Criminology: The Multidisciplinary Study Of Crime
Criminology can be defined as the multidisciplinary study of crime (Bartol, 1999, p. 3). As the definition suggests, many disciplines are involved in the collection of knowledge about crime, including psychology, sociology, psychiatry, anthropology, biology, neurology, political science and economics (Bartol, 1999 p. 4). Over the years criminology has been dominated by three disciplines - sociology, psychology and biology. Criminology needs all the help it can get in its struggle to understand, explain and prevent criminal behaviour and an integration of the data, theory and general viewpoints of each discipline is crucial (Bartol, 1999 pg. 4).
While interest in crime has always been high, understanding of why it occurs and what to do about …show more content…
it has always been a problem. Public officials, politicians and 'experts ' offer simple and incomplete solutions for obliterating crime, whereas academe invariably offers abstract interpretations and suggestions that often have little practical value. As in most areas of human behaviour, there is no shortage of experts but there are very few effective solutions (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p.52)
Criminologists develop theories and conduct research to understand and explain criminal behaviour.
A theory attempts to make sense out of many disparate observations (or facts) by stating a general principal that connects, integrates and explains them. A good theory is extremely valuable in that it extends our knowledge beyond the facts in front of us (the raw data), enabling us to predict how others might behave at another time and in another place (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p. 33). Criminological theories based on biology, psychology were both, at one stage dominant in the field, however the vast majority of current criminological text employs sociological theory and research. Biological and psychological explanations will be examined in the following essay, however there will be a focus on sociological …show more content…
theory.
Criminology not only progresses by the development of coherent and comprehensive theories about crime and its causes but also by the systematic collection and analysis of observations about the social world in relation to those theories (Jupp, 1989 p.25). Generally, data is generated by different forms of data collection and examined by different forms of data analysis. The variety of data is, in part a reflection of the diversity of problems addressed and the overabundance of aspects of such problems which are exposed for investigation by different theoretical approaches (Jupp, 1989 p. 25). Any given instance of criminological research represents a particular constellation between problem, theory and method, and the data which is used is the outcomes of that constellation. This essay will also look at the research procedure and its three phases: the research question or problem, the research and information gathering method, and interpreting the results from the gathered information.
Biological explanations of crime assert that particular individuals are more prone to deviance than others because of their genetic makeup (Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn, 1996 p.514). These explanations of human behaviour became popular in the nineteenth century. An Italian army doctor; Cesare Lombroso was one of the first writers to link crime to human biology. He argued that criminals were throwbacks to an earlier and more primitive form of human being. He claimed to have identified a number of genetically determined characteristics which were often found in criminals. These included large jaws; high cheekbones; large ears; extra nipples, toes and fingers; and an insensitivity to pain. According to Lombroso, these were some of the outward signs of an inborn criminal nature (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p.408). Later research found no support for Lombroso 's view of the criminal as a biological abnormality (Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn, 1996 p.514).
There is still some support for physiological theories of crime (Harambolos et al. p. 515), but many, if not most contemporary criminologists would agree that though genetics may play a role in criminality it is most likely only an insignificant one. There is little doubt that environment is the principle determinant and cause of criminal behaviour (Bartol, 1999 p. 48).
It has been said that a theory of criminal conduct is weak indeed if it is uninformed by a general psychology of human behaviour (Andrews & Bonta, 1994 p.69).
Psychological theories of criminology share several similarities with biological theories. Firstly, they see criminals as different from the population as a whole. Second, the criminal is abnormal in a normal population. Third, the criminal 's abnormality predispose him to crime (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p. 409). However, they differ in the respect that psychological theories of criminality claim that the criminal 's abnormality is learned as opposed to being genetically determined. They see abnormal experience rather than abnormal genes as the basis for crime. (Bartol, 1999 p.113).
It is proposed that this 'abnormal experience ' produces character defects and maladjusted personalities (Moghaddam, 1998, p.444). Psychological theories often suggest that something has gone wrong in the socialization process, usually in the mother-child relationship. This defective socialization involves emotional disturbance which leads to the formation of maladjusted personality traits. Early childhood experience, it is claimed, can have a lasting effect on adolescent and adult behaviour (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p. 411). This was a view held by John Bowlby (1946). He maintained that children needed emotional security during the first seven years of their lives, which was most effectively provided by a close, loving, intimate relationship with the natural mother. If a child was deprived of motherly love during its first seven years, a psychopathic personality could develop. (Harambolos et al. p. 516).
