Custom as a Source of Law - M P Jain

INTRODUCTION TO THE LEGAL PROCESS
Note: Only minimum reading materials are reproduced here. Students are advised to familiarize themselves with all the recommended readings and participate in discussions in the class. (a) The object of Law Study
(b) Studying Law under the “Case Method”
(c) The Case Method from Student’s point of view.
The following extracts are from:
(a) Stanley V. Kinyon, How to Study Law and Write Law Examinations (1951)
(b) Edward H. Levi, An Introduction to Legal Reasoning (1949) University of Chicago
Press.
(c) Paper from Professor Jackson, Michigan University Law School (Un-published )
(The essay is based on comments made orally to a Faculty Colloquium of the Faculty of
Law, University of Delhi in January and February, 1969 while the author was Visiting
Professor of Law)
THE OBJECT OF LAW STUDY
What is this thing “Law” which you are about to study? What is the nature of the subject and what are you supposed to learn about it?
In one sense, the “law” is a large body of rules and regulations, based mainly on general principles of justice, fair play and convenience, have been worked out by governmental bodies to regulate human activities and define what is and what is not permissible conduct in various situations. We use the term in this sense when we say that a person “obeyed the law” or “broke the law” and a great deal of your work will be devoted to a study of the rules and regulations applicable to different areas of human activity. Such rules and regulations are sometimes found in our state and federal constitutions, more often in statutes, sometimes in administrative rulings, and in many instances have been developed by the courts themselves in the process of deciding the controversies that come before them.
The term “law”, however, is also used in a much broader sense to denote the whole process by which organized society, through government bodies and personnel (legislatures, courts, administrative tribunals, law-enforcement agencies and officers, penal and corrective institutions etc.) attempts to apply these rules and regulations and thereby establish and maintain peaceful and orderly relations between the people in that society. For example, when there is evidence that some person has killed another, or has robbed or stolen or done some other act disruptive of the public peace of welfare, not only do we assert that he has "broken the law" but we expect that the appropriate agencies of government will in accordance with the rules of law, apprehend and

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bring him before the proper court, conduct a fair and orderly trial to determine his guilt or innocence, and if he is guilty, prescribe and carry out appropriate corrective or punitive measures. Even where no public offence is involved, as where John Smith has an automobile collision with Joe Jones, or breaks a promise made to Joe & interferes with his property, or does something else to cause a dispute between them which they cannot peaceably settle between themselves, we expect them to “take it to court” for a peaceable decision in accordance with the established rules of law. This whole legal process is carried on through the various organs of government by a large number of people - legislators, lawyers, judges, police officers, administrative officials, and many others, most of whom must be intensively trained in various aspects of the system.
Law schools are engaged primarily in training future lawyers, judges and others who will operate this legal system. Thus the study of law necessarily involves not only a study of legal rules but also a study of the whole legal system through which society attempts to maintain “law and order”.
For, too many students get off on the wrong foot in law school because they don't understand the real object of their law study. They get the idea that all they are supposed to do is memorize a flock of rules and decisions just as they memorized the multiplication tables in school. Such a notion is fatal. Even though you know by heart all the decisions and rules you have studied in a course you can still flunk the exam. After all, you learned the multiplication tables-not merely to be able to recite them like a poem but to enable you to solve problems in arithmetic. Likewise, you are learning rules of law and studying the court decisions and legal proceedings in which they are applied, to enable you to solve legal problems as they are solved by our legal system. It doesn't make any difference whether you are studying law in order to become a lawyer or judge, or merely for the help it will be to you in business, politics or some other field. In any cause you are after something you can use and apply. To be specific you must learn how to take a particular problem accurately - classify it as it would be classified by a legal tribunal, discover and apply to it the rules and principles generally applied to controversies in that class, so far as possible, draw the same conclusions and arrive at the same solution as the legal tribunal would, to carry on your own affairs properly, but also to advise others as to their legal rights and liabilities and otherwise take part in the activities of the legal system itself. If, on the other hand, you know a lot of legal rules but can’t apply them and work out a reasonably accurate solution of the everyday legal problems you run into, you simply haven't learned what a lawyer has to know. Consequently, whenever you are reading a law book or discussing a problem in class or reviewing, keep this one thing in mind you're not merely memorizing what the courts and legislatures have said and done in the past. That’s history! You're trying to learn how the legal system works and how to solve future legal problems in accordance with the principles that have been established.

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STUDYING LAW UNDER THE "CASE METHOD" OR "CASE SYSTEM"

The "Case system" is based on the idea that the best way to study law is to study the actual court decisions in various types of cases and to derive from them, by inductive reasoning, an understanding of the main fields or classifications in the law and the general rules and principles of law applicable in those fields. (The procedure is to have the student read selected "cases" in
"casebooks" which have been prepared by outstanding legal scholars and then supplement his case reading by lectures, class discussions and a certain amount of outside reading in texts, law review comments and the like. The student's work under this system consists mainly of reading and "briefing" the cases, attending classes and taking notes, and periodically reviewing the work in each course). Consequently, if you are studying law under this system you should know the best methods of doing these.
"Cases" and "Case Books"
Before you can properly read and "brief" the cases in your casebook, it is essential that you understand what they are, how they came to be written, where the author of your case book got them, and what is in them. In some schools this is adequately explained when you start the first year's work. In others it is not, and therefore it is probably worthwhile to explain these things here briefly even though some of you may already known them. You obviously can't read cases intelligently unless you know what they are.
Cases, as we shall use the term in this discussion, are the published reports of controversies which have come before the courts, including the court's decision and its reasons for the decision.
These reports usually deal with the decisions and opinions of appellate courts (court's deciding cases appealed from lower courts). Trial court decisions (those rendered in the first court to which the controversy was taken) are not ordinarily recorded in printed volumes for public distribution, except in the Federal courts, New York and a few other states. In most jurisdictions the pleadings, orders, verdicts, judgements, etc. in the trial courts are merely tied in bundles in the office of the clerk of the court, and the record of the proceedings in trial remains in short hand in the court reporter's notebook unless a case is appealed, in that event, however, the appealing party has the record transcribed, printed and sent to the proper appellate court. Printed briefs are also usually submitted by each party to that court setting forth the arguments pros and cons and the authorities relied on. Each party then has an opportunity for oral argument before the appellate court judges at a time prescribed by them. After the arguments have been heard the judges meet in conference and come to some conclusion as to their decision. One of them is assigned the task of writing a statement of the decision and the court’s reasons for making it. This is called the opinion, and when he has finished writing it, he submits it to the other members of the court who either approves it, suggest changes, or dissent, in which case they may write a dissenting opinion of their own. After the majority of judges have approved an opinion, it is “handed over” together with any dissenting opinions. Then, it is given out to the parties and made public in the one way or another.

