Communication Skills

P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika Email: [e-mail] Web: www.mku.ac.ke

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL STUDIES

COURSE CODE: UCU 001 COURSE TITLE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Instructional manual for BBM – Distance Learning

MODULE AUTHOR: MRS. SUSAN KAJUJU LAIMARU

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TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................................. 4 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION ....................................................................... 4 1.1. DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION............................................................................... 4 1.2. OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 6 1.3. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION ................................................................................. 7 1.4. COMMUNICATION CYCLE................................................................................................ 9 1.5. QUALITIES OF COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 10 1. 6. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION................................................................................ 13 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTION .............................................................................................. 15 CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................. 16 ORAL COMMUNICATION......................................................................................................... 16 2.1 SPEECHES .............................................................................................................................. 16 2.2. MEETINGS............................................................................................................................. 18 2.3. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 20 2.4. INTERVIEWS ........................................................................................................................ 24 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 26 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................... 27 WRITING SKILLS.......................................................................................................................... 27 3.1. ESSAY WRITING.................................................................................................................. 27 3.2. CORRESPONDENCE........................................................................................................... 28 3.2.1. BUSINESS LETTERS...................................................................................................... 28 3.2.2. MEMO ............................................................................................................................. 33 3.3. REPORTS................................................................................................................................ 34 3.4. SUMMARY WRITING ......................................................................................................... 38 3.5. READING .............................................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 42 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................ 43 VISUAL COMMUNICATION..................................................................................................... 43 4.1. CHARTS .................................................................................................................................... 43 4. 2. GRAPHS................................................................................................................................ 44 2

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 45 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................................. 46 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION....................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 48 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................. 49 SOURCES OF INFORMATION .................................................................................................. 49 LIBRARY .......................................................................................................................................... 49 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION. ...................................................................... 49 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 50 CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................................... 51 TECHNIQUES IN COMMUNICATION ................................................................................... 51 LISTENING................................................................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 57

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CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVES To understand:- The meaning of communication - The communication process To appreciate:- The importance of communication in an organization -The barriers to communication 1.1. Definition of communication. Communication is an act of any natural or artificial means of conveying information or giving instruction. It’s the process of passing information and understanding from one person to the other. According to Newman and summer Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons. According to Peter Little Communication is process by which information is transmitted between individuals/organization so that understanding response results. Its giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions, or ideas by writing speech or visual means or any combination of the three so that the material communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned. Administrative communication – Administrative communication is a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals. Analysis This definition has emphasized the following points;It involves the communication of ideas. Ideas should be accurately replicated. The receiver should get exactly the same ideas as were transmitted. Transmitter is assured of accurate replication of ideas by feedback. Purpose of communication is to elicit action. This definition can be expanded to include emotions. 4

The purpose of communication is not always to elicit action it may also include communication to seek information or to persuade other person to a certain point of view. Main aspect of communication Communication must have a source (sender) Communication must have content (message) Communication must have a media Communication must have a destination: i.e. recipient Communication must have a feedback. Importance of communication Communication can be described as the life blood of the business No business can develop in the absence of effective external and internal communication. Communication is a vital tool of management. One of the major functions of an office is communication. This involves receiving, recording, processing of information and communicating the information two various functions of the organizations. Importance of communication can be discussed under two points of view. I. Internal communication II. External communication. A) Importance of internal communication Internal communication refers to exchange of information or message between persons of same organization, e.g. between employer and employee. i) Better understanding between employer and employees. - If complaints of employees are forwarded to employer on time and in the right way it will minimize the chances of misunderstanding. Ii Greater efficiency. The sound communication system enables the management to instruct the supervisions and subordinates on changes of policy - this results to the increase in efficiency of workers. iii) Effective co-ordination: Effective communication leads to effective co-ordination of employees e.g if demand increase the marketing department will inform the production department to increase its production. iv) Proper communication avoids losses: If there is a machine breakdown or shortage the management can be informed quickly to take timely action to avoid any possible losses.

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B) External communication. This refers to exchange of information between an organization and other organizations or persons outside the organization. The following facts indicate the importance of external communication. 10 Good reputation Effective communication with customers and either business enables company establish good reputation this increases prestige of that company. ii) Improvement in public relations: When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of its activities more people become interested to deal with that company. iii) Better business prospects – Due to good communication the company can abstract more customers. iv) Choice of customers – A company can get information about the liking and disliking of customers. This information will help company produce goods according to the choice of customers. v) Government department – The business will deal with licensing authorities, foreign trade offices, custom authorities, banks and other financial institutions. All these institutions require good communication when negotiating. vi) Job requirements – Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations, marketing, editing, research, advocates, etc. Executives are expected to make speeches they are expected to give interviews to media. All these require communication skill.

1.2. OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION i) To inform – One of most important objectives of communication is passing and receiving information about of particular fact of circumstance. An organization can inform consumers about its products, availability of credit, availability of raw materials, or about government rules and regulations. It can also communicate to inform staff about the latest development in the field of science and technology. Within the organization you can inform employees about job assignments, or inform them of general information on policies and activities of organization.

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ii) To advice Information is factual and objective, advice on the other hand involve personal opinions. It is subjective and neutral. When advice is given to person he /she may use it or decide not to use it. An advice is aimed at influencing the opinion or behaviour of another person. Advice flows downwards or horizontally, e.g. from a doctor to patient and not vice versa. iii) To order An order is an authoritative communication; it is a directive to somebody (subordinate) to do something to modify or not to do something. Orders flow from top to bottom. iv) To suggested (make suggestion) A suggestion is different from other forms of communication. In other forms it flows from superiors to subordinates but, a Suggestion may flow from subordinate to superior. A suggestion is mild or subtle and it moves in all directions. v) To persuade This is communication aimed at influencing the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others. vi) To Educate Education is a conscious process of communication. It involves teaching and learning, its main purpose is to widen knowledge and improve skills. vii) To warn someone If employees don’t abide by the rules of the organization they will be warned. viii) Raise the morale. Morale-stands for mental health. It’s a powerful factor representing the sum of many qualities such as courage, fortitude, resolution and confidence. ix) TO motivate Motivation is very close to rising of miracle. It means to energize and activate a person and challenge his or her behaviour towards the attainment of desired goals.

1.3. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION i) Motivation This is the basic urge beneath the communication. It is the wider reason why communication takes place. e.g. in a company the urge to communication is to ensure that this year’s profits are higher than last years.

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ii The aim This is the more particular reason why communication has been under taken. The aim of communication can be: to inform to warn or to initiate a particular action iii) Information: is the material from which communication would be constructed. The actual content to put across to the listener or reader. An information doesn’t need to be factual it can be an opinion, an idea or combination of ideas and opinions iv) The sender This is the person responsible for sending the communication it can be an individual or a group such as a company, a department, a government ministry etc. V) The message: after defining the information to be conveyed, the sender puts this into the best form in a process called encoding. When information has been encoded it is referred to as a message. A message takes the form of a letter, a memo, telephone call, or a shrug of shoulders. vi) The media This is a larger group of ways of communication within which particular ways of communication can be classified. There are three main media. Written communication e.g. letters, memo, books, posters Oral communication: this is communication using word of mouth e.g meetings, lectures, telephones or discussions. Visual communication: it takes the form of photographs, blackboards etc. In addition to these three media we also have non-verbal communication that is combination of gestures, expressions, tone of voice, position, posture, etc. vii) The channel: This the physical means by which message is conveyed for written communication channel may be notice board, postal office. For oral communication. It may be personal interview, committee meeting, or public telephone call. For visual communication the channel may be computer printer, fax system or printing press. viii) The receiver: Is the person or body which receives the message. It can be an individual or an organization. ix) The noise: Noise is used to refer to any factors which prevent proper exchange of information apart from that from the sender or receiver. Noise can be physical e.g. typewriters or the telephone bells which interrupt meetings, or it can be some other form of interference such as bad telephone connections, poor handwriting in letter, conflicting messages, e.g. 8

in oral communication the visual expression conveys a difference message from that being given orally. x) Distortion: Takes place at the encoding or decoding stage. During encoding the sender may encode the message in such away that it conveys a different meaning from that he or she intended to give. During decoding the receiver may interpret the message in a different way from that intended by the sender. This may lead to distortion of the message.

xi) Feedback: This is the name given to the message which the sender receives from the receiver to show the acceptance or disapproval of message, such a smile.

1.4. COMMUNICATION CYCLE Stage 1: information definition Sender defines information to be sent by thinking about the aim of the communication and the content to be conveyed. Stage 2: Encoding stage the information is put into a form which is most suitable for the receiver and the aim of the communication. This involves putting the information into worlds, ideas into picture, gesture/facial expression. Stage 3: The actual transfer of the message or sending stage. This is done using the message, medium and channel. Stage 4 – (Receiving stage) the receiver takes the message by reading a letter, Listening to a speech, looking at an educational television program etc. Stage 5 – (Decoding stage) the receive interprets the message he has been given in order to obtain his idea of information it conveys. Its possibly for distortion to occur at this stage due to poor handwriting, medium used by sender or even the receivers attitude towards the sender. Stage 6 – (Feed back) this is the reaction of receiver to the senders message. The feedback informs the sender that the message has been received. Feedback may take the form of nodding, smiling or even listening.