In the nineteenth century and for most of the twentieth, attempts to understand and explain crime were for a long time dominated by (the aforementioned) biological and psychological explanations. It wasn 't really until the 1950s that a serious sociological challenge to these individualistic explanations became firmly established (Bilton, Bonnet, Jones, Skinner, Stanworth & Webster, 1996 p.450). Sociological criminology examines the relationships of demographic and group variables to crime (Bartol, 1999 p. 4). These variables, such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships and ethnic-cultural affiliation have been shown to have significant relationships with certain categories and patterns of crimes. Sociological criminology for example has allowed us to conclude that young, african-american males from disadvantaged backgrounds are disproportionately overrepresented as perpetrators and victims of homicide (Bourne and Russo, 1998, p. 338). It differs from psychological criminology in the respect that sociological criminology focuses on groups and society as a whole, whereas psychological criminology focuses on individual criminal behaviour (Bartol, 1999 p.4).
No one sociological theory of crime has 'won out ' over this period and no 'knock out blow ' has been delivered which would allow us to consign some of them to the sidelines (Downes, 1999 p.234). Most analytical texts divide these theories into three categories: strain theories, interactionist theories and control theories.
Strain theories contend that human beings are fundamentally conformists who are strongly influenced by the values and attitudes of the society in which they live. According to strain theory, American society advocates that the accumulation of wealth or status is all important and represents the symbols that that all members of society should strive for (Bartol, 1999 p.2). Furthermore it states that humans, being conformists readily buy into these notions. However, access to the means for achieving these goals are not equally available to everyone. Some have the education, social network and family influence to attain these goals. The socially and economically disadvantaged do not have the opportunity, education or necessary social network for attaining material wealth and economic or political power. Thus the strain theory predicts that crime occurs when there is a perceived discrepancy between these goals and the legitimate means for reaching them. Individuals who experience a high level of this strain are forced to decide whether to violate laws to achieve these goals, to give up on the goals pushed upon them by society, or to withdraw or rebel (Bartol, 1999, p.52).
Interactionist theories stress the socially constructed nature of identity and the consequent importance of labeling processes for some persons and groups becoming deviant (Downes, 1988 p.
235). According to Herbert Blumer, symbolic interactionism rests on three premises - the first being that human beings act towards things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them. The second premise is that the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one 's fellows. The third premise is that these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters (Blumer 1969 cited in Hester and Egline, 1992
p.11).
Control theories stress the significance of controls against deviance. They are often divided into those of social kind; for example when accompanying children to school or keeping tabs on who they are playing with, and those of a situational kind; for example locking our doors at night (Downes, 1999 p.242). Instead of specifying different motives to account for crime or concentrating on the adverse effects of labeling, control theories contend that without rules or laws that draw punishment or retaliation if broken, humans would commit crime indiscriminately. They suggest that all people have the potential to commit crime (Bartol, 1999 p. 496).
Research in criminology is conducted for the purpose of understanding criminal behaviour. If we can understand the behaviour, we will have a better chance of predicting when it will occur and then be able to take steps to control, eliminate or prevent the behaviour Reid, 1985, cited in Hester and Egline, 1992). Good research has a specific question and seeks to assess factual evidence before coming to conclusions. In order to achieve these aims, it is necessary to have sound research procedures and the ability to accurately analyze the material. The research process usually involves three phases: the research question or problem, the research and information gathering method, and interpreting the results from the gathered information.
All research starts from a research problem. This may sometimes be mainly an area of factual ignorance, therefore research is conducted to fill in the gap in our understanding (Giddens, 1990 p. 660). Good research not only shows that certain things do or do not occur, it also explains why they do (or do not) occur. Criminological, like all research, does not stand alone. A research problem is usually a part of ongoing work. For example one research question often leads to another because it raises previously unconsidered issues.
Once a research problem is formulated, the method of research must be decided. A wide range of data is used to assist in the field of criminology, data being the results of various different methods of research. There are numerous scientific methods that can be applied to hypotheses about crime or criminal behaviour. Criminological research has four main methods, namely field work, surveys, documentary research and experiments.