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After they are published, these opinions of “cases” are customarily referred to or “cited” by giving the name of the case, the volume number, name and page of the state report in which it is published if it was decided by a state court, the volume number, name and page of the particular unit and series of the National Reporter System in which it is reported, the volume number, name and page of any other selected case series in which it may have been published and the date it was decided. The "Case books" which you use in school are made up principally of selected cases taken from these reports (or from English or British Empire reports) and arranged or grouped according to the type of controversy involved in the case, sometimes the author of the case book reproduces the whole opinion verbatim as originally published, sometimes he omits parts of it not regarded as significant, or substitutes a brief statement of his own as to some part which is omitted, but this is always indicated. Therefore a case you read in your case book is normally, an exact copy of what some judge has written in explanation of his court's decision in a particular law suit brought to that court for decision.
Reading Cases
The fundamental thing in reading cases is to know what to look for. Otherwise you may concentrate on the wrong thing or miss an important point.
Perhaps the best way to explain what to look for is to point out what you can normally expect to find in a case and what the judge normally puts or tries to put in his opinion.
1. The first thing you will usually find in a case is a brief statement of the kind of controversy involved. That is, whether it was criminal prosecution, an action of tort for damages, an action for breach of contract, or to recover land, etc. This is usually accompanied by an explanation of how the case got to this particular court; whether it started there, or if it is a matter on appeal (as it usually is), how and why it happened to get there whether plaintiff or defendant appealed, and to just what action of the lower court the appealing party is objecting.
2. The next thing you will usually find is a statement of the facts of the controversy, who the parties were, what they did, what happened to them, who brought the action and what he wanted.
Normally, the judge writing the opinion starts off with a complete statement of the facts, but judges are not always careful to do this and you will frequently find the facts, strewn throughout the opinion. Thus you can never be sure you know all about the controversy until you have read the whole opinion. Sometimes the statement of facts is made categorically on the basis of the court's or jury's findings of fact; sometimes it is made by stating what the plaintiff and defendant alleged in their pleadings; and sometimes it is in the form of a resume of the evidence produced at trial, wherever they may appear, however, and in whatever form they may be, determine circumstances out of which the controversy arose.
3. Next comes a statement of the question or questions the court is called upon to decide the various "issues" (either of law or fact) which must be settled before a decision on the controversy can be reached. Any of you who have done any debating, understand "issues", the breaking up of

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a general problem into specific sub-problems. Some judges are very careful to state the issues clearly; others will leave them to inference from the discussion, or else wander around from one thing to another and leave the precise questions they are deciding in doubt.
4. After the issues comes the arguments, on them a discussion of the pros and cons. This is where logic comes into play. You will recall that there are two main types of logical reasoning inductive and deductive. Inductive reasoning involves the formulation of general propositions from a consideration of specific problems or observations; deductive reasoning involves the application of a general proposition already formulated to some specific situation or problem so that a conclusion can be drawn as to it. In each case the court, having these definite and specific issues or problems to decide, decides or purports to decide them by first concluding what the general rule or proposition of law is as to this type of issue, and then deducting the decision on the issue from the general rule. If there happens to be a statute or constitutional provision prescribing a general rule as to questions like those involved in the case, the judge has his major premise and will devote his argument to a consideration of its scope and applicability to the issues in the case. If there is no statute or other prescribed general rule, the judge will try by induction to derive one from the decisions and opinions to previous cases involving issues similar to those in the present case, or from general principles of fairness, policy and common sense, and then apply it to the issues at hand and deduce his conclusion.
5. Finally, after the argument on all the issues (and sometimes good deal of irrelevant argument and discussion), the judge states the general conclusion to be drawn therefrom, and winds up the opinion with a statement of the Court's decision. For example: “Judgement affirmed”, “Judgement reversed”, “Case remanded”, “New trial ordered”, etc.
It is to be remembered, of course, that legal opinions do not all follow the same order and are not all cut from the same pattern. They are written by many different judges, each of whom has his own style of writing and his own particular method of presenting a legal argument. Some opinions are not as easy to understand as others and it would be erroneous to assume in reading them that they are all perfect. Courts frequently disagree as to the principles that ought to be applied in certain types of controversy and occasionally the same court will change its view as to the law on a particular point. In reading these cases, you are not trying to find the reasoning from what various courts have actually decided in particular cases the rules and principles most frequently applied and most likely to be applied by them in future cases of that type.
Now, having in mind what you can expect to find in the cases, and also the fact that they are not necessarily perfect and seldom embody an unchanging principle or universal truth, you are in a position to read them intelligently. It's not a bad idea, however, to adopt a systematic method of reading them: The following has proved effective, and you might try it as a starter.
First get a clear picture of the controversy involved. Get all the facts and issues straight.
Consider the following:

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What kind of an action it is,
Who the parties were,
What they did and what happened to them,
Who brought the action, what he wanted,
What the defence was,
What happened in the lower court (if it's a case of appeal),
How the case got to this court,
Just what this court had to decide.
At this point, stop for a moment. Look at the problem first from the plaintiff's point of view, then from the defendant’s. Ask yourself how you would decide it, what you think the decision ought to be. Compare this case with others you have studied on the same topic. What result do they indicate ought to be reached here. By doing this you put yourself in a better position to read the court's argument critically, and spot any fallacies in it. We are all somewhat prone to accept what we read in print as the Gospel, and this little device of considering the problem in your own mind before reading the court's argument is a rather effective means of keeping a critical attitude.
Now read the argument and the court’s conclusions. Consider the various rules and propositions advanced on each issue and the reasons given for adopting them. See whether the conclusions drawn follow logically from those rules. Then ask yourself whether you agree with the court, and if not, why not. Consider also how the result in this case lines up with other similar cases you have studied.
In thus analyzing the court's argument and conclusions it is important to distinguish carefully between the rules and propositions of law actually relied upon by the court in deciding the issues involved in the case (these are called “holdings”) and other legal propositions and discussion which you may find in the opinion but which are not relevant nor applicable to the issues before the court (these are called “dicta”).When the case was before the court, counsel for the opposing parties probably availed themselves of the opportunity to prepare fully and present to the court their arguments, pros and cons upon the issues involved in it, and the court thus had the opportunity to consider all aspects of each issue, choose the better result and "hold" with that view. Dicta, however, not being relevant to the issues before the court, was probably not argued by counsel nor thoroughly considered by the court. It was not necessary to the decision of the case and the court may have stated it casually without considering all aspects of the problem.
Courts in each jurisdiction regard their own prior “holdings” as creating binding precedents which they feel obliged to follow in later cases involving the same issues. This is called the doctrine of stare decisis and makes for stability and predictability in the law. Dicta, on the other hand, being casual and not a matter of actual decision, is not regarded as establishing law which will be binding on the court in a subsequent case. Thus the former case containing the dictum is not a controlling “authority” on the question although it may be followed in later decisions.

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THE CASE METHOD FROM THE STUDENTS’ POINT OF VIEW
One of the important developments of Indian Legal Education in the last few years is the introduction of the “case method” of teaching in several Indian Law Faculties. The “case method” sometimes called the “discussion method” is a term that has been used to describe a wide variety of teaching methods, but the one common element of these methods usually is the use of actual court opinions as the basis of analysis and discussion in the law classes. The advantages of the
“case method” do not have to be repeated at length here. Eminent Indian scholars have already commented on those advantages. Suffice it to say that one basic purpose of the method is to engage the student himself in the process of thinking through the meaning and implication of legal principles as set down in court cases. Instead of the passive role which the student may often take when his teacher 1ectures, in the case method the student must himself actively engage in considering the basis of legal rules and the teacher assumes more the role of protagonist and discussion leader, asking question to students, debating points with them, sometimes playing the devil's advocate to force students to think for themselves.
The sine qua non of good classes using the case method is prepared by students who have had access to cases prior to class, and who have and analysed those cases. Further more, the student's activity in reviewing his subject matter and preparing and writing examinations will often be different when the case method is used, from that which it would be under a lecture method. For one thing the examinations themselves are usually different. When the case method is used as a teaching technique, examinations usually take the form of hypothetical fact situations,
i.e. a hypothetical case, calling upon the student to decide the case and give his reasons, or calling upon the student to play the advocate's role and write the best possible arguments for one side or another of the case.
Each student has his own unique way of studying, which suits him and is most productive for him. He will adapt his study habits for the case method. However, it might be useful for him to know how students who have been studying under the case method for some time, go about their studies. If the Indian student knows this, he may find some aspect or other useful and adaptable for his needs. These study methods can be divided into five parts:
1) study before class;
2) the classroom discussion;
3) study or review study after class;
4) preparing for the examination;
5) writing the examination
1. Study before class:
Assuming one or more cases have been assigned to students to read and prepare for discussion in the next class, how can one best understand that case or these cases? He can, of course, simply read them and take notes. But one of the important aspects of the case method is

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learning a method of analysis for law cases. If the student approaches his case reading with a framework for such analysis, he is likely to derive more benefit from his reading, and be able to contribute more in the classroom discussion. Students’ practice in the case method is often to use a key or guide for analysing law cases. The key or guide has four parts: the facts, the essential question, the answer or court decision on that question, and the reasons for that decision. Each law case can be analysed into these four parts, and such analysis is often called a “case brief”.
Let me be more specific. The case brief (which many law teachers require students to prepare on paper in their notes, and to bring to class) should be a short synopsis of the law case organised along the four parts mentioned above, as follows:
F: (Facts: a brief two or three line summary of the essential facts of the case i.e. those facts necessary for the decision.)
Q: (Question: a one line question formed to pose the major issue in the case).
D: (Decision: The court’s holding: Something this can be “Yes” or “no” in answer to the question. The court's order can then be stated, e.g. “affirmed”, “appeal dismissed”, etc.) R: (Reasons: Here the reasons can be listed in number outline form).
The whole case brief should be indeed “brief”, that is, it should not be a long type written or handwritten affair which attempts to include everything which the case itself includes. It should contain only the most salient points, in abbreviated form. Often the page number in the case-book can be jotted in the brief next to relevant reasons, to remind the student where he can find that point in the book so that he won’t feel it is necessary merely to copy out, word by word, any portion of the case. The emphasis in all such preparation should be on thinking an analysis, not on copying or memorizing. The brief should always be available to the student to refer to in the classroom, and also at a later stage when he is reviewing.
Now let us turn to an example. Let us take the case of Abdul Azis vrs. Masum Ali, an Indian contract case reported at 36 Allahabad 268 (1914). The following might be one student's case brief of this case. You will note that abbreviations are used whenever possible. (df = defendant; pl
= plaintiff: lc = lower court; tc = trial court; ap = appeal, etc.)
F: Subscription for mosque df MAK was treasurer
He pledged Rs. 500/- to subscription
JM gave cheque to MAK for Rs. 500/MAK presented cheque which was refused as irregular. 1 year later MA, presented it again as corrected, but now refused as too old.
MAK died. PL mosque committee sues MAK's heirs both for MAK's pledge and for JM’s cheque amount. Later MJK died.

