Comparing Hobbes And Machiavelli's Theories Of Knowledge
When comparing Hobbes,’ Sandel’s and Machiavelli’s viewpoints regarding which of Aristotle’s three main categories of knowledge is the most significant for establishing good political systems or making good political decisions, one must consider what each theorists considers to be a good political system and create a link between the two. The most important category of knowledge for establishing and making good political systems for Aristotle is practical knowledge, the purpose of politics is to produce good, virtuous citizens, the law promotes just actions, purpose of legislators is to establish good laws. The most important category of knowledge for Hobbes is scientific knowledge, the absolute sovereign represents the commonwealth of its citizens, the absolute sovereign must uphold their self preservation, and all laws
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created by the supreme leader are considered just. The most important category of knowledge for Sandel is craft knowledge, justice involves improving virtue and reason regarding the common good, justice will never be neutral, and for the government to allow the citizens to have disagreements about what is right and wrong. The most important category of knowledge for Machiavelli is craft knowledge, a prince must try to be good for as long as he can but have the knowledge of evil, a good prince will ensure citizens are dependent on the state, and having the skills to be a good prince.
Aristotle’s scientific knowledge is one that can be taught, hence all things scientific are can be demonstrated. According to the text, “it is when someone is convinced in a certain way and the starting points are known to him that he has scientific knowledge… there are starting points from which deduction proceeds that are not reached by deduction, hence induction must provide them.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.100) It is also everlasting, the test states, “what admits of being known scientifically is by necessity, hence it is eternal, for all things that are unconditionally necessary are all eternal, and eternal things cannot come to be or pass away.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.100) Scientific knowledge was derived from the Greek word epitome, which means to know, and can exist without humans. This specific knowledge is knowledge that is viewed as actuality.
He defines craft knowledge as one that involves reasoning, more specifically a craft is viewed as an effective mindset involving true reason. However, he insists that production and action are conflicting, it is essential craft only deal with production but not with action. The text states, “coming to be, that is, with crafting things and getting a theoretical; grasp on how something may come to be that admits of being and of not being and whose starting-point is in the producer and not of the product.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.101) Craft knowledge was derived from the Greek word techne, which means craftsman or skill worker. This specific knowledge is knowledge that involves humans, and regards how to be skillful or comprehensible.
Aristotle’s practical knowledge differs from scientific knowledge because what is doable in action admits is not considered wise, and is not craft knowledge because action and production are differing. Practical knowledge is considered an authentic state involving reason, the text states, “ people of that sort to be practically wise because they have a theoretical grasp on what is good for themselves and for human beings and practical.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.102) Practical knowledge is derived from the Greek word Phronesis, which means practical wisdom. This specific knowledge deals with making decisions, and being accountable for what is either good or bad for human life.
Aristotle would choose practical knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because he believes that the role of politics is to habituate people to be virtuous, as the book states, “politics to be the best end….producing citizens to be good people and doers of noble actions”(Aristotle, 2014, p.14) According to Aristotle it is the legislator’s job to determine what is good for the rest of the population, and establish just laws. According to the text Aristotle views politicians as individuals who have a theoretical grasp on what is good for themselves and for human beings, therefore, are able to produce laws that will help them reach their telos. Practical knowledge regards making decisions about what is either good or bad for human life, and Aristotle believes legislators are just individuals that create just laws, therefore, they comprise a good political system and establish good decisions by creating those laws.
Hobbes would choose scientific knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because the absolute sovereign creates laws that are always considered just even if they are not, and must upheld by the citizens.
The text states, “be the proclaimed author of everything that their existing sovereign does and judges fit to be done….nothing the sovereign does can wrong any of his subjects, nor ought any of them to accuse him of injustice.” (Hobbes, 2004, p. 80) Hobbes believes that to avoid the state of nature, every man versus every man, an absolute sovereign must govern the people to ensure there are no disagreements. According to Hobbes the absolute sovereign is the starting point of all laws and is given this power by the citizens, the text states “the authority that has been given to ‘this man’ by every individual man in the commonwealth, he has conferred on him the use of so much power and strength that people’s fear of it enables him to harmonize and control the wills of them all.” The sovereign was chosen to represent the will of the people, and knows what is best for
them.