Field work, as the name implies is conducted in the real world - the researcher spends lengthy periods of time with the group being studied. Field work has an advantage over research conducted in a laboratory setting in that, results from field work, being conducted in the 'real world ', if valid can be applied in other similar situations. This may not be the case for laboratory experiments. However, research conducted in a laboratory setting has the advantage of being able to more closely control variables. Field experiments have played a central role in the evaluation of policies of crime control, prevention and treatment (Jupp, 1989 p.48).
Another main method of criminological research is conducting surveys. It has been suggested that surveys take three forms - factual surveys which obtain descriptive information about society and in the case of criminology, criminal behaviour. Secondly, there are attitudinal surveys, which seek information about people 's opinions and attitudes and thirdly, explanatory surveys which seek to obtain information that can be used to test hypothesis and theories or produce new theories (Pearce, 1990 p.29).
Often field work and survey research involve some scrutiny of documentary material. Documentary research is the systematic use of printed or written materials for investigation and is, in one form or another, one of the most widely used of all methods of gathering sociological data. (Giddens, 1990 p.675). The documents used in research virtually always include information and findings produced by previous writers in the field in question. Many investigations are as much concerned with collecting together and analysing materials from the work of others as with generating wholly new data (Giddens 1990 p. 676).
Experiments try to determine whether there is a causal connection between variables by creating conditions in which the only difference between groups is experience with the independent variable (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p. 49) . As was noted before, experiments have major advantages over other research procedures in that the experimenter can directly control the relevant variables.
Once the method of research has been selected and carried out, the results of the research must be interpreted. The gathered material needs to be analyzed and related back to the problem which prompted the study. Working out the implications of the collected data and relating them back to the research problem is often not easy - while it may be possible to reach a clear answer to the research question, many investigations in the end are less than fully conclusive.(Giddens 1990 p. 662)
The study of crime, called criminology, is a multidisciplinary enterprise with various disciplines (for example sociology, psychiatry, psychology, anthropology, genetics, biopsychology, economics, political science, history) examining the different levels of explanation from different perspectives. The vast majority of current criminological texts focus on sociological theories and research on crime (Bartol, 1999 p. ix).
Criminologists develop theories and conduct research in an attempt to explain criminal behaviour. Theories organize individual observations and facts and puts them into a context that gives them special meaning and relationship to one another. Theories may arise from many sources, including a criminologist 's personal observations or hunches, empirical findings from prior studies or even extensions of another theory, but there is no one grand criminological theory that will explain criminal behaviour which will in turn be able to prevent it.
The variety of method in criminological research is partly due to the wide range of theories that are existent. Much criminological research shows a close and often mutual exchange between theory and method, with theory suggesting lines of research action and data obtained from research that indicate ways in which the theory needs refinement or even abandonment (Jupp, 1989 p.83)
Adequate theory, well executed research and effective application of knowledge to the crime problem requires and understanding of the many levels of events that influence a person 's life course - from the individual to the family, peers, schools, neighbourhoods, community, culture and of course, society as a whole. Though it is not likely that we will ever live in a society completely devoid of crime, criminology attempts to find reasons and explanations for criminal behaviour and then applies these theories to solving and preventing crime.
References
Andrews, D & Bonta, J. (1994). Understanding Through Theory: Psychodynamic and
Control Theory. In The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (Ch5 pp.69-91)
Cincinatti, Ohio: Anderson Publishers.
Bartol, C. (1999) Criminal Behaviour: A Psychosocial Approach New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Bourne, L. & Russo, N. (1998) Psychology Behaviour In Context, New York: W.W.
Norton & Company, Inc.
Bilton, T., Bonnett, K., Jones, P., Skinner, D., Stanworth, M., & Webster, A. (1996).
Introductory Sociology. London: Macmillan.
Downes, D. (1999). Sociology Issues and Debates. London: Macmillan.
Giddens, A. (1990). Sociology. Oxford: Polity Press.
Haralambos, M. & Heald, R. (1981) Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Slough:
University Tutorial Press.
Haralambos, M., van Krieken, R., Smith, P. & Holborn, M. (1996). Sociology
Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman.