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P: facts: (procedure facts): tc for pl on MAK pledge, for df on JM's cheque question App. Ct for pl on both. :
Q: Can pl recover on charitable promise here?
Can pl recover on cheque mishandling here?
D: No to both (Dismiss both causes)
R: Ist Cause of Action, the pledge: “mere gratuitous promise”, no consideration.
MAK as Treasurer? but he did not “set aside” funds. 2nd Cause of Action cheque mishandling: No duty to handle correctly. Voluntary office of treasurer could cease anytime.
Now in the classroom discussion many facts of this case can be brought out, and attention may be directed to provisions of the Indian Contract Act which the court may have overlooked.
Nevertheless, the student can prepare the above case brief before class, and if he does so he will be forced to look for the key facts and the key question in the case. He may, particularly at the beginning, often be wrong in his case to judge as to what are the key facts or questions, but during classroom discussion this should become apparent to him, and he will learn by this process. This is the first step of effectively learning through the case method.
2. The Classroom Discussion:
In class, the student should have his brief in front of him. The teacher may call on a particular student to begin the discussion by stating the case, i.e. by stating in turn the facts, question, decision, and reasons, from his case brief. Discussion can proceed on each of these, as to whether the student has been correct in his analysis, whether another way to analyse the case might be better, whether the existence of particular facts were essential to the holding and if so why, what is the precise holding or “precedent” value of the case, and whether the court was correct either in its holding or in its reasoning. The student should try to take brief notes during class to jot down the important points brought out in class. One way which some students find useful in doing this, is to prepare each case brief on a new page of notebook, paper. If the brief takes about one-half page, then the student can lay down his notes from the classroom discussion just below his case brief, and on the book of the page. Thus both his case brief and his classroom notes are located together for easy reference at a later stage.
3. Study or Review after Class:
It is always useful, if there is time, to review the subjects which were discussed in class immediately after that class, to add to one’s notes, and to clear up any questions one has in his mind. When the classes have completed each section or each chapter of a case book, i.e. at the end of each sub-division of the course material, the student should begin the vitally important process of “outlining” the subject matter of that portion of the course. At this stage he will have before him all his case briefs and classroom notes on all the cases assigned for that portion of the course. He will also have his case book, with its questions and notes. He should then try to inductively assimilate this “raw material” into a logical consistent set of principles. This is a key

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step in his thinking and learning, and one vitally different from the lecture method. Here the student must himself take the raw data of the law, the court opinions and derive from them the general rules, exceptions, and reasons which in the lecture method might simply have been presented to him for memorization. It is the process of doing this for himself that brings insight and understanding to the student. He can, of course, turn to treatises and text books to assist him in this process (in a sense, his outlining is a process of writing his own text book), but it is always better to try to outline himself first, before turning to someone else's work. If this outlining is short circuited, then the student misses the understanding and he will be unable to cope with a well constructed examination which should attempt to test his understanding and not just his memory. 4. Preparing for the Examination:
At the end of the term, the student should complete his outlining for any portions of the course for which he has not completed it before. He then can use these outlines for review purposes, dipping back into his case briefs, classroom notes and case book as needed to refresh his recollection. One effective technique of studying at this stage, which many students use, is a small discussion group, usually of three students in the same course. These students can compare their outlines, explain to each other the points they include in them, and test each other orally by posing questions and hypothetical cases to each other, for discussion.
5. Writing the Examination:
Here a few simple guidelines may help. First, allocate your time wisely. If the examination is three hours in duration and five questions must be answered, allocate one-half hour to choose your questions, and then one-half hour to write each answer. Be ruthless about stopping at the end of a half hour on a question, because if you are forced to leave out (or hurry through) any question, this is likely to penalize you in your score more than leaving out a few final fine points of another question. Second, outline your answer before you begin to write. Particularly with the problem or hypothetical type examination question, it is important to spend about one third of your allocated time in analysing and thinking through the problem. Jot down on a spare piece of paper a rough outline of your answer, and only then begin to write. Third, write legibly.
These are a few of the methods which many good students have used for year and years, when they have studied law by the “case method”. You may find some of these methods useful in your own study. The important thing to remember, is that the purpose of the whole processstudying, classroom discussion, examinations, etc. is to give you a basic understanding of the law, its sources, its rules and their limitations and the reasons for those rules.
Now let me turn to a few additional points that may be useful in studying under the case method. It is important to realise that there are a variety of view points from which a case or rule of law can be approached. It is not enough to simply ascertain “what is the law”, in some general abstract sense. There are other relevant questions which can be posed also, such as “What should

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be the law”. For example, consider the following four approaches to a particular case or fact situation, taken partly from the actual work of a practicing lawyer.
First might be called the “planning transacting” approach. In a given situation, a lawyer may be called upon to advise a client about the best way to go about some business or personal activity. At this stage the prime consideration is getting the objectives accomplished with the least risk of something going wrong. If the problem is drafting a contract, or preparing a will then the lawyer will need to know what the problems and pitfalls are so that he can word the language of the instrument in such a manner as to avoid future controversy or litigation. He may not, at this stage, need to know precisely what the law is regarding each of his problems (the law may, indeed, be unsettled on those points), but he must be able to spot the problem so that he can avoid it. Second might be called the “predicting” approach. In some circumstances the lawyer is called upon to perform a task which basically is to predict how a court might rule on a question.
Justice Holmes, in the U.S. is quoted as saying that law is nothing more nor less than a prediction of what the courts will do in a particular circumstance. The situation like this arises when a client comes to a lawyer with a dispute which has already arisen, and asks the lawyer whether he should sue in court. The lawyer may advise the client partly on the basis of his prediction whether the client will win. To a certain degree this is stating to the client what the law “is”, since the lawyer knows that the court's decision will be based on that law.
Third might be called the “advocacy” approach. For instance a client has decided to bring a law suit (either with or against his lawyer’s advice). Now it is the lawyer's task to do the best job of advocacy which he can do for his client. Under the adversary system of courts which we have, this is a very important function, because the philosophy is that if each side presents their best possible arguments, the courts will be able to rule more justly on the issue. But here the lawyer's function is different from that of the two previous approaches. In this approach it is his task to marshal the strongest arguments, not to predict, nor to “avoid” problem issues.
Fourth, and finally, comes the “judicial” or “legislative” approach. In this instance the lawyer (as a judge, legislator, member of a commission or committee, etc.) is called upon to give his view as to what the law should be. Once again, this approach differs from the previous ones described. Each of those tasks or approaches requires skills a bit different from the other. It is important for the law student to develop his talents in each of these directions. One way of doing this is to occasionally analyse a case, either in his private studies or in classroom discussion, according to each of these four approaches. As your self, in connection with a particular case on contracts or wills, how could I prepare a similar will or contract, which would have avoided the litigation described in this court opinion? Ask yourself if presented with this case today, or a similar case, how would I predict the courts would decide? Ask yourself, if given the task to argue for the plaintiff which arguments would I use? (Then ask the same question for arguments for the defendant). Finally, ask yourself, what should be the rule of law in that situation? The same analysis can be used in almost any law subject.