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Stage 7 – It is a complete repetition of the cycle

Please draw the cycle

Sender

Information

Receiver

1.5. QUALITIES OF COMMUNICATION THE SIX C’s OF COMMUNICATION 1. CLARITY This is divided into (a) Clarity of thought (b) Clarity of expression (a) Clarity of thought. - This is important when the idea is being generated in the mind of the sender -At this stage, three points should be checked upon i) what is the objective of the communication? Example:- to warn, educate, congratulate ii) What is to be communicated? Example:- A song, play, poem etc iii) Which medium is appropriate for the purpose of communication? Example:- Letters, photographic, interviews. Etc. 10

(b) Clarity of Expression The following tips should be considered i. Avoid jargon Jargon is a special language of trade, certain profession or field of study e.g. medicine, business and only understood and used by people from such fields. It therefore creates a scenario of difficult understanding to those who are not from that field. Example: in law, the phrase “Jurisdiction of the court of appeal”. This could only be understood by those in the field of law a doctor may not understand such a term. ii. Avoid ambiguity An ambiguous message is one that contains words that have more than one meanings. This may encourage misinterpretation of the words. Example:- The word dispense could mean both (i) To prepare medicine (ii) To dismiss someone

iii. Use short sentences Short sentences are easier to comprehend for they are not complex and do not demand greater concentration as is the case for long ones. iv. Use of simple words Simple words tend to be more effective for they are easily understood and are interpreted correctly. Example: Use of the word before instead of, prior to v. Use of concrete expression Concrete expressions create visual images that are easy to register and remember. This can be achieved by avoiding being too general or vague in your expressions. Example: you can say, ‘that dress is expensive for it costs shs.150, 000/ ‘instead of plainly saying ‘that dress is expensive’.

2. CONCISENESS It is important for your message to be straight to the point by not loading the message with irrelevant and unnecessary details. 11

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Be as brief as possible but not at the expense of clarity, correctness or courtesy. If a reader feels that he/she is wasting his/her time on your message e.g. letter, he may opt to disregard it.

How to achieve conciseness i) Avoid repetition Example: Me, i am thanking you……………..” ii. Include only relevant facts and details iii. Organize your message well i.e. the introduction, the body of the message and the conclusion. iv. The message should be coherent, i.e. it should hold together. v. Avoid wordy expressions, figures of speech and ambiguous words. 3. CONSIDERATION In your message, you should always show consideration for the reader or listener. This can be done in the following ways. (a) Impact integrity to your message - Ethical principles of sincerity and fair treatment should be observed. (b) Emphasize positive and pleasant statement - In case where one has to send a message of regret, use positive and pleasant words. Example of negative expression – “We are sorry to inform you that you have not been admitted to this school” Positive expression – “Thank you for your application for a course in Micro- finance; you are however advised that the commencement date is July next year…. (c) Adopt the “You” attitude - Avoid ‘I’ and ‘we’ in you message. The “you” attitude is highly recommend for it shows greater respect and consideration for the recipient. Example of ‘I’ attitude: “I am happy that you considered my application” Example of ‘You’ attitude: “Thank you for your quick response to my letter” 4. COURTESY This calls for a considerate and friendly attitude towards the other the receiver. The following points may assist in promoting courtesy: 12

(a) Answer the letters promptly or respond to the message promptly (b) Omit negative expressions such as “we regret” instead use friendly statements such as “we shall see to it that…” (c) Apologize sincerely for an omission and thank generously for any favour done. Example of an apology: – We sincerely apologize for not dispatching your goods on time”. 5. COMPLETENESS - Complete presentation of facts and details is necessary in any business communication Incomplete communication leads to ineffectiveness of the action to be taken, irrelevancy, misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the message. This is because it leaves a number of questions unanswered. Example: When replying to an enquiry from a customer wishing to buy a car, one must include all relevant facts about the car such as the model, colour, price mode of payment and other specifications. The message should be well organized in such a way that the reader/listener is not in doubt about the details contained in it. Tips for communication completeness

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(a) While answering a letter, include all relevant details and answer all questions if any. (b) Check on the “5w’s questions to why? What? Where? Who? When? 6. CORRECTINESS This simply means: a) Giving correct facts/statements/arguments etc. b) Sending the message at the correct time c) Send the message in the correct style/medium/channel. 1. 6. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Communication will be effective if it flows speedily and smoothly in an uninterrupted flow.

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Some common barriers are: 1. wrong choice of medium: Unsuitable media may act as a barrier to effective communication example an apology will be effective if communicated face to face rather than in writing. 2. Physical barriers These may due to inadequate staff, faulty procedures, in accuracy in processing and delivery of communication. Physical barriers include: i) Noise Example passing traffic may disrupt a session; poor handwriting may affect the understanding of a letter. ii) time and distance People in different shifts may not communicate because of time. Distance may affect face to face communication when a lecturer is addressing a large group of students. 3. Semantic barrier Semantic refers to the meaning of language. The same word may be interpreted differently by different people because of mental attitude and understanding. Semantic barriers include: i) Interpretation of words. The receiver of the message may not assign the same meaning to that purported by the sender. This may be a barrier to communication example;” what is he value of this ring?” This can be interpreted as the monetary value, the importance or the implication. ii) Bypassed instructions This will happen if the sender and receiver of the message attribute different meanings to the same word use different words for the same meaning. Example a manager said to anew office assistant” go and burn this. The manager simply wanted another copy of the letter, the office assistant went on to burn the letter, to the dismay of the manager. iii).Denotation and connotation Words have connotative and denotative meaning. Denotative meaning is the literal meaning of the word such as book, chair etc. Connotative meanings arouse qualitative judgments and personal reactions. Words like honesty, noble, competent and sincere. Some words may have favourable connotation and unfavourable connotation such as the word cheap it may mean low in price or low in quality. To avoid problems of bypassed instructions the following points should be kept in mind. a) Use words which are familiar to the receiver. b) Clarify new words or words used in a different context. 14

c) Choose words that have a positive connotation rather than those with negative connotation. 4. Different comprehension of reality. These barriers include; i) Abstracting This is the process of focusing attention on some details and omitting others. This is a barrier because a detail that may appear important to one person may be taken as being trivial by the reader. ii) Slanting It means giving a particular bias or slant to a reality. Slanting is similar to allness, in allness we only know a part and are ignorant of the rest but we think that we the whole. iii) Inferring Inferences are drawn from observations and assumptions. If we drop a letter at the post office we assume that will be delivered on time. Inferences are not facts Wrong inference is a barrier to communication. 5. Socio-psychological barriers This may be due to some social or psychological problems. Such as: i) Attitudes and opinions If information agrees with our opinions and attitudes we tend to receive it favourably if we disagree with it we to tend react unfavourably to it. ii) Emotions Emotional state of mind plays an important role in the act of communication. If the sender is perplexed or worried, excited afraid nervous his thinking will be blurred and he will not be able to organize the message properly. His state of mind will be reflected in the message. CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTION 1. Define Communication. 2. With the help of a diagram describe the process of communication. 3. Identify barriers to communication and how to overcome them. 4. Give purpose/objectives of effective communication. 5. How do you achieve clarity of expression?

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CHAPTER TWO

ORAL COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES To be able to: - Give a good speech - Conduct meetings effectively - Conduct interviews effectively and succeed in interviews - Participate in group discussions 2.1 SPEECHES Speech or spoken word is very powerful, it can stir people to mutinies and rebellions it can turn a hostile crowd to a friendly gathering. The key to the success of many politicians, industrialists, managers, and salesmen lies in their ability to speak. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SPEECH 1. It is clear. Your speech should convey to the audience the ideas, emotions, facts or arguments you want to express. 2. It is like an informal talk When you speak there should be a perfect rapport between you and your audience. 3. It is vivid and concrete Use concrete facts that are easy to comprehend and visualize. Instead of saying the population of India is growing very fast, a speaker said see how fast our population grows one Australia is added the population of India every year and Australia’s area is two and half times that of India. 4. It is brief An audience can last up to twenty minutes. Your speech should be tailored to that length. To achieve brevity, include only a few points and elaborate at length 5. It is interesting Quotations, anecdotes and humorous touches often make a speech interesting. Quotations should be from acceptable authorities. They should be familiar but not

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worn out. Anecdotes should be new brief and in good taste. Humor should be topical, original spontaneous and gentle. 6. It is audience oriented

A good speech should be tailored to the wavelength of the audience. Consider the following points: i) Is the audience general or specializes one? This will help you determine the depth of the subject . ii) How large is the audience? For a small audience the speech will be more like a chat in a large gathering you will have to be rhetorical. iii) What is the age group of the listeners? Your reference and illustrations should conform to the tastes of that particular group. iv) What is the social religious political and economic views and prejudice of the listeners? What is the expected audience response?