References
Hester, S., & Egline, p. (1992). Sociology of Crime. London: Routledge.
Jupp, V. (1989). Methods of Criminological Research. London: Routledge.
Moghaddam, F. (1998). Social Psychology. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Pearce, M. (1990). Sociology Textbook. London: HLT Publications.
While interest in crime has always been high, understanding of why it occurs and what to do about …show more content…
it has always been a problem. Public officials, politicians and 'experts ' offer simple and incomplete solutions for obliterating crime, whereas academe invariably offers abstract interpretations and suggestions that often have little practical value. As in most areas of human behaviour, there is no shortage of experts but there are very few effective solutions (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p.52)
Criminologists develop theories and conduct research to understand and explain criminal behaviour.
A theory attempts to make sense out of many disparate observations (or facts) by stating a general principal that connects, integrates and explains them. A good theory is extremely valuable in that it extends our knowledge beyond the facts in front of us (the raw data), enabling us to predict how others might behave at another time and in another place (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p. 33). Criminological theories based on biology, psychology were both, at one stage dominant in the field, however the vast majority of current criminological text employs sociological theory and research. Biological and psychological explanations will be examined in the following essay, however there will be a focus on sociological …show more content…
theory.
Criminology not only progresses by the development of coherent and comprehensive theories about crime and its causes but also by the systematic collection and analysis of observations about the social world in relation to those theories (Jupp, 1989 p.25). Generally, data is generated by different forms of data collection and examined by different forms of data analysis. The variety of data is, in part a reflection of the diversity of problems addressed and the overabundance of aspects of such problems which are exposed for investigation by different theoretical approaches (Jupp, 1989 p. 25). Any given instance of criminological research represents a particular constellation between problem, theory and method, and the data which is used is the outcomes of that constellation. This essay will also look at the research procedure and its three phases: the research question or problem, the research and information gathering method, and interpreting the results from the gathered information.
Biological explanations of crime assert that particular individuals are more prone to deviance than others because of their genetic makeup (Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn, 1996 p.514). These explanations of human behaviour became popular in the nineteenth century. An Italian army doctor; Cesare Lombroso was one of the first writers to link crime to human biology. He argued that criminals were throwbacks to an earlier and more primitive form of human being. He claimed to have identified a number of genetically determined characteristics which were often found in criminals. These included large jaws; high cheekbones; large ears; extra nipples, toes and fingers; and an insensitivity to pain. According to Lombroso, these were some of the outward signs of an inborn criminal nature (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p.408). Later research found no support for Lombroso 's view of the criminal as a biological abnormality (Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn, 1996 p.514).
There is still some support for physiological theories of crime (Harambolos et al. p. 515), but many, if not most contemporary criminologists would agree that though genetics may play a role in criminality it is most likely only an insignificant one. There is little doubt that environment is the principle determinant and cause of criminal behaviour (Bartol, 1999 p. 48).
It has been said that a theory of criminal conduct is weak indeed if it is uninformed by a general psychology of human behaviour (Andrews & Bonta, 1994 p.69).
Psychological theories of criminology share several similarities with biological theories. Firstly, they see criminals as different from the population as a whole. Second, the criminal is abnormal in a normal population. Third, the criminal 's abnormality predispose him to crime (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p. 409). However, they differ in the respect that psychological theories of criminality claim that the criminal 's abnormality is learned as opposed to being genetically determined. They see abnormal experience rather than abnormal genes as the basis for crime. (Bartol, 1999 p.113).
It is proposed that this 'abnormal experience ' produces character defects and maladjusted personalities (Moghaddam, 1998, p.444). Psychological theories often suggest that something has gone wrong in the socialization process, usually in the mother-child relationship. This defective socialization involves emotional disturbance which leads to the formation of maladjusted personality traits. Early childhood experience, it is claimed, can have a lasting effect on adolescent and adult behaviour (Harambolos & Heald, 1980, p. 411). This was a view held by John Bowlby (1946). He maintained that children needed emotional security during the first seven years of their lives, which was most effectively provided by a close, loving, intimate relationship with the natural mother. If a child was deprived of motherly love during its first seven years, a psychopathic personality could develop. (Harambolos et al. p. 516).