THE INDIAN LEGAL SYSTEM
Joseph Minattur
INTRODUCTION
To delve among the laws of India is like bathing in the holy waters of Triveni. It leaves one refreshed and delighted; refreshed from the pleasant contact with almost all the legal systems of the contemporary world, and delighted at the hopeful realisation that here in the Indian legal system lie the seeds of a unified, eclectic legal order which may soon grow into maturity and spread its branches, like a banyan tree, all over south and southeast Asia.
Three main streams join together to form the Indian legal system. That of the common law is perhaps the most dominant among them. Then there is the stream of laws springing from religion.
The third is that of the civil ('romanist') law which energizes the system with unruffled ethical verve and accords comeliness to its contours. Trickles of customary laws cherished by tribal societies and other ethnic communities also flow into the main stream. Like the Sarasvati near
Prayag, the element of the civil law is not easily perceptible, though it permeates the entire structure. So a word of explanation is perhaps warranted.
The very idea to a code appears to have been derived from the codes of continental Europe.
When in 1788 a codification of Hindu law on contracts and succession was proposed by Sir
William Jones to Lord Cornwallis, it was conceived to be on the model of the “inestimable
Pandects of Justinian”. On 18 May 1783 “A Regulation for forming into a Regular Code, all
Regulations that may be enacted for the Internal Government of the British territories in Bengal” was passed by the Governor-General and Council, some eight years earlier, in 1775 Warren
Hastings had A Code of Gentoo Laws or Ordinations of the pundits prepared and translated by
Halhed a Judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta. The same year Bentham offered to act “as a sort of Indian Solon” and thought of “constructing an Indian Constitutional code”. James Mill, one of his disciples at India House thought that his Draught of a New Plan for the France was applicable to India. Speaking on the Charter Bill of 1833 Macaulay said:
I believe that no country ever stood so much in need of a code of laws as India, and I believe also that never was a country in which the want might so easily be supplied.
Section 53 of the Charter Act, 1853 declared that it was expedient: that such laws as may be applicable in common to all classes of the inhabitants... due regard being had to the rights, feelings and peculiar usages of the people, should be enacted: and that all laws and customs having the force of law should be ascertained and consolidated and, as occasion may require, amended.
The first Law Commission immediately after its appointment in 1833 with Macaulay as its
President took up the task of codification. Under Macaulay’s personal direction it prepared its first draft of the Indian Penal Code and submitted it to the Governor-General in Council on 14

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October 1837. When there were complaints that the progress of the Commission's work was unsatisfactory, Macaulay compared its progress with that of the authors of the French codes. He pointed out that though the French Criminal Code was begun in March 1801, the Code of
Criminal Procedure was not completed till 1810. It is also interesting to find half of the last century were on the same branches of law as were the French codes enacted earlier. Neither in
India nor in France was enacted a code on the law of civil wrongs. It is true that there was no comprehensive enactment on torts in England, but then there were no comprehensive enactments in England on any of the subjects covered by the Indian codes.
It is not only in cherishing the idea of codification that the British Indian authoritiesexecutive as well as legislative bodies-appear to have been indebted to continental codes.
As early as 1686 in a letter sent to Bombay the directors of the East India Company had expressed the view that: you are to govern our people there, being subject to us under His Majesty by the law martial and the civil law, which is only proper to India.
The first Law Commission which drafted the Indian penal Code acknowledged its indebtedness to the French Penal code. In a letter of 2 May 1837 addressed to the GovernorGeneral the Commission stated that it derived much valuable assistance from the French code and from the decisions of the French courts of justice on questions touching the construction of that
Code.
It “derived assistance still more valuable from the code of Louisiana prepared by the late
Mr. Livingston”.
The second Law Commission which sat in London from 1853 to 1856 expressed its view that: what India wants is a body of substantive civil law, in preparing which the law of England should be used as a basis.
It, however, emphasised that such a body of law ought to be prepared with a constant regard to the conditions and institutions of India, and the character, religious and usages of the population. It also stated that in the social condition existing in India it was necessary to allow certain general classes of persons to have special laws, recognised and enforced by our courts of justice, with respect to certain kinds of transaction among themselves.
The Commission gave final shape to Macaulay's Penal Code; it also prepared drafts of the
Code of Civil Procedure and the Code of Criminal Procedure incorporating into them materials left by the first Law Commission. The Legislative Council adopted the Code of Civil Procedure in 1859, the Penal Code in 1860 and the Code of Criminal Procedure in 1861.
The third law Commission, appointed in 1861, was enjoined to prepare for India a body of substantive law, in preparing which the law of England should be used as a basis. The fourth law
Commission expressed a similar view when it recommended in 1879 that English law should be

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made the basis in a great measure of our future Codes, but its materials should be recast rather than adopted without modification. It, however, added that in recasting those materials due regard should be had to Native habits and modes of thought.
The influence of Scots and their law on the framing and adoption of the early British India codes and other enactments deserves to be mentioned. For a number of Scots in the 19th century their prospects were not only along the highway to London, but from there across the high seas to
Indian ports. Macaulay himself was of Scottish descent. Even when Scots were members of the
English Bar, they were imbued with concepts derived from the civil law system. In the same way a they would prefer to preserve Scots law unsullied by English notions of Legal rule, they were inclined to keep Indian law unsullied by intrusions and erosions to English rules of law and tended to give due regard to native habits and modes of thought.
We shall refer to few instances where the influence of the civil law is clearly discernible.
Section 11 of the Indian Evidence Act adopted in 1872 could not have been enacted in a fit of absent-mindedness. The section which lays down guidelines to determine relevance in the admissibility of evidence is a clear, and presumably a deliberate, departure from the English rule and brings the
Indian law in this respect very relevant and fair. Another provision which is of interest in this regard is section 165 of the Act. Commenting on it, Stephen has said:
Section 165 is intended to arm the judge with the most extensive power possible for the purpose of getting at the truth. The effect of this section is that in order to get to the bottom of the matter before it the court will be able to look at and enquire into every fact whatever.
The Indian judge appears to be invested with ample powers under the Act to get at the truth and form his own conviction at time.
It is not unfamiliar learning that the framers of the Indian Contract Act adopted several provisions of the Draft New York Civil Code. The Contract Act which does not purport to be a complete code only defines and amends certain parts of the law of contract, so that a rule of the
Hindu law of contract like Damdupat is not abrogated. The rule stipulates that interest exceeding the amount of principal cannot be recovered at any time. It is still in force in some parts of India.
The reason for not interfering with a rule like this must have been the sense of fairness cherished by the framers of the Act, though no such rule existed in English law.
In the law of contract, consideration plays a significant role in India as in England. But the words of section 25 of the Indian Contract Act which accords validity to a registered agreement, even though without consideration, appear to reflect the concept of cause in French law.
In this brief introduction it is not intended to indicate all departures from English law in the
Indian statutes. It may, however, be emphasised that when such departures were made, the legislators were generally induced to do so on consideration of what they thought suited Indian conditions or on considerations of equity.