PROFILE OF A GOOD SPEAKER 1. “A good speaker is lively, interested enthusiastic and vital.” He treats his audience as a group of living people. He is keenly interested in the subject he is speaking about and takes pain to make the audience equally interested in it. 2. “A good speaker is earnest” 3. He does not speak just for the sake of speaking – in order to show off, to impress the audience with his erudition or his authority. 4. “A good speaker has a sense of responsibility to others on the program” He does not take more time than what is allotted to him. 5. “A good speaker has a sense of responsibility to his subject” He does not bite more than he can chew. He does not spread it thin. 6. “ A good speaker has a sense of leadership; he stands up tall, he talks eye to eye , he speaks responsibly and with authority as a leader should’ 7. “ A good speaker keeps his head” He is not get carried off by his over- enthusiasm or over-confidence.

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8. “ A good speaker tries to be balanced and sane” 9. “ A good speaker keeps his sense of humour”

PREPARATION FOR A SPEECH 1. Research your topic thoroughly. Identify the points for discussion and decide what you have to say about them. 2. Plan your speech in three parts; i) The beginning should arouse the interest of the audience. ii) The middle should be devoted to discussion Iii) The conclusion should summarize the main points, and if some action is to be taken it clearly tells the audience what they are required. 3. Time your speech to make sure it is neither too long nor too short. 4. Look for some suitable quotations or anecdotes if possible.

5. Arrange your points in such a way that strong points are kept at the beginning. 6. Tailor your speech to the intellectual level and general taste of the audience. 7. Make sure that your delivery is going to be good, rehearse the speech use a tape recorder or video recorder to fine tune your tone and mannerism. 2.2. MEETINGS Meetings are held to discuss particular issues or matters. For the meetings to be successful the following should be done. i) Define the purpose of the meeting clearly ii) Distribute the agenda among all members. iii) Provide all the facts e.g. you may distribute a copy of previous year results and some comments to the members. (iv) Restrict the number of invitees

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If you are the chairman of a meeting To be successful as a chairman observe the following:1. Punctuality 2. Clearly define the purpose of the meeting 3. Begin with a positive approach and don’t start on negatives. 4. Your opening remarks should be brief. Short openings suggest the urgency of problem. 5. Sight out the initial silence. After the opening remarks there’s silence because of members general reluctance to speak. Some people may be thinking about the probability and others not want to speak. The chairman should assist members to open up. 6. Remain impartial sometimes conflicts and personality save ups may arise. The chairman should be able to control the situation. He should not take sides. 7. Control emotional build ups sometimes during the discussion emotions and tensions may build up. The chairman should use humour to control tempers. 8. Draw contributions from all members. 9. Control the meeting 10. Creatively control opposing points of view. 11. Clarify contributions 12. Make frequent summarize of progress of the meeting to all parent. 13. Point out the decisions reached. 14. Point out differences. 15. Point out the course of action. 16. Close the meeting in time. IF YOU ARE TO ATTEND A MEETING 1. Go to the meeting well prepared. 2. (a) Study the agenda carefully, try to find out the items of your interest and the items in which you are capable to make contributions. (b) Carefully read the information circulated in advance. 19

(c) If you want to use any written or visual aids to make your contributions effective prepare them in advance. If you are not an experienced speaker its advisable to write down points. 3. Study other members who are attending the meeting. Their characteristics, like and dislikes, story and weak points, the way they speak and how they react to different ideas and note their areas of specialization. 4. Speak at the end most appropriate time if you have good ideas. Ideas that you have keen to get accepted, present them early enough so that other members can start thinking along the lines of those ideas. 5. If the discussion is moving along desirable lines, you can wait and present your ideas towards the end of the meeting. This will happen if you are giving an air of finality to the discussion and other members may agree with you and the meeting is closed.

2.3. DISCUSSION Discussion – it’s a co-operative, critical exchange of opinions, information and ideas about one general subject. Its guided by a leader for the purpose of seeking appropriate, acceptable answers to a question. - Can be conducted before a audience or it can be held in a closed session. - An ideal one involves a force exchange and evaluation of information by open minded participants. PURPOSES OF GROUP DISCUSSION 1. The most important purpose is to solve complex problems. When one or two people are incapable of solving a problem, they often call experts from a variety of areas collective wisdom assists in solving complex problems. 2. To publish existing problems 3. To give individuals experience in becoming leaders and discussants by participating in group deliberations.

4. To collect information from many different people in widely separated Geographical, occupational or social-economic sections of society.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCUSSION 1. Amount of research The amount of research done by participants before the discussion may affect both the quality of discussions and the quality of the results. 2. Underlying motives or secret interests May also affect discussion quality and results e.g people who are not honest and open because they stand to lose something (friends, positions, status etc) may sway a discussion to protect their secret interests. 3. Nonverbal, vocal & verbal messages Disgusted expressions, stressed words, or technical terms may suggest attitudes and emotions of the people involved. 4. Sensitivity of the participants to each other and to themselves. If participants are unaware that others are tense, shy, frustrated or bored they’ll probably not be able to draw them into the discussion and benefit from their judgments and opinions. Other factors may be: Time of day i.e. when the discussion is conducted Place where the discussion occurs Size of the group discussing Time limit for completing a task Types of Discussion Questions There are 3 general types of questions. 1. Question of fact To answer this is the discussants try to find which aspects of a particular problem are true, probable or false. These kind of discussions are called “Fact – finding” sessions.

2. Questions of value: These questions evaluate different ideas to see which one is best. Discussants compare and contrast the worth or value of one thing with another to make judgments.

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3. Questions of policy These attempts to discover if something should or should not be done. Discussion questions should deal with subjects that are: Significant, important and worth discussion

ESTABLISHING A FRAMEWORK FOR AN ORDERLY DISCUSSION. It should follow a logical, sequential pattern; the following is the modified plan for discussion. 1. Locate and define the problem They need to state the problem clearly so that everyone understand and it may require some terms to be explained from the very beginning, to eliminate confusion once the discussion gets under way. 2. Establish criteria for a workplace solution After recognition, what the question involves the group must decide on the: Standards of criteria that must be met if a solution is to be accepted by the entire group. 3. Analyze the problem It’s a step of exploring the problem, looking for its causes, current status, historical background, probable future and the reason a solution or answer is necessary. 4. Suggest and evaluate possible solutions The fourth step is to place as many solutions or answers to the problem before the group as possible. Discussants need to be sure each solution meets the standards agreed upon in the second step. 5. Evaluate all solutions and select the best one In this, they compare and contrast all the alternatives, solutions or answers. The advantages and disadvantages of each one should be weighed in an attempt to discover the one that would best solve the problem. 6. Suggest ways for testing or conveying out the solution. This step may not be included if the discussion purpose is only to solve problem. However it becomes the last step if the group discusses ways and means of carrying out a solution. 22

METHODS OF EVALUATION There are two methods of evaluation, namely: i. interaction and participation diagrams ii. discussion critique Types of Discussion The type of discussion held depends on such factors as number of participants the subject to be discussed and the time allowed for the discussion. 1. Panel Discussion – Involves four – eight members. There are no prepared speeches , instead discussions are expected to follow specific lines to find an answer to question. No set pattern for participation. 2. Symposium This requires individual discussants either to deal with one assigned area of a discussion question or to present their unique viewpoints on the subject. 3. Round table discussion This doesn’t include audience participation although observers may be present. It usually begins with a statement of the problem. This is followed by a series of brief reports or observations by several specialists then discussants spontaneously interact. 4. Lecture Discussion It includes periods of formal, structured presentations or lectures by the discussion leader. Members of discussion group may be given advance assignments to prepare for the lectures. The leader normally designates specific individuals to respond to certain questions, information or statements. The discussants are allowed to interrupt the leader with questions. 5. Progressive Discussion It involves several small groups which discuss various, assigned aspects of the same question at the same time. Before the end of discussion period, each leader reports the findings and decisions made by his/her group to the entire session.