Sandel would choose practical knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because citizens needs to realize what types of morals they connect to, and how they will react when faced with difficult questions regarding justice, inequality and the common good. The text states, the moral worth of the ends we pursue, the meaning and significance of the lives we lead, and the quality and character of the common life we share all lie beyond the domain of justice.” (Sandel, 2009, p. 261) He believes that society needs to have disagreements and make their opinions public to create a better society, according to the text, “ a politics of moral engagement is not only a more inspiring ideal than a politics of avoidance, it is also a more promising basis for a just society.” (Sandel, 2009, p. 269) Sandel believes that in order to realize what is good for society, individuals need to realize that justice will never be neutral, and the only way to figure out how to define justice one must know their personal morals.
Machiavelli would choose craft knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because a prince needs a certain skill set to be considered a good prince. The text states, “find it necessary to guard against enemies and win friends, to overcome by force or fraud, to make himself loved and feared by the people, followed and respected by his troops- if you have to destroy those who can or might hurt you, revamp old laws with new measure, be severe and indulgent, magnanimous and liberal, disband old armies and replace them with new.” (Machiavelli, 1992, p. 23) To ensure his land nor his people do not overthrow him he must ensure they are dependable on the state, however, to ensure that a prince must make sure not to become hated, the text states, “what makes him hated above all is his confiscating the property of his subject or taking their women..if you don’t touch their property or their honor, will live contentedly.” (Machiavelli, 1992, p. 50) Machiavelli believes that in order to be a good prince, one must be knowledgable of both good and evil because throughout his principality he will encounter more bad than good, a good prince will be able to understand humans and beasts.
Although each theorist has different viewpoints on what constitutes as a good political system and how to sustain it, they have multiple things in common when it comes to the need for a government. The main comparison between Aristotle, Hobbes, Sandel and Machiavelli have is that there has to be some sort of ruling body, government or superior leader, to rule civilians to ensure human life survives. Each believe that there individuals cannot live without a government because they will revert to the state of nature, not reach their telos, continue to believe justice is neutral, or erupt in chaos. For example, Aristotle states that it is the legislators role to promote good virtuous citizens, without any type of government the inhabitants are not able to reach their telos nor be virtuous. Hobbes states that an absolute sovereign role to ensure self preservation and establish laws for the citizens to follow, without a supreme leader they will revert back to the state of nature. Sandel states that a government is needed to allow individuals to have disputes regarding justice and what is right for the common good, without a government justice will never prevail. Machiavelli states that a prince is needed to rule over a body and it is their duty to protect them from being overtaken by other princes, without a prince chaos would erupt. . Each theorist does not think humans can live in peace with one another without some sort of ruler or someone who makes decisions society must follow.
Another similarity between Aristotle, Hobbes, Sandel and Machiavelli is that each ideology needs a type of knowledge to carry out their specific viewpoints on the best way to run a society. Each type of ruler is not all knowing when they rise to power, they must be knowledgeable in order to protect and uphold their society. In order for legislators to establish virtuous laws, they must first understand what is good for themselves as well as what is good for everyone else. Practical knowledge would help legislators realize what is best for society and use true reason to uphold the common good. In order for an absolute sovereign to represent the commonwealth they have to teach the society their laws and ensure that their laws are seen as the truth. Scientific knowledge would help the absolute sovereign establish eternal laws that are upheld by its citizens, regardless if they are just or unjust. In order for citizens to realize that justice cannot be neutral and that morals play a huge part in their decision making they must realize what is best for themselves using true reason. Practical knowledge would help individuals realize what is best for the surrounding society by first understanding what they consider to be good. In order for citizens to be ruled by a good prince the prince needs to establish the correct skill set. Craft knowledge would help a prince to see how the ends justify the means but overlooking the process of staying a prince.