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It is generally assumed that India is a common law country. This assumption may have been justified to a certain extent if applied to British India. It is true that many of the concepts and most of the judicial techniques are of common law origin. But there is more than a sprinkling of other concepts and techniques, which cannot be overlooked. Indian codes or judicial procedure owe a great deal to procedure in England. But with the introduction of nyaya panchayats (village tribunals) which are indigenous in origin the English procedure has been virtually replaced at the grass root level. The functioning of nyaya panchyats may not be as widespread as is desired: the fact however remains that at present there is a less formal procedure than the one followed until recent years. There is also general dissatisfaction, if not hostility to the complex, protracted procedure derived from the common law system. With the reign of dharma which may be equated with equity while it comprises the concept of law unopposed to justice, there was no need in India to think of a separate branch of law known as equity detached from common law.
We have already adverted to certain departures from English law even when rules of English law were believed to have been codified for the benefit of the Indian people. Neither the expression ‘justice and right’ in the Charter of 1726 nor the phrase ‘equity and good conscience’ or ‘justice, equity and good conscience’ in several regulations and Acts could have meant principles of English law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was careful in its use of words when it pointed out that equity and good conscience had been "generally interpreted to mean rules of English law if found applicable to Indian society and circumstances". It has been observed that from 1880 or there about to the present day "the formula has meant consultation of various systems of law according to the context”. At present the Supreme Court of India is inclined to think that the phrase has given a connotation consonant with Indian conditions.
In the early nineteen sixties a number of territories where the civil law prevailed became parts of the Indian Union. In the Union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, Portuguese civil law was in force, even after the extension of several Indian enactments to the territory, it is generally the provisions of the Portuguese Civil Code which apply to the people of this territory in matters of personal law. In the former French settlements of Pondicherry. Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam which, when ceded, were formed into the Union territory now known as Pondichery, there are
Indian citizens who are governed in matters of personal law by the provisions of the French civil code as they existed at the time of the cession. There are also other renoncants who are French citizens living in Pondicherry to whom provisions of the French Civil Code relative to personal law will apply with all subsequent amendments. In these circumstances, the element of the civil law in the fabric of Indian law cannot be brushed aside as negligible. And this element affects domestic relations which are on negligible part of a citizen's life. The customary laws of various tribal communities and other ethnic groups also form part of the law administered in India. To cite one instance: matriliny among the Mappila Muslims of Kerala, though not favoured by the tenets of Islam, is permitted to play a decisive role in the rules of succession applicable to them.
In the light of the presence and prevalence of French and Portuguese laws, customary law of various ethnic groups and laws based on religion of the several communities, the introduction

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of indigenous judicial procedures in village tribunals and several other factors, one cannot possibly close one's eyes and regard the Indian legal system as belonging to the common law family. It would be more justified to regard it as a mixed system. If Indonesian law with its admixture of customary laws based on religion could be regarded as a mixed system there is no reason why Indian law should not be so regarded. Though the provisions of the French and the
Portuguese civil codes relative to domestic relations are in operation in certain regions only, laws grounded in religion or custom are followed all over the country. The mosaic of Indian law may have a large number of common law pieces; but marble quarried from France and Portugal, gold leaves brought from Arabia and clusters of Precious stones gleaned form Indian fields do deserve to be discarded.
When India adopts a civil code, under the directive in the Constitution it is likely to be eclectic in character, it may have in it a harmonious admixture of various laws based on religion and customary laws, as well as provisions derived from western codes and the English common law. Owing to its eclectic character and especially because it would attempt to harmonise provisions of personal laws derived from religion prevalent in the region, the civil code may be found worthy of emulation in south and southeast Asia. It may thus pave the way for unification of laws, though perhaps limited geographically in extent. If in ancient days, Indian culture was permitted, without any hitch or demur, to permeate social and political institutions and life in general in this region, there is no reason why Indian legal culture cannot play a similar role in the near future as well. The Indian Prime Minister recently expressed his hope that during the next nine years, India would achieve significant progress in every field and would provide guidance and inspiration to other countries. He also stressed that India's influence had been increasing in
Southeast Asia and West Asia. Even when one is not sure whether the mention of nine years has any special significance, one can hopefully assume that if an Indian civil code is adopted soon, it may tend to guide and inspire legislators in the neighbouring states. What the Napoleonic code has done for continental Europe, the Americas, and parts of Asia and Africa, a well-framed Indian civil code may easily do for south and Southeast Asia.

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17

OUR LEGAL SYSTEM
N.R. Madhava Menon
The legal system of a country is part of its social system and reflects the social, political, economic and cultural characteristics of that society. It is, therefore, difficult to understand the legal system outside the socio-cultural milieu in which it operates. It is true in the case of India also even though the legal system we now have is largely the gift of the British rulers. There is a view that the system is still alien to the majority of Indians whose legal culture is more indigenous and whose contact with the formal legal system (the imported British model) is marginal if not altogether non-existent. The language, technicality and procedure of the inherited legal system are indeed factors which limit access to justice for the illiterate, impoverished masses of our country. Nevertheless, the rights and benefits conferred by the laws and the
Constitution offer the opportunity for those very people to enjoy the fruits of a welfare democracy which the people of India have given unto themselves on the 26th January 1950. It is in this context familiarity with law and its processes becomes essential to every Indian, rich or poor, man or woman, young or old.
Components of a Legal System
A legal system consists of certain basic principles and values (largely outlined by the
Constitution), a set of operational norms including rights and duties of citizens spelt out in the laws -Central, State and local, institutional structures for enforcement of the laws and a cadre of legal personnel endowed with the responsibility of administering the system.
The Constitution: The Fundamental Law of the Land
The Constitution of a country is variously described depending upon the nature of the policy and the aspirations of the people in a given society. It is generally a written document and assumes the character of a federal (several independent units joined together) or unitary form of government. India is declared to be a Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. It is said to have a quasi-federal structure. The Constitution of India represents the collective will of 700 million
Indians and, as such, the reservoir of enormous power. It describes the methods by which this power conferred on the State is to be exercised for the benefit of the people. In other words, it is a political document which distributes State power amongst different organs (Central and State
Governments, Legislative, Executive and Judicial wings of each Government) and regulates its exercise in its incidence on the people. The form of government is democratic and republican and the method is parliamentary through adult franchise.
The goals are spelt out in Preamble itself which seeks to secure to all citizens:
“Justice, social, economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression, faith and worship;
Equality of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all.”
Fraternity assuring dignity of the individual and the “unity and integrity of Nation”.