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2.4. INTERVIEWS DEFINITION Interview means view between. It means two people meeting for the purpose of getting to view each other or knowing each other. The interviewer is interested to know whether or not the candidate can fit in the open position. On the other hand, the interviewees will asses the organization to decide whether or not to join it. INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES They include; 1. Screening This refers to the preliminary interview which is done when there are many applicants for a given post. The aim of screen interview is to eliminate unqualified applicants and prepare a short list of qualified applicants. 2. Random appearance This method is used when physical appearance is the essential requirement for a given post, such as for bouncers, Air hostesses, policemen and others. 3. Tests Written or oral tests can be used to test the intelligence, proficiency and general knowledge of the applicants. 4. Under stress interview In this method the candidate is provoked to test his poise and how he will acquit himself from difficult situations. The candidate may be asked embarrassing questions or asked to demonstrate how he can carry out a given task such as selling items to panelists. INTERVIEWER’S PREPARATION You should; ii) Have a thorough knowledge of the company, its profile, operations and employment policies. iii) Know the nature and profile of the job to be filled. iv) Know the type of personality, character or temperament required for the job. v) Send all inter view messages on time to candidates. vi) Make proper seating arrangements for candidates in the waiting room. vii) Make the interview room conducive for the interview that is with no interruptions. viii) Supply each member of the committee with a copy of the candidate’s bio-data. ix) Decide before hand who is going to initiate the interview.

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HOW TO CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW 1. Welcome the candidate in a friendly way, Offer warm smile to the candidate, talk to him in a friendly tone of voice, hold a small talk with him in an area he is familiar. 2. After the candidate has been made comfortable the you should start talking to him on the subject you want to know about. You will want to know the candidate’s qualifications (ability to do the job), aspiration(willingness to do the job), social effectiveness and emotional balance (relationship with others) character (trustworthiness), physical vigour and energy, spouse ‘s attitude towards the job, financial stability, willingness to travel and willingness to make permanent move. 3. Make notes a bout the candidate and discuss the notes with other panelists when the candidate has left. 4. give the candidate time to ask questions 5. If a decision is to be made immediately let the candidate know shortly after the discussion. 6. Thank the candidate for his time and tell him by when he should expect a response from you.

3. PREPARING FOR AN INTERVIEW a – Make sure you know everything there is to know about yourself, such as academic qualifications, ambitions, hobbies, work experience. b – Gather as much information about the company as possible e.g. their operations, services, personnel remunerations. c – Carry with you all your certificates to the interview room. d – Prepare a list of questions you predict the interviewers may ask. e – Prepare appropriate answers for your predicted questions. f – Prepare questions that you could like to ask during the interview. g – Dress appropriately; example for men a black or navy blue suit and a plain light coloured shirt may be winning colours h – Arrive for the interview on time, arrival time is ten – fifteen minutes before the time of the interview.

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HOW TO CONDUCT YOURSELF DURING THE INTERVIEW 1. Walk carefully into the interview room, do not wear a scowl or a stupid smile when entering the interview room. 2. Greet the interviewers politely avoid shaking hands unless the interviewers stretch their hands to you. 3. Do not sit down until you have been asked to do so, adopt a natural and upright composed posture when seated. 4. Pay attention to what is being said and do not interrupt the interviewer. 5. When responding give relevant answers only and be audible enough for all the panelists to hear you. 6. Do not boast of your capabilities or qualifications. 7. If there is something you don’t know admit it straight a way. 8. If you are being interviewed by someone who does not possess as many degrees as yourself do not put on airs. Give the interviewers your co-operation and respect. 9. Be calm throughout the interview do not loose your temper or argue with the panelists these may not work your way. 10. Adopt a positive approach throughout the interview; express your enthusiasm for the job and the company. If you give an impression that you are not interested you may realize that the interviewer is also not interested in hiring you. 11. Avoid shifting in your seat, chewing fingers, smoothing your hair, adjusting the knot of your tie or playing with the pen or paper. All these are signs of nervousness. Nervousness is your worst enemy in interview. 12. When you are asked about your previous employer, be frank but do not criticize your former employer. Mention only positive aspects of your former employer. 13. Ask questions where full information has not been provided by the interviewer. 14. When the interview is over do not forget to thank the interviewer. You can ask tactfully when the results will be made known to you.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Briefly outline the qualities of a good speaker. 2. Define listening and techniques of a good listener 3. What is the purpose of meetings? 4. Differentiate between interviewer and meeting.

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CHAPTER THREE WRITING SKILLS OBJECTIVES To be able to: - Write good essays - Write good business letters and memos - Write good reports - Make summaries of speeches, and articles. - Develop reading skills 3.1. ESSAY WRITING Essay writing is an attempt to write a given topic. Essay is derived from French word essays that means to attempt. It means composition. In any topic or subject composition is made up of paragraphs which are logically arranged and connected with one another. Each paragraph discusses a particular subject relating to the topic i.e. leads to succeeding. How to write good essay Define the scope of essay e.g. if you are about the problems of industrialization the scope will be different from if you are to write about evils industrialization. In the 1st topic i.e. the problems of industrialization you will discuss about the availability of raw materials, energy, labour and market conditions etc. In the 2nd topic you can write about effects or industrialization e.g. pollution of atmosphere, exploitation of labour, concentration of wealth in few hands etc. 2. Jot down the ideas This means you put down relevant ideas in a sketch form. 3. Prepare the outlines You arrange the ideas you have generated in a logical sequence and you prepare your outline e.g. if you are writing about an event you should write using chorological sequences. 4. Think of an attractive beginning Introduction should be fresh, original and arresting. It should be strictly relevant to the subject. 27

5. Conclusions have to be stated clearly and firmly. 6. Develop different points in different paragraphs. 7. Revise your essay 8. Avoid being irrelevant. 9. Use simple language 11. Develop habit of reading newspapers and periodicals.

3.2. CORRESPONDENCE

3.2.1. BUSINESS LETTERS It is used for communication to persons outside the organization FUNCTIONS OF A BUSINESS LETTER. i) To provide a convenient and inexpensive means of communication without personal contact. ii) To seek or give information iii) To furnish evidence of transactions entered into iv) To provide a record for future reference. v) To provide a written record and reference

CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS LETTERS Business letters can be classified into: Letters of inquiry Letters answering a request Claim and adjustment letters Credit letters Collection letters Sales letters and Employment letters ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS LETTER 1. Promptness Reply to the letter the day it is received. If time is needed acknowledge the letter and indicate when a reply will be sent. 28

2. Knowledge of the subject This includes knowledge of past correspondence. 3. Accuracy, completeness and clarity: Verify facts before you write them. 4. Courtesy We should seek favours politely and express our gratitude for the favours done to us. 5. Appropriateness Vary the tone of your letter according to the occasion and the psychology of the reader. 6. Tact You should endeavour to retain the goodwill of someone even though his request has been turned down. 7. Persuasion This means winning people to your point of view by making positive suggestions and explaining that what you say is to their advantage. 8. Conciseness Eliminate all irrelevant details from your letter. 9. Adopt the you approach Avoid the ‘I’ and ‘We’ in your letter. 10. Adopt the positive and pleasant Approach. Avoid No’s and Sorry’s in your letter they are unpleasant and unwelcome No for example can be written as ‘ another time’ or ‘try later’ sorry may be presented as’ I will try’. 11. Use familiar language Avoid jargon, bombastic and colloquial or words when writing a business letter.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER 1. THE HEADING The heading is the letter head of the letter. It contains; the name of the organization, the logo, the address, the telephone number, fax number, e-mail, and the physical location of the business. 2. THE DATE 29

The date comes below the heading. The date should have a format of either ‘30th October 2007’ or ‘October 30th 2007’ the date should be underlined. For fully blocked letters the date comes at the left hand side. In case of semi blocked letter ,it will appear at the right hand side of the paper. 3. REFERENCE It comes below the date for fully blocked letters, or it is written on the same line as the date for semi blocked letters but starting at the left margin. The reference is used to identify the department or section where the communication originates. Examples are: -Reference No……… -Ref. No…… 4. INSIDE ADDRESS It contains the name and address of the person or firm to which the letter is written. You can add ‘For the attention of ’ when you want the letter to be directed to an identified officer in the organization. 5. THE SALUTATION This is the greeting part of the letter. For formal letters you can address dear Sir, for and Dear Madam for ladies. For semi-personal letter you can write Dear Mr. Otieno or Dear Moraa. For personal letters you can write My dear Juliet. THE BODY OF THE LETTER. It is divided into i) Subject or Reference Subject is used when writing a letter for the first time while reference is used when replying a letter. ii) Opening paragraph The letter should open with the expression of pleasure, gratitude or Acknowledgement. Remember to use the ‘you approach’ in your opening paragraph. iii) Main paragraph This paragraph contains the subject matter of the letter. Make sure all issues are detailed in this paragraph. iv) Closing Paragraph The ending should aim at motivating the reader to take action. You can close with an offer or a request. 6.

7. COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE This is also referred to as subscription. It is a polite way of ending a letter.