When comparing Sandel’s, Hobbes’ and Moore’s viewpoints regarding which of Aristotle’s three main categories of knowledge is the most significant for establishing good political systems or making good political decisions, one must consider what each theorists considers to be a good political system and create a link between the two. Although multiple theorists could use two forms of knowledge I linked Aristotle to practical knowledge, Hobbes to scientific knowledge, Sandel to practical knowledge, and Machiavelli to craft knowledge. Each political theorist represents a different way to rule a society, and how which type of knowledge their ruler needs to to impose their power.
created by the supreme leader are considered just. The most important category of knowledge for Sandel is craft knowledge, justice involves improving virtue and reason regarding the common good, justice will never be neutral, and for the government to allow the citizens to have disagreements about what is right and wrong. The most important category of knowledge for Machiavelli is craft knowledge, a prince must try to be good for as long as he can but have the knowledge of evil, a good prince will ensure citizens are dependent on the state, and having the skills to be a good prince.
Aristotle’s scientific knowledge is one that can be taught, hence all things scientific are can be demonstrated. According to the text, “it is when someone is convinced in a certain way and the starting points are known to him that he has scientific knowledge… there are starting points from which deduction proceeds that are not reached by deduction, hence induction must provide them.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.100) It is also everlasting, the test states, “what admits of being known scientifically is by necessity, hence it is eternal, for all things that are unconditionally necessary are all eternal, and eternal things cannot come to be or pass away.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.100) Scientific knowledge was derived from the Greek word epitome, which means to know, and can exist without humans. This specific knowledge is knowledge that is viewed as actuality.
He defines craft knowledge as one that involves reasoning, more specifically a craft is viewed as an effective mindset involving true reason. However, he insists that production and action are conflicting, it is essential craft only deal with production but not with action. The text states, “coming to be, that is, with crafting things and getting a theoretical; grasp on how something may come to be that admits of being and of not being and whose starting-point is in the producer and not of the product.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.101) Craft knowledge was derived from the Greek word techne, which means craftsman or skill worker. This specific knowledge is knowledge that involves humans, and regards how to be skillful or comprehensible.
Aristotle’s practical knowledge differs from scientific knowledge because what is doable in action admits is not considered wise, and is not craft knowledge because action and production are differing. Practical knowledge is considered an authentic state involving reason, the text states, “ people of that sort to be practically wise because they have a theoretical grasp on what is good for themselves and for human beings and practical.” (Aristotle, 2014, p.102) Practical knowledge is derived from the Greek word Phronesis, which means practical wisdom. This specific knowledge deals with making decisions, and being accountable for what is either good or bad for human life.
Aristotle would choose practical knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because he believes that the role of politics is to habituate people to be virtuous, as the book states, “politics to be the best end….producing citizens to be good people and doers of noble actions”(Aristotle, 2014, p.14) According to Aristotle it is the legislator’s job to determine what is good for the rest of the population, and establish just laws. According to the text Aristotle views politicians as individuals who have a theoretical grasp on what is good for themselves and for human beings, therefore, are able to produce laws that will help them reach their telos. Practical knowledge regards making decisions about what is either good or bad for human life, and Aristotle believes legislators are just individuals that create just laws, therefore, they comprise a good political system and establish good decisions by creating those laws.
Hobbes would choose scientific knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because the absolute sovereign creates laws that are always considered just even if they are not, and must upheld by the citizens.
The text states, “be the proclaimed author of everything that their existing sovereign does and judges fit to be done….nothing the sovereign does can wrong any of his subjects, nor ought any of them to accuse him of injustice.” (Hobbes, 2004, p. 80) Hobbes believes that to avoid the state of nature, every man versus every man, an absolute sovereign must govern the people to ensure there are no disagreements. According to Hobbes the absolute sovereign is the starting point of all laws and is given this power by the citizens, the text states “the authority that has been given to ‘this man’ by every individual man in the commonwealth, he has conferred on him the use of so much power and strength that people’s fear of it enables him to harmonize and control the wills of them all.” The sovereign was chosen to represent the will of the people, and knows what is best for
them.