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To achieve this goal of dignity of the individual with justice, liberty and equality the
Constitution guarantees certain Fundamental Rights and provides for its enforcement through the
High Courts and the Supreme Court. These basic Human Rights include:
(a) Equality before law,
(b) Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
(c) Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, sex etc.
(d) Protection of life and personal liberty.
(e) Protection of right to freedom of speech, of assembly, of association, of movement and of profession or occupation.
(f) Prohibition of forced labour,
(g) Right to freedom of religion,
(h) Protection of interest of minorities, and
(i) Right to constitutional remedies for enforcement of the above rights
Further, towards achieving the goals set out in the Preamble, the Constitution gives certain
Directives to State to follow in its policies and programmes. Principles of State Policy have been recognized to be as sacrosanct as Fundamental Rights. In other words, they together constitute a reference for State action in every sphere.
The Constitution envisages a unique place for the judiciary. Apart from overseeing the exercise of State power by the Executive and the Legislatures of the State and the Central
Governments, the Supreme Court, and the High Courts are charged with the responsibility of effectively protecting citizens' rights through its writ jurisdiction. This offers a cheap and expeditious remedy to the citizen to enforce the guaranteed rights. The Supreme Court liberalized the rules so as to enable poor and illiterate citizens to have easy access to courts for enforcing their basic rights.
The Rule of Law is supreme and the independence of judiciary is reality in our country. This forms the bulwork of democracy and compels every one to abide by the law in his own interest.
Constitutional government principles involved in it ought to be understood and subscribed to by every Indian if we are to succeed in our declared goals.
Laws, Civil and Criminal
The laws of the country are too numerous, varied and complex; they are bound to be so because law is as large as life itself which is increasingly becoming complex in, every sphere. In a Welfare State like ours, laws are at the more so because they are expected to regulate a variety of social and economic activities so as to subserve the common good. Inspired by the
Constitution, Parliament, State legislatures and local councils make and unmake the laws day in and day out as the occasion demands. Courts interpret them in specific fact situations and, in the

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process, extend the scope and application of the laws. The common man may get lost in the maze of legislations coming from all sides and contribute to its complexity by creating his own laws through contracts and agreements with others he has to deal with.
On the basis of the remedies sought and the procedure followed, all laws can be grouped into two categories, namely, Civil Laws and Criminal Laws. Broadly speaking, criminal law is concerned with wrongs against the community as a whole, while civil law is related to the rights duties and obligations of individual members of the community between themselves.
Civil Law includes a number of aspects which may be grouped under six or seven major headings such as family law, the law of property, the law of tort, the law of contract, the law relating to commerce and business, labour law, law of taxation etc. Family law, which in India has its source both on statute and religion, comprises of the laws governing marriage, divorce, maintenance, custody of children, adoption inheritance and succession. Though the Constitution envisages a Uniform Civil Code, each religious group at present follows largely its own norms in matrimonial and family relations. The law of property includes rights of ownership, transfer, mortgages, trusts, intestacy and similar matters. The law of contracts, is concerned with the enforcement of obligations arising from agreements and promises. This includes transactions such as sale of goods, loans of money, partnerships, insurance, guarantees, negotiable instruments, agency and the like. The law of torts deals with propriety of actions and infraction of duties. Injuries to person or property caused by failure to take reasonable care and caution leads to actionable wrongs under tort, which usually compensates the victim of such injuries.
Laws of commerce and business, which includes contract law, relate to economic operations of individuals, partnerships and companies and governmental regulation of them. Even law of taxation forms part of commercial laws. Labour law deals with the relationship between employer and employees in the production and distribution of wealth.
Criminal law is concerned with public wrongs or wrongs against the order and well being of the society in general. The persons guilty of such wrongs are prosecuted and punished by the
State. These wrongs are specific and are defined in the Penal Code and a few other special and local laws. One important aspect in this regard is that criminal laws insist (apart from a few exceptional offences) on a particular intent or state of mind as a necessary ingredient of a criminal offence. It also recognizes degrees of criminality and gradations of crime. Ignorance of law is never taken as an excuse. Certain situations where guilty intention could not have been entertained such as infancy, insanity mistake of fact etc., they are recognized as defences to criminal responsibility. Offences are classified on the basis of the objective or otherwise. Thus there are crimes against the human body, property, reputation of the individual, against the State or against public rights.
On a procedural basis they are classified as cognizable and non-cognizable (cognizable are those in which the police can investigate or arrest persons without judicial warrant), bailable and non-bailable, compoundable or otherwise.