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Letters having salutations ‘Dear Sir, Madam, Sirs, and Mesdames’ should end with ‘yours faithfully’. Less formal letters can end ‘yours truly’ or ‘yours very truly’. Letters having Dear Mr. John should end ‘yours sincerely’. Letters to superiors can end ‘yours respectfully’ 8. SIGNATURE The writer should sign by putting his/her name down and the position in the organization. 9. ENCLOSURE This is used when there are other documents enclosed in the same letter for the receiver. 10. CARBON COPIES This is used to show who else has been sent the same letter. For example. Cc District Officer1 Town clerk Town engineer

SAMPLE LETTERS 1 FULLY BLOCKED LETTERS MANDASI BORA BAKARY LTD P.O Box 2198 Mombasa 27th October 2007 Our ref……………. Your ref………….. THE MANAGER EQUITY BANK MOMBASA P.O Box 2849 Mombasa Dear Sir, SUBJECT: APPLICATION FOR A LOAN I am greatly honoured to write to you requesting for a loan. Our company is a leading bakery in Mombasa. We are planning to expand our production capacity from ten thousand loaves a day to one hundred thousand loaves. This will require a lot of money than the company may afford. Because of this, we are 31

Tel…

inviting you to be part of this project by lending us Ten million shillings repayable in three years. We are credit worth as you can see from our financial records. You are also welcome to our plant to assess our capability. I am thanking you in advance as I look forward to your positive reply, Yours faithfully

John Juma The bakery manager

2. SEMI-BLOCKED LETTERS MANDASI BORA BAKARY LTD P.O Box 2198 Mombasa Our ref…………… Your ref………….. .27th October 2007

Tel…

THE MANAGER EQUITY BANK MOMBASA P.O Box 2849 Mombasa Dear Sir, SUBJECT: APPLICATION FOR A LOAN I am greatly honoured to write to you requesting for a loan. Our company is a leading bakery in Mombasa. We are planning to expand our production capacity from ten thousand loaves a day to one hundred thousand loaves. This will require a lot of money than the company may afford. Because of this, we are inviting you to be part of this project by lending us Ten million shillings repayable in three years. We are credit worth as you can see from our financial records. You are also welcome to our plant to assess our capability. I am thanking you in advance as I look forward to your positive reply, Yours faithfully John Juma The bakery manager

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3.2.2. MEMO Memo is short form for memorandum It is used for internal communication Sections 1. Heading Memo may or may not have a letter head. This depends on the house customs. SAMPLE MEMO Internal Memo To: From: Date: Departmental heads General Manager 12th June 2007

SUBJECT: FIRST MEETING OF THE YEAR This is to inform you that our first meeting for 2007- 2008 financial year will be held on Wednesday 14th June 2007, starting at 9.00 a.m. in the board room. The Agendas are: 1. Review of the previous years’ performance 2. Presentation of departmental budgets 3. A.O.B Please be punctual With regards

Peter Omangi The General Manager

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3.3. REPORTS A report is an orderly presentation of facts about specific business activities or programs. Reports can also be defined as a communication from someone who has some information to someone who wants to use that information. Report – It’s a document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting, finding, putting forward, ideas and sometimes making recommendations. Business report It’s a document which investigates a specific subject according to a prescribed format and for a clearly defined leadership. A report can be oral or written. However, a written report is preffered to an oral report for a number of reasons. 1. Oral report can be denied at any time but written report is a permanent report and it can not be denied. 2. An oral report tends to be vague. It may contain some irrelevant facts and some important points may be overlooked. 3. A written report tends to be accurate and precise. 4. A written report can be referred to again and again. Report can be either informative, interpreting. Informative reports An Informative report is one that represents facts pertinent to a given situation or issue. Interpretive reports They are reports that analyze the facts, draw conclusion and make recommendations .e.g. An informative report on sale of tables, draws will simply record the number of tables sold during a given month/months. An interpretive report on sale of tables, we analyze why and to what extent the sale of tables go up during summer month i.e. May-July and it will make recommendation on the schedule of production. Importance of reports Report is basic management tool that is used for decision making Characteristics of reports It should be precise, clear and answering the questions that is being investigated. 34

A report should have accurate facts because they are used for decision making inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decisions. A report must be relevant i.e. should contain only relevant facts. Irrelevant facts should not appear in the report. A good report should be leader oriented. Objectivity of recommendation. If you are to write conclusions make sure they are impartial and they are objective. They should come as logical conclusions to investigation and analysis. Reports should be written in simple and ambiguous language. Report should be clear and brief. A report should be grammatically correct. According to stephene a report should be characterized by clear expression and neat display. It should be nature of agreement well reasoned and arranged, accurate in all details and leading logically to the conclusions and recommendations set forth. Skills/Qualities of Report Writing Ability to record facts clearly and objectively Ability to interpret facts and attributes them to findings Ability to formulate and present opinions based on the facts but clearly separated from them. Types of business reports 1. Based on legal formulations reports are of two kinds (a) Formal Reports They are prepared in prescribed form and presented accordingly to an established procedure to prescribed authority. (b) Informal Reports Usually inform of person to person communication and usually submitted in form of letter or memo. Formal reports can be divided into two:(a) Statutory reports – They are prepared and presented according to the form and procedure laid down by law. e.g. the directors of a company are required to submit a statutory report to the share holders in annual general meeting. 35

(i)

An auditors report (b) Non statutory reports Are formal reports which are not required under any law. e.g. management may require a departmental head to write a report on a certain issue. 2. Based on number of persons writing a report (a) Report by individuals (b) Report by committee or sub committee 3 On the basis of nature of reports (a) Periodic or routine reports (b) Progress reports (c) Examination reports (d) Recommendation reports (e) Statistical reports

Writing a Report 1. Before beginning you need to know why you are writing the report and what exactly you are writing about. 2. You need to keep report accurate and relevant 3. While writing the report omit opinions from sections concerning the facts. 4. Organize your points in a logical order. 5. Use your judgment and experience when suggesting actions or making recommendations. 6. Use language suited to the leader and make sure each session has clear heading. Sections of a Report 1. The title The title should be concise but comprehensive. The situation stated briefly together with name of company and date of the event. E.g. Report on staffing levels in the general office, William engineering on Friday 15th December 2006. 36

2. Background This contains two kinds of information. Brief descriptions of circumstances under discussion and outline of the procedure/method of inquiry used by writer. e.g. On Friday 15th December the general office was staffed only by Mr. Jones and the other four staff members were absent. As a result the services available were limited. I have discussed the matter in confidence with each member of staff involved and also with other departments which were concerned. 3. Findings This is the part of report. It presents in simple clear, unbiased terms an account of the events or circumstances which form the subject of the report. Principles to follow when preparing the findings 1. Organize your material in sections according to subject area and present each one under a clear descriptive heading which could be clearly numbered. 2. Write in clear, single style points under consideration only. Don’t note from or numbered from below your findings. 3. Include only those statistics that are really essential to support your points. The findings do not interpret, they only give the observations 4. Conclusions This means that section of report that interprets the facts and the observations represented in the findings. It presents direct and clear interpretation of event or circumstances. Basic Principles of presenting conclusions 1. Conclusions should be presented under the same series of subject heading as findings and in the same order with the same system of numbering. 2. It should be written in simple continuous prose. 3. Do not include statistics or graphs or maps which have not been included in the findings. 5. Recommendations It’s the final section of a report and it puts forward future course of action concerning the topic under investigation.

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Principles 1. Each recommendation should be as specific as possible given the information available. 2. Even when we feel the present arrangement for a certain aspect of topic is satisfactory, you should mention this in the recommendation section. E.g. current arrangement for replacing lost library tickets is satisfactory and should remain unchanged. 3. Recommendations should be grouped under the same heading and should appear in the same order as used in findings or conclusions. 4. Recommendations must rest on the information and the findings and the reasoning in conclusions so that the leader can see that the reports proceed clearly and logically and nothing has been cancelled. 5. Signature, Name, Position and date. This should follow each other in that sequence.

3.4. SUMMARY WRITING Summary is also referred to as precise or abstract. It means a prose passage or composition from which all unnecessary and unrelated ideas and words have been removed. Word precise is a French term that means exact or just. A precise is written in precise writer own words and about 1/3 of original passage. Abstract: Its summary constructed by extracting the key sentences or a paragraph and putting them together coherently. A precise/summary is in form of paragraphs a summary on the other hand can be in form of paragraph or inform of notes. Objectives of Precise/Summary Objectives of summary is To put down in short form a message which can be understood by very busy officers who do not have time to read original passage. Qualities of good summary i) Should be concise I.e. a summary should be as long or short to serve the purpose.

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ii) Clarity – It has to be clear. iii) Coherent I.e. it should hold together. You can use the following words to join sentences or paragraphs consequently. Moreover, however, naturally, next, thus, nevertheless, finally etc. You can also use phrases to join paragraphs or sentences e.g. equally important, in this way, on contrary, first of all, on the other hand, of course, for instance etc. How to make summary 1. Read the passage thoroughly. Try to get general idea of passage 2. Read the passage again until you have grasped the entire meaning 3. Underline/highlight all important ideas. 4. Write down a title which sums up the theme of the passage 5. Rewrite in fewer words what the author has said, use your own language as far as possible. 6. Re-read the passage, compare you point with passage to ensure no important points have been overlooked and nothing insignificant has been included. 7. Using your points write down sum and substance of the passage in well connected and readable paragraphs. This is your rough draft. 8. Count the words in your rough draft. Make alterations if necessary to give your summary the required length. 9. Review and rephrase you rough draft where desirable. 10. Reconsider the appropriateness of your heading/title. Title Heading The heading can be written before the summary is made. The heading should express in few words the theme of passage. The topic should be written one line or less. More than one line may appear confusing. A summary can have many suitable headings but you should choose the best that gives the central theme or the passage.