In the nineteenth century and for most of the twentieth, attempts to understand and explain crime were for a long time dominated by (the aforementioned) biological and psychological explanations. It wasn 't really until the 1950s that a serious sociological challenge to these individualistic explanations became firmly established (Bilton, Bonnet, Jones, Skinner, Stanworth & Webster, 1996 p.450). Sociological criminology examines the relationships of demographic and group variables to crime (Bartol, 1999 p. 4). These variables, such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships and ethnic-cultural affiliation have been shown to have significant relationships with certain categories and patterns of crimes. Sociological criminology for example has allowed us to conclude that young, african-american males from disadvantaged backgrounds are disproportionately overrepresented as perpetrators and victims of homicide (Bourne and Russo, 1998, p. 338). It differs from psychological criminology in the respect that sociological criminology focuses on groups and society as a whole, whereas psychological criminology focuses on individual criminal behaviour (Bartol, 1999 p.4).
No one sociological theory of crime has 'won out ' over this period and no 'knock out blow ' has been delivered which would allow us to consign some of them to the sidelines (Downes, 1999 p.234). Most analytical texts divide these theories into three categories: strain theories, interactionist theories and control theories.
Strain theories contend that human beings are fundamentally conformists who are strongly influenced by the values and attitudes of the society in which they live. According to strain theory, American society advocates that the accumulation of wealth or status is all important and represents the symbols that that all members of society should strive for (Bartol, 1999 p.2). Furthermore it states that humans, being conformists readily buy into these notions. However, access to the means for achieving these goals are not equally available to everyone. Some have the education, social network and family influence to attain these goals. The socially and economically disadvantaged do not have the opportunity, education or necessary social network for attaining material wealth and economic or political power. Thus the strain theory predicts that crime occurs when there is a perceived discrepancy between these goals and the legitimate means for reaching them. Individuals who experience a high level of this strain are forced to decide whether to violate laws to achieve these goals, to give up on the goals pushed upon them by society, or to withdraw or rebel (Bartol, 1999, p.52).
Interactionist theories stress the socially constructed nature of identity and the consequent importance of labeling processes for some persons and groups becoming deviant (Downes, 1988 p.
235). According to Herbert Blumer, symbolic interactionism rests on three premises - the first being that human beings act towards things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them. The second premise is that the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one 's fellows. The third premise is that these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters (Blumer 1969 cited in Hester and Egline, 1992
p.11).
Control theories stress the significance of controls against deviance. They are often divided into those of social kind; for example when accompanying children to school or keeping tabs on who they are playing with, and those of a situational kind; for example locking our doors at night (Downes, 1999 p.242). Instead of specifying different motives to account for crime or concentrating on the adverse effects of labeling, control theories contend that without rules or laws that draw punishment or retaliation if broken, humans would commit crime indiscriminately. They suggest that all people have the potential to commit crime (Bartol, 1999 p. 496).
Research in criminology is conducted for the purpose of understanding criminal behaviour. If we can understand the behaviour, we will have a better chance of predicting when it will occur and then be able to take steps to control, eliminate or prevent the behaviour Reid, 1985, cited in Hester and Egline, 1992). Good research has a specific question and seeks to assess factual evidence before coming to conclusions. In order to achieve these aims, it is necessary to have sound research procedures and the ability to accurately analyze the material. The research process usually involves three phases: the research question or problem, the research and information gathering method, and interpreting the results from the gathered information.
All research starts from a research problem. This may sometimes be mainly an area of factual ignorance, therefore research is conducted to fill in the gap in our understanding (Giddens, 1990 p. 660). Good research not only shows that certain things do or do not occur, it also explains why they do (or do not) occur. Criminological, like all research, does not stand alone. A research problem is usually a part of ongoing work. For example one research question often leads to another because it raises previously unconsidered issues.
Once a research problem is formulated, the method of research must be decided. A wide range of data is used to assist in the field of criminology, data being the results of various different methods of research. There are numerous scientific methods that can be applied to hypotheses about crime or criminal behaviour. Criminological research has four main methods, namely field work, surveys, documentary research and experiments.