Sandel would choose practical knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because citizens needs to realize what types of morals they connect to, and how they will react when faced with difficult questions regarding justice, inequality and the common good. The text states, the moral worth of the ends we pursue, the meaning and significance of the lives we lead, and the quality and character of the common life we share all lie beyond the domain of justice.” (Sandel, 2009, p. 261) He believes that society needs to have disagreements and make their opinions public to create a better society, according to the text, “ a politics of moral engagement is not only a more inspiring ideal than a politics of avoidance, it is also a more promising basis for a just society.” (Sandel, 2009, p. 269) Sandel believes that in order to realize what is good for society, individuals need to realize that justice will never be neutral, and the only way to figure out how to define justice one must know their personal morals.
Machiavelli would choose craft knowledge as the most important type of knowledge to establish good political systems and make good political decisions because a prince needs a certain skill set to be considered a good prince. The text states, “find it necessary to guard against enemies and win friends, to overcome by force or fraud, to make himself loved and feared by the people, followed and respected by his troops- if you have to destroy those who can or might hurt you, revamp old laws with new measure, be severe and indulgent, magnanimous and liberal, disband old armies and replace them with new.” (Machiavelli, 1992, p. 23) To ensure his land nor his people do not overthrow him he must ensure they are dependable on the state, however, to ensure that a prince must make sure not to become hated, the text states, “what makes him hated above all is his confiscating the property of his subject or taking their women..if you don’t touch their property or their honor, will live contentedly.” (Machiavelli, 1992, p. 50) Machiavelli believes that in order to be a good prince, one must be knowledgable of both good and evil because throughout his principality he will encounter more bad than good, a good prince will be able to understand humans and beasts.
Although each theorist has different viewpoints on what constitutes as a good political system and how to sustain it, they have multiple things in common when it comes to the need for a government. The main comparison between Aristotle, Hobbes, Sandel and Machiavelli have is that there has to be some sort of ruling body, government or superior leader, to rule civilians to ensure human life survives. Each believe that there individuals cannot live without a government because they will revert to the state of nature, not reach their telos, continue to believe justice is neutral, or erupt in chaos. For example, Aristotle states that it is the legislators role to promote good virtuous citizens, without any type of government the inhabitants are not able to reach their telos nor be virtuous. Hobbes states that an absolute sovereign role to ensure self preservation and establish laws for the citizens to follow, without a supreme leader they will revert back to the state of nature. Sandel states that a government is needed to allow individuals to have disputes regarding justice and what is right for the common good, without a government justice will never prevail. Machiavelli states that a prince is needed to rule over a body and it is their duty to protect them from being overtaken by other princes, without a prince chaos would erupt. . Each theorist does not think humans can live in peace with one another without some sort of ruler or someone who makes decisions society must follow.
Another similarity between Aristotle, Hobbes, Sandel and Machiavelli is that each ideology needs a type of knowledge to carry out their specific viewpoints on the best way to run a society. Each type of ruler is not all knowing when they rise to power, they must be knowledgeable in order to protect and uphold their society. In order for legislators to establish virtuous laws, they must first understand what is good for themselves as well as what is good for everyone else. Practical knowledge would help legislators realize what is best for society and use true reason to uphold the common good. In order for an absolute sovereign to represent the commonwealth they have to teach the society their laws and ensure that their laws are seen as the truth. Scientific knowledge would help the absolute sovereign establish eternal laws that are upheld by its citizens, regardless if they are just or unjust. In order for citizens to realize that justice cannot be neutral and that morals play a huge part in their decision making they must realize what is best for themselves using true reason. Practical knowledge would help individuals realize what is best for the surrounding society by first understanding what they consider to be good. In order for citizens to be ruled by a good prince the prince needs to establish the correct skill set. Craft knowledge would help a prince to see how the ends justify the means but overlooking the process of staying a prince.
When comparing Sandel’s, Hobbes’ and Moore’s viewpoints regarding which of Aristotle’s three main categories of knowledge is the most significant for establishing good political systems or making good political decisions, one must consider what each theorists considers to be a good political system and create a link between the two. Although multiple theorists could use two forms of knowledge I linked Aristotle to practical knowledge, Hobbes to scientific knowledge, Sandel to practical knowledge, and Machiavelli to craft knowledge. Each political theorist represents a different way to rule a society, and how which type of knowledge their ruler needs to to impose their power.