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Rules of writing summary i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. Determine the theme of passage very carefully. A summary is not reproduction of important sentences but it’s the act of remodeling. Brevity is good but not at the expense of clarity. Your summary ought to be intelligible even to persons who have not read the original passage. Use your own language. Summary is always written in 3rd Person. Use your own discretion if the passage contains statistical information. The summary should be well proportioned. You are not to give any comments appreciative or critical on ideas expressed in the passage. Reproduce the passage to its 1/3rd.

How to achieve brevity 1. Try to replace clauses by phrases and phrases by words. E.g. “an permanent nature,” Can be written as “A permanent arrangement” E.g. “To a considerable degree” you can write “considerably”. 2. Make use of one word substitutions. E.g. “the secretary’s proposal was adopted with the full agreement of all the members”. You can simply say “the secretary’s proposal was adopted unanimously”. 3. Avoid unnecessary repetition e.g. it was decided to allow only our own executives to participate in the seminar and not to invite any external participants. The words in italics are unnecessary repetitions. 4. It’s important to link various sentences. For example; we are selling a new garden fertilizer in the market. It’s in form of powder. Its colour is pink. You can dust it on the plants. You can dissolve it in water and spray. You can say “Our new garden fertilizer, a fine pink coloured powder can be dusted on the plants or dissolved in water and sprayed”. 5. When writing a summary; omit examples, comparisons, contrasts and mere details. arrangement of a

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3.5. READING Many readers waste a lot of time for 2 reasons. (i) They read everything at the same speed, often at a slow pace. (ii) They do not understand or retain what they have read A good reader adjusts his/her speed according to the purpose or difficulty of the subjectmatter. Reading Techniques Scanning It’s the process of looking quickly through a text to find a particular piece of information. To scan move your eyes quickly down the text looking for key words related to the topic in question. Scanning is used for reading street or telephone directories to find particular name. Its also used when you need to go through a piece of continous writing to find specific piece of information eg. statistics. Scanning can be useful for reading annual report, catalogue. Members of staff read many reports. Scanning is important to allow them grase the main draft of the report. How to increase scanning speed Draw a finger down the center or the page while moving your eyes rapidly from side to side as you follow it down. Uses of certain techniques – move an envelope or piece of paper down the page curtaining off the line you have read. Skimming Skimming is glancing at speed over the printed words on a page. In skimming words are not individually note but an impression is gained. Skimming requires a lot of concentration to get an idea of what the text is all about. Where skimming is used I. To preview II. To identify priorities where to read more slowly. III. To find a required piece of information IV. To help memory by immediate grasp of what we have just read. 41

How to skim a) Anticipation. As we read we should aim to understand the whole content by seeing the complete picture rather than the small separate bits. This means that you think faster than you read and make predictions or what you expect to read next. E.g. if a problem has been described, you may well anticipate a solution. (b) Organization Go through the structure or patterns of the writing. This skeleton will help you in grasping the whole text e.g. a book is divided into chapters and subsections. If we go through the structure we find our way more speedily. Study Reading This is required when you need to read in detail, when studying a report or a textbook study reading is crucial mostly when reading contracts and other legal documents. Method 1. When you take a textbook, make sure of all the clues it offers before you actually begin to read it. 2. Read the ‘blurb’ inspect the context page I read the preface and check the subject index. 3. While reading, look for the internal skeleton for synopsis and summarize for topic sentences in paragraphs, for headings and italics which may emphasize key points by making the book and taking notes. 4. Skim the notes once you have finished reading. CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. List and explain the key areas of effective communication. 2. Give the functions of a business letter 3. What are the essentials of effective business letter? 4. Identify the various element s of a business letter 5. Mention the various functions of memo 6. How does one achieve brevity in communication?

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CHAPTER FOUR VISUAL COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES To be able to: - Present information using graphs charts and other forms of visual Communication. - Be able to prepare for a presentation using aids like slides and transparencies - Appreciate the role of presentation aids in communication - Interpret and follow presentation represented in form of a graph, chart or other forms of presentation.

4.1. CHARTS I). BAR CHARTS These are some of the most popular ways of presenting statistics A bar chart consists of strips of different lengths each representing a numerical figure. The longer the bar the larger the figure it denotes How to construct a bar chart 1. Decide on the scale in which the figures are to be represented example 1 cm for $500. 2. Draw the axis – the lines which the scale is marked mark out the scale at regular intervals. 3. Decide on the order of the bars. If they show statistics over a period of time they should be arranged in chronological order. 4. Label the bars if necessary making sure that all writing is horizontal so that it can be read easily. 5. Give the chart a clear heading if possible at the top. 6. Give the source of the data used to reassure the reader that the figures are accurate.

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Example: A bar chart for three regions’ performance in examinations.
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

East West North

II). PIE CHARTS They are used to show the relative size of separate components of a whole. For example they can be used to show how the income of a country is spent. EXAMPLE: A PIE CHART SHOWING THE PERFORMANCE OF A COMPANY DURING THE YEAR.

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

4. 2. GRAPHS Graphs are a valuable form of visual communication they are a means of presenting data on the relationship between two constantly changing elements in the form of single line , the shape of which reveals the nature of the relationship at a glance.

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DEMAND CURVE
160 140 120 price 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 quantity

HOW TO DRAW A GRAPH 1. Use a graph paper 2. choose the variables for each axis 3. Choose the scales for the two axis which will fit the graph paper 4. Mark off the axis at regular intervals 5. Plot the points of the graph. 6. join the points to draw the line graph 7. make sure each axis is labeled to show what information it gives and the scale used 8. Give the graph a clear title CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Differentiate between graphs and charts 2. “A picture is worth a thousand words “discuss. 3. Give the importance of visual aid in communication. 4. Give the difference between a pie chart and a graph

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CHAPTER FIVE

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES To be able to: -Use non-verbal means of communication effectively -Interpret various non verbal communication clues - Appreciate the importance of non communication clues while communicating INTRODUCTION All communication is affected by the non-verbal communication that accompanies it. Over the telephone the tone of voice conveys nuances of meaning. Face to face expressions, gestures and posture play an important part. We use demonstrations and models to supplement words visual aids to clarify lectures and maps, diagrams, charts and graphs to enhance both spoken and written communication. Non-verbal clues often conveys more than verbal communication.

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Nature of non-verbal Communication Can be divided into: i) Body language (kinesics) ii) Vocal tone iii) Space (Proxemics) iv) The senses and time 1. Body Language i) Posture:This is the way we stand or sit in relation to others or objects, and the position of the head and hands. Example a dejected person tends to slump shoulders bowed and held low, while arms crossed and held tightly in front indicates defensive mood. ii) Gestures Using our limbs especially hands and shoulders to convey messages. For example you can call some one by beckoning him using your hands.

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iii) Facial expressions Using the cues of the face to send signals such as an up turned lip and a twinkle at the corners of the eyes may show friendship. While pouting lips may indicate boredom iv) Position Where we stand or sit in relation to objects and the persons we are communicating with. Example a lady behind the desk especially if wearing office dress may indicate that she in charge of the office and the gentleman infront of the desk may be taken to be the client. Much of body language is involuntary or unconscious When we look puzzled, twist a pen nervously in our fingers, sprawl in a chair or run upstairs we convey all sorts of obvious and sable messages. Some people are more skilled than others in hiding these involuntary signs. We need to make efforts to avoid giving an unfavourable picture of ourselves to others and to avoid letting them feel that we are reacting unfavorably to them.

2. Vocal tone Vocal tones, stress and emphasis bring out the difference between spoken and written words for example an explosively interrogative – what? Accompanied by a look of intense disbelief may be written as:- What are you saying? Can you really mean that? I have the utmost difficulty in believing you – in fact I don’t believe you. Our intonation can change a reprimand into a joke or an inoffensive phrase intoa deadly insult. 3. Space Each person has an individual spatial relationship with another. The less necessity there is to keep them at a distance. In warm countries people tend to move nearer to slight acquaintances to which they are talking to show friendship. In cooler and more reserved countries, the space is retained as a defensive barrier until friendship is firmly established. Space is also used to create other impressions such as status. The bigger the office, the bigger the desk or the company car the more important the position of the executive is seen to be. 4. The senses Sight, hearing, touch and smell & taste each play apart in non-verbal communication. 5. Sight Enables us to receive non-verbal communication and to observe & react to the appearance and cloths and objects surrounding them. 47

Habits and idiosyncrasies for insurance whether their desks are tidy or jumbled. 6. Sound A sigh, a laugh the constant clicking in & out of the top of a ballpoint pen atimid knock on the door. All give us indications about people and add to the communication process.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define non-verbal communication 2. Briefly give different categories of non-verbal communication 3. Explain the type of communicating using space

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CHAPTER SIX SOURCES OF INFORMATION OBJECTIVES To be able to: -Gather information from the library - Formulate good questions for interviews - Collect information from the field using interviews, questionnaires and observation. - Interpret information collected using the methods of collecting information.