Field work, as the name implies is conducted in the real world - the researcher spends lengthy periods of time with the group being studied. Field work has an advantage over research conducted in a laboratory setting in that, results from field work, being conducted in the 'real world ', if valid can be applied in other similar situations. This may not be the case for laboratory experiments. However, research conducted in a laboratory setting has the advantage of being able to more closely control variables. Field experiments have played a central role in the evaluation of policies of crime control, prevention and treatment (Jupp, 1989 p.48).
Another main method of criminological research is conducting surveys. It has been suggested that surveys take three forms - factual surveys which obtain descriptive information about society and in the case of criminology, criminal behaviour. Secondly, there are attitudinal surveys, which seek information about people 's opinions and attitudes and thirdly, explanatory surveys which seek to obtain information that can be used to test hypothesis and theories or produce new theories (Pearce, 1990 p.29).
Often field work and survey research involve some scrutiny of documentary material. Documentary research is the systematic use of printed or written materials for investigation and is, in one form or another, one of the most widely used of all methods of gathering sociological data. (Giddens, 1990 p.675). The documents used in research virtually always include information and findings produced by previous writers in the field in question. Many investigations are as much concerned with collecting together and analysing materials from the work of others as with generating wholly new data (Giddens 1990 p. 676).
Experiments try to determine whether there is a causal connection between variables by creating conditions in which the only difference between groups is experience with the independent variable (Bourne and Russo, 1998 p. 49) . As was noted before, experiments have major advantages over other research procedures in that the experimenter can directly control the relevant variables.
Once the method of research has been selected and carried out, the results of the research must be interpreted. The gathered material needs to be analyzed and related back to the problem which prompted the study. Working out the implications of the collected data and relating them back to the research problem is often not easy - while it may be possible to reach a clear answer to the research question, many investigations in the end are less than fully conclusive.(Giddens 1990 p. 662)
The study of crime, called criminology, is a multidisciplinary enterprise with various disciplines (for example sociology, psychiatry, psychology, anthropology, genetics, biopsychology, economics, political science, history) examining the different levels of explanation from different perspectives. The vast majority of current criminological texts focus on sociological theories and research on crime (Bartol, 1999 p. ix).
Criminologists develop theories and conduct research in an attempt to explain criminal behaviour. Theories organize individual observations and facts and puts them into a context that gives them special meaning and relationship to one another. Theories may arise from many sources, including a criminologist 's personal observations or hunches, empirical findings from prior studies or even extensions of another theory, but there is no one grand criminological theory that will explain criminal behaviour which will in turn be able to prevent it.
The variety of method in criminological research is partly due to the wide range of theories that are existent. Much criminological research shows a close and often mutual exchange between theory and method, with theory suggesting lines of research action and data obtained from research that indicate ways in which the theory needs refinement or even abandonment (Jupp, 1989 p.83)
Adequate theory, well executed research and effective application of knowledge to the crime problem requires and understanding of the many levels of events that influence a person 's life course - from the individual to the family, peers, schools, neighbourhoods, community, culture and of course, society as a whole. Though it is not likely that we will ever live in a society completely devoid of crime, criminology attempts to find reasons and explanations for criminal behaviour and then applies these theories to solving and preventing crime.
References
Andrews, D & Bonta, J. (1994). Understanding Through Theory: Psychodynamic and
Control Theory. In The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (Ch5 pp.69-91)
Cincinatti, Ohio: Anderson Publishers.
Bartol, C. (1999) Criminal Behaviour: A Psychosocial Approach New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Bourne, L. & Russo, N. (1998) Psychology Behaviour In Context, New York: W.W.
Norton & Company, Inc.
Bilton, T., Bonnett, K., Jones, P., Skinner, D., Stanworth, M., & Webster, A. (1996).
Introductory Sociology. London: Macmillan.
Downes, D. (1999). Sociology Issues and Debates. London: Macmillan.
Giddens, A. (1990). Sociology. Oxford: Polity Press.
Haralambos, M. & Heald, R. (1981) Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Slough:
University Tutorial Press.
Haralambos, M., van Krieken, R., Smith, P. & Holborn, M. (1996). Sociology
Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman.
References
Hester, S., & Egline, p. (1992). Sociology of Crime. London: Routledge.
Jupp, V. (1989). Methods of Criminological Research. London: Routledge.
Moghaddam, F. (1998). Social Psychology. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Pearce, M. (1990). Sociology Textbook. London: HLT Publications.