not affect the results. Ultimately this proves that prenatal exposure to cortisol does affect the HPA Axis function of children, due to the higher prenatal exposure which “predicted higher initial levels and a dampened response to the acute separation-reunion stress. (O’Connor et al., 2012). One of the models of this study that received much support was that an anxious pregnant lady has elevated cortisol levels, and this “maternal prenatal cortisol exposure is directly associated with fetal exposure” (O’Connor et al., 2012). Other data in this study suggests that prenatal anxiety gives greater fetal exposure to maternal parental cortisol. As well as a model of prenatal exposure to cortisol altering the developing HPA axis of the child.