LIBRARY How to search materials in a library.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION. The library of congress classification system was first developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to organize and arrange the book collections of the library of congress. The system was adopted for use by other libraries especially large academic libraries in the United States. It is still one of the most widely used library classification systems in the world. The system divides all knowledge into twenty – one basic classes, each identified by a single letter of the alphabet. Most of those alphabetical classes are further divided into more specific subclasses, identified by two-letter or three – letter combinations. For example, class N (AH) has subclasses NA, architecture; NB, sculpture; ND, painting; among other several subclasses. Each subclass includes a loosely hierarchical arrangement of the topics related to the subclass, going from general to more specificity. Individual topics are often broken down to specific places, time periods or bibliographic forms. Each topic, also referred to as a caption, is assigned a single number or a span of numbers. Whole numbers used in this classification may range from one to four digits in length and can be further extended by the use of decimal numbers. Some subtopics appear in alphabetical rather than hierarchical, lists and are represented by decimal numbers that combine a letter with a numeral such as c 85 or J901. Relationships among topics in the library of congress classification are now shown by the numbers assigned to them but by indenting subtopics under the larger topics that they are a part of. This makes it different from other more strict hierarchical classification 49

systems such as the Dewey decimal classification where hierarchical relationships among topics are shown by numbers that can be continuously subdivided. The following are the basic classes of the library of congress classification system. A – General works B – Philosophy – psychology religion C – Auxiliary sciences of history D – World history and history of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc. E – History of the Americas F – History of Americas G – Geography. Anthropology. Recreation H – Social sciences J – Political Science K – Law L – Education M – Music and books on music N – Fine arts P – Language and literature Q – Science R – Medicine S – Agriculture T – Technology U – Military Science V – Naval Science Z – Bibliography. Library science. Information resources (General) References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/library of congress classification CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Identify the various sources of information 2. Briefly outline the procedure of searching for materials in library 3. Define the library of congress classification system.

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CHAPTER SEVEN TECHNIQUES IN COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES To be able to: - argue appropriately in a communication process - be a good listener - use persuasion to achieve given results - use lobbying as a technique of communication - demonstrate effectively PERSUADING SPEECH Purpose of speech to persuade is to change. Create or reinforce attitudes or behavior. Persuasion is the process of changing listener’s beliefs or moving a listener to action. Persuasion is a form of influence; it’s the process or guiding people towards the adoption of an idea attitude or action by rational and symbolic means. It’s a strategy of problem solving relying on appeals rather than force. Techniques of persuasion Thinking To be our effective persuasive speaker, you need to develop a number of different types of thinking skills related to making judgment and decision. Thinking skills. (a) Perceiving – Ability to listen and observe to compare and contrast your observation so as to organize and interpret them to understand how you own point of view influences your perceptions. Arranging – Your ability to group your perceptions classify them discover pattern in them and place them in order of importance. Enquiring – Your ability to ask questions about and analyze meaning of your perceptions. Interring your ability to recognize, underlying assumptions to make generalizations to understand cause effect relationship and make predictions. Reasoning – your ability to make decisions and arrive at judgement.

(b) (c) (d) (e)

Using appeals to logic Start by clarifying the specific purpose of the speech. This is position of your speech. Support your speech with logical argument. The arguments should rely an objective information instead of personal preference or opinions.

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Each logical argument must be supported by evidence, factual examples, statistics, exports, testimony or other specific details about the argument logical arguments are made using. (i) Inductive reasoning We begin particular facts and proceeds to larger general conclusions based on these facts. E.g. if we taste a number of hard greed apples and find that they are sour, we are likely to conclude that apples are green and are also sour. (ii) Deductive reasoning We begin with general statement know to be accepted as true and proceed to particular facts that logically follow form these general statements e.g. All citizens have the right to vote women are citizens, they have the right to vote. Make general statement is true, then make sure the 2nd part fits into the generalization made by 1st statement. Preparing a persuasive speech based on logical appeals. i) Select a topic narrow enough to be covered within allotted time. ii) Find out what positions people hold in this topic. iii) Research the arguments supporting and opposing each position. iv) Decide on your position and write it as a thesis statement. v) Analyze your audience, its background interests and prejudices. vi) Complete your research using a variety of reliable resources. vii) Decide which arguments and what kinds of supporting evidence will be most effective with your audience. viii) Outline the main arguments of your speech and evidence you will use to support each argument. ix) Outline the arguments and evidence you will use to counter position others may take. x) Decide what visual aid will make your speech more effective. xi) Prepare introduction and conclusion of your speech. xii) Prepare notes for your speech and practice it alone. xiii) Practice your speech before at least one other person, ask the person for his response. xiv) Revise your speech in accordance with the person’s response. 3. Using Appeals to Emotion Use your body language to emphasize appeals to listeners emotions. Emotional appeals are based on. (i) Physical needs Involve the life and health of individual’s body e.g. need for food and need for physical pain. (ii) Psychological needs Involves an individual’s inner life e.g. need for love and need for self respect.

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(iii) Social needs Involves an individual relationship with a group e.g. need for freedom, need for status and power and need for acceptance by others. You need to consider your specific purposes and you want to be certain that each appeal you choose will lead your listeners to accept the position stated by your thesis rather than formulate arguments against it. You need to know your audience most important needs, their interests and fears. If you misjudge your audience, your appeals to their emotions will not be persuasive then use a contest and statement that appeal to specific emotions and that will sway your listeners in favor of your position. Use vivid language and a more intense tone of voice and gestures. Avoid unfair and dishonest persuasive techniques such as telling lies or half truths, calling names, using absentees and making irrelevant personal attacks. All these will be 4. Using identification When you give a persuasive speech you should encourage your listeners to regard it as a person who can be trusted and believed. You will want them to belief that you are a person like them, at other times you will want them to know that you are an expert in the topic whose knowledge will benefit them. Ethical appeal (ethics is an appeal to an audience to identify with and trust the speaker) Guidelines to identification with the audience i) Establish your own credibility At the opening part of your speech is on need to make it clear that you have been well informed about the topic e.g. what you have done to establish your expertise or you simply let your words talk on your behalf. (ii) Evoke the good will of your listeners

Persuade them that you share common interests with them and that you are sincerely committed to those interests. You can also evoke goodwill by complimenting the audience on its positive varieties and by identifying with a person the audience admires. (iii) Speak with genuine self confidence and enthusiasm

Your voice, posture, gestures and other non verbal areas communicate your enthusiasm as much as your words do. 5. Using identification with appeals to logic and appeals to emotion. To use the 3 combined you need to keep the following points in mind. Be sure each logical argument directly supports your thesis and will be understandably by convincing to your audience.

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(ii) Use appeals to emotion in presenting main points based on basic human, physical, psychological or social needs. Be sure each appeal to emotion directly supports your position and will be understandable by and convincing to your audience. Use specific techniques that will encourage your audience to identify with you. Consider how you can appear best credible and self confident and how you can best evoke your listener’s goodwill. If you establish their identification with you at an early stage, your listeners will be particularly willing to be persuaded by the speech. LISTENING Listening is a very important aid to communication. Listening is not the same as hearing. Hearing is an automatic reaction of the senses and nervous system. Listening is hard and requires effort. You have to choose to listen or not to. Kinds of Listeners i) Passive Listeners Do not pay attention to what is being said they pay more attention to the persons speaking. ii) Active Listeners Guide the speaker towards a common interest. Listening is the most important skill in management. IMPORTANCE Advantages of Listening ii) Listening helps you keep things in perspective. iii) Listening is critical for success in family life and among friends iv) Good listening will help you do well in school v) It will help you to know the relationships at work. vi) Listening helps to know the organization, especially to grapevine will help you to know what the members of staff think of the Co. policies and activities. vii) Listening helps to make better policies. You listen to subordinates carefully. You will know which policies are suitable for your organization. viii) Listening mollifies complaining patients and sympathetically, their anger will subside and they will leave mollified. ix) Listening helps to spot sensitive areas before they become explosive. x) Listening is important for the open-door policy. If managers listen then the open-door policy will make meaning. 54

WAYS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING i) Know when to listen. Intensity of listening should vary through out the session. ii) Concentrate on what a person is saying rather than on how he looks. iii) Repeat the key ideas to yourself particularly while listening to along lecture. iv) Try to relate the speaker’s remarks to your personal background and experience. v) Do not let your mind wander away from what the speaker is saying. Do not think of the pleasant or unpleasant experiences of your own. vi) Listen with a positive attitude. Many listeners fail to listen because they are mentally unprepared to listen. Listening ‘Spare time’ How to use it to your advantage. Stray thoughts may take you away from the speaker briefs, so you keep jumping out and jumping back, these excursions away from the speaker are dangerous. During such times try to do the following: a) Explore Try to anticipate what the speaker will say next – you are likely to understand the next point more. b) Analyze Analyze the speaker’s message as he makes arguments and defends assertions; c) Review When a speaker pauses try to review what he/she has just said. This will help you remember & understand. d) Search for hidden meanings. Listen between the lines for hidden meaning as the speaker progresses. E – Explore A – Analyze R – Review S – Search for hidden meanings Bad Listening habits i) Turning out dull topics Some listeners decide early on that a topic is not interesting, these decision leads to lack of attention and concentration. ii) Faking Attention We pretend to pay attention to listeners who fake attention look like they will wake up with a jerk of the head and a dazed look good listeners lean forward with interest and good eye contact and react in a natural way with smiles nods & questioning looks. iii) Yielding to distractions Peripheral noises or movements often affect our concentration a sneeze or a fall of a book may cause distraction. Avoid yielding to such distractions. iv) Criticizing delivery or physical appearance 55

A listener may abandon their good listening habits by being overly critical of the speaker’s physical appearance or delivery. v) Jumping to conclusions Try to be patient even if you think you know what the other person is going to say. Many listeners are quick to judge before they have carefully heard what the speaker meant. vi) Overreacting to emotional words If a speaker says a great point, you might experience a strong emotional reaction. This may block your ability to listen. vii)Interrupting Many people more of what they are going to say than what is being said. Contributions listeners make: - Process of listening involves paying attention organizing what you hear and remembering for both the short term and the long term. Listeners may add a vital element to communication feedback by listening responsively; you tell the speaker how to behave such as; to continue talking, back-up, to slow down, repeat, explain or stop. It is the responsibility of the listener to show the speaker what you think.

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How to contribute to listening i) Providing encouragement. Silence may be soothing at times among close friends but to most speakers it means boredom. You can add ‘uh – huh’ or oh? Or I see” ii) Asking for Explanations. When you ask questions you help the speaker make his message more understandable. You may ask ‘would you please clarify that?” “would you say that again?” – “I don’t understand what you mean?” iii) Paraphrasing the message: You repeating in your own words e.g. what I hear you saying is ------In other words your view is -------etc. iv) Summarizing the message You condense the important points into a brief comment e.g. “What you have said so far is ………..” Your key ideas as I understand it, are………….” v) Putting it down on paper. Taking notes automatically improves our attentiveness. It helps you focus on the highlights of what is being said.

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FIVE WAYS TO LISTEN: a) Appreciate Listening: We listen appreciatively when we enjoy music A bird’s song or the murmur of a brook (river) b) Discriminative listening when we want to single out one particular sound from a noisy environment e.g. when listening for a friend’s voice in a crowded room. iii) Comprehensive listening When we want to understand. When we listen to directions or instructions we use comprehensive listening. iv) Therapeutic Listening The style practiced by counselors psychiatrists and good friends, encourages people to talk freely without fear embarrassment. Friends act as our sounding boards. When we just want someone to listen. The therapeutic listener in conversation with a troubled friend accepts what is said and tries hard to understand and above all makes no judgments. v) Critical Listening These are the most active of all listeners. Try hard to decide whether what someone else says makes sense. Critical listeners evaluate what they hear and decide if another person’s message us logical, worthwhile, or has valve.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Identify the main technique in communication 2. In two paragraphs prepare a persuasive speech

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Mt Kenya

University Nairobi Centre

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION SCHOOL OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS BACHELOR OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT UNIT CODE: UCU 001 Date: ……………………
Instructions Answer ALL questions in Section A and any 2 in Section B

UNIT TITLE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS TIME: 3 HOURS

SECTION A 1. (a) You are in-charge of a Book – shop called Brilliant Books as an Assistant to the Manager Mrs. Maria Oketch. The Bookshop has rules about the staff. The contract says that all staff should wear black or dark blue trousers or skirts with a white shirt or blouse. Mrs. Oketch says to you, “I would like you to send a memo, to the staff supervisor, Mrs. Scola Kilonzi. I have noticed that some office staff have not been following the rules recently. Please remind her that the staff should follow the rules. I have seen some of the officers with long hair that is not pinned up, staff wearing trainers and not the correct shoes. I want you to mention in particular that a small amount of jewellery can be won, such as a ring but nothing too much. You’d better use my name in the memo”. Question Write a memo to, the staff supervisor, about the Company’s clothing rules and ask her to make sure that her staffs follow the rules. (10 Marks) (b) You are due to attend an interview for a job that you really care about. Explain the nonverbal communication signals that you will use to persuade your interviewers that you are the most suitable candidate for the job. (5 Marks) (c) Identify FIVE reasons that would hinder a prospective employer from hiring an interviewee inspite of having all the required Educational Qualifications. (5 Marks)

(d) Critically examine the communication process with reference to the Linear Model. (10 Marks)

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SECTION B Question 2 a. Explain in detail the reasons, why managers in Business would prefer to use face – to face communication when dealing with the staff. (10 Marks)

b. Besides writing, reading and speaking the listening skill is now widely recognized as an essential Management tool. Explain why listening is important in good Business Communication. (10 Marks) Question 3 a. Identify FIVE business situations in which good listening skills would be particularly significant (quote relevant examples). (10 Marks)

b.

To be able to effectively use a library one needs to know the functions of each section. Name and Explain the FIVE sections of a modern library. (10 Marks)

Question 4 (a) A week before the beginning of end of semester examinations, Dennis went to his girl-friends hostel room and found it locked with a warning on the door. “Brains at work”. Assuming she was revising, explain the steps for effective revision for an examination. (10 Marks)

(b) You have been asked to participate in the Induction training of a group of new sales staff. These new recruits have not had previous work experience, but will be vigorously trained in selling techniques. Your contribution to the induction is to deliver a presentation on presentation skills. (10 Marks) Question 5 (a) Produce a set of guidelines on the topic of “Effective Presentation” which could be given to the people attending your talk. Present the guidelines in such a way that it will be clear to your Assistant how you require the logout of guidelines to appear in a desktop published format (10 marks) (b) “Fear of Public speaking is believed to be the most common phobia in the world”. As a presenter of the above mentioned talk. Explain the methods you will apply to overcome this fear (10 Marks)

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Mt Kenya

University Nairobi Centre

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION SCHOOL OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS BACHELOR OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT MAIN EXAMINATION UNIT CODE: UCU 001 Date: ……………………
Instructions Answer ALL questions in Section A and any 2 in Section B

UNIT TITLE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS TIME: 3 HOURS

SECTION A

1. a. You are the Assistant Operations Manager of JOKAM Telecommunications Services. For the past two years, the Company’s’ profits have been going down. The management has asked you to investigate this situation and write a report. Assuming that you have completed your investigations, write the report in a schematic format (20 marks) b. As the Manager of KAZI NYINGI Company Limited, you have realized that a lot of communication amongst the employees occurs through the grapevine. Explain the steps you will take to limit this type of communication. (10 marks)
SECTION B

2. Assume that you are a second (2nd) year student at Mt. Kenya University and are in the process of writing your end of semester project paper. Critically describe the five methods you would use to collect data for this report (20 marks) 3. a) You have been an employee of Annex Company Limited. Stantech Manufacturing Company has offered you a better job. Write an appropriate letter to your current boss informing him about this (10 marks)

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b) We can communicate an idea around the world in seventy seconds, but it sometimes takes years for an idea to get through a human brain. This statement refers to poor listening skills. i. Briefly explain how a receiver can make the work of a presenter effective (5 marks) ii. What are the possible barriers to listening (5 marks)

4. A) To be able to effectively use a library, one needs to know the functions of each section. Name and briefly explain five sections of a modern library. (10 marks) b) In the course of looking for information for an assignment, you consult the sources given below, which are not presented in a convectional bibliography. How would you reflect the sources in your bibliography? i. A book published by Pilgrims Publications of Canterbury in 1988. It’s title is designer writing by A. E. Brookes ii. An article in the Daily Nation that appeared on Saturday November 20th 2009 in pages 2 and 3. iii. A book entitled note-taking for Advanced Learners published in London in 1983 by Adkins A and others. iv. Two books authored by Newton J. one of the books is published by Oxford Printing London Press in 1977 and is entitled English Phonology. The second book is entitled Fish Farming, published in 1960 by Macmillan Publishers Limited (10 marks) 5. a) Distinguish between a formal meeting and an informal meeting (10 marks) b. Identify and explain in detail five basic documents that are prepared for formal meetings (10 marks)

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