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Procedural Laws, Civil and Criminal
Most proceedings in the Supreme Court and the High Courts are governed by Rules of
Procedure made by the Courts themselves under powers given by statute. The Civil and Criminal
Procedure Codes and the Evidence Act do apply to judicial proceedings in these courts as well.
The writ procedure under Articles 32 and 226 is unique to these courts and is intended for the quick enforcement of Fundamental Rights whenever they are threatened by the State or its agencies. In such situations citizens can approach these courts even through a letter sent by post as the Supreme Court has declared that procedure should not be allowed to come in the way of dispensation of justice.
For the enforcement of civil rights and obligations a suit before a civil court is usually instituted. The procedures for trial and appeals including execution of decrees and orders are laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure. Valuation of suits for purposes of jurisdiction is made according to the Suits Valuation Act. The amount of court fees to be paid on plaints and appeals is determined by the Court Fees Act. The Limitation Act prescribes the periods of limitation with in which suits can be filed. The Evidence Act regulates the relevancy, admissibility and probative value of evidence led in courts, civil and criminal.
The trial is in the nature of adversary proceedings where two parties oppose each other in a suit or action between parties. The procedure commences with ‘pleadings’, which set out the precise question in dispute or the cause of action. The opposite party (the defendant) may file a written statement to admit or deny the allegations in the plaint. The pleadings may be supplemented by the parties by making admissions of fact, answers and interrogatories, oral statements before the court and by admissions and denials of documents filed by them.
The hearing of a suit commences with the serving of a copy of the plaint to the defendant.
A party can appear himself in court for the hearing or make appearance through an agent or a pleader. According to the Advocates Act right to practise law before courts is given to Advocates only. In the proceedings, parties have to summon their witnesses for deposing in court. The trial involves recording of evidence of witnesses on a day-to-day basis at the conclusion of which judgment is to be pronounced in open court.
Because civil proceedings are private matters, they can at any time be abandoned or compromised and, in fact, in a number of cases they are settled before trial.
Judgments are enforceable through the authority of the court. Refusal to obey a judgment may lead to penal consequences, many decrees are open to appeal in higher courts within the specified period.
Criminal proceedings are governed by the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the purpose of which is to determine whether the accused is guilty of the offence charged and, if so, to decide the punishment to be awarded therefore. It is designed to give every accused a 'fair trial' consistent with the constitutional commitment to individual liberty and freedom.

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A criminal proceeding involves four major stages, namely, investigation, prosecution, trial and disposition. Crimes being wrongs against society, the State undertakes the prosecution on behalf of the victim. The police on receiving information of the commission of an offence proceeds with the investigation. They are authorised to interrogate people, arrest the suspects
(with warrant from the Magistrate in non-cognizable cases), search places for recovery of relevant materials, seize property connected with the crime and prepare a report on their findings for necessary action by the prosecuting authorities. Whenever arrests are made they are obliged to produce the arrested person before the nearest Magistrate within 24 hours. They are not to use
'third degree methods' in interrogation and confession given to police is not admissible as evidence in court. In all bailable cases they are bound to release the person on bail. The arrested person has right to seek the aid of a lawyer of his choice and he cannot be compelled to give evidence against himself.
Under our law every accused is presumed innocent and the prosecution (the State) has to prove the guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. If there is any doubt in the evidence or the prosecution, the benefit of doubt is given to the accused and he is acquitted. The defendant has the right to cross-examine every prosecution witness while he cannot himself be questioned unless he consents to be sworn as a witness in his own defence. In the case of indigent persons there is provision for legal aid at the State expense.
If at the end of trial, the Judge finds him guilty, he has a right to be heard on the determination of sentence. The emphasis in modern criminal justice being reformation and rehabilitation, there is enough scope for a deserving convict to get correctional treatment as part of sentence.
Apart form the civil and criminal proceedings prescribed in the respective codes, there are a variety of adjudicative procedures followed in tribunals, quasi judicial administrative agencies, arbitration councils, nyaya panchayats etc. where private disputes are processed and settled through informal procedures. They are found to be cheap, expeditious and less cumbersome in terms of adjudication.
Legal Aid has now assumed an important place in judicial procedure in country. Right to counsel by a lawyer of one's choice is a constitutional right every citizen possesses. In the case of poor person the Criminal Procedure Code provides for the appointment of counsel at State expense to defend the indigent accused in all major criminal cases. In civil proceedings, a poor person can declare himself to be a 'pauper' in which case he is exempted from co fees and a variety of related court expenses. Legal Aid Schemes set up in State also provide such persons with the services of lawyers to conduct litigation on their behalf.
Courts of Law
Courts are institutions wherein disputes are adjudicated and justice, administered. They are created by Statutes and enjoy such powers and jurisdiction, which the Statutes confer. The
Constitution itself provides for the Supreme Court and the High Court in each State at the apex of

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the judicial system and confers original and appellate jurisdiction on them primarily to resolve disputes between Union and the State, State and State, State and the citizen and in limited cases appeals arising out of private disputes involving substantial questions of law. This higher judiciary is named as the Union Judiciary and appointments to it are made by the President of the
Union on the advice of the Chief Justice. Citizens can directly approach the High Courts or the
Supreme Court to seek redress for the violation of Fundamental Rights. These courts have a supervisory function over the subordinate courts (State Judiciary) which are set up by each State according to its requirements under the Civil Procedure Code, Criminal Procedure Code or other
State laws. The High Courts and Supreme Court enjoy civil and criminal jurisdiction apart from the writ jurisdiction.
The State judiciary under the High Court is organised in a hierarchy on the civil and criminal sides based on their jurisdiction, territorial or monetary. On the criminal side, the Criminal
Procedure Code provides for the Magistrates Court (First or second Class depending on the extent of powers for punishment) and above them the Sessions Courts, usually one in each District. On the civil side the Civil Procedure Code provides for the Munsiffs' Court (with limited pecuniary jurisdiction), the Sub-Divisional Court and the District Court each with varying pecuniary and territorial jurisdiction. There can be Special Courts set up for specific purposes and also
Administrative and Revenue Tribunals to adjudicate upon specific categories of disputes. Thus there are Motor Vehicles Compensation Tribunals, Sales Tax Tribunals etc. all of which are judicial bodies adjudicating disputes in the areas assigned to them. Appeals from these courts and tribunals usually lie to the High Courts and, in exceptional cases, a second appeal to the Supreme
Court.
The Personnel of the Law
Administration of justice requires the co-operation not only of the parties and the judges but also of officers of court who include the Advocates, the court staff and the para-legal personnel who assist the lawyers and judges.
Judges
All judicial officers from the Supreme Court Judge to the Munsiff in a small taluka are independent of both the legislature and the executive. They are free to administer law without fear or favour and they cannot be interfered with by any one including the top functionary of the
Government. They have the power to punish those who commit contempt of court or disobey their legitimate orders.
The President, acting on the advice of the Cabinet and the Chief Justice of India, appoints the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Court. The Governor of the State appoints the
Judicial Officers of the State similarly on the advice of the State High Court/Government. Their salaries and service conditions are determined by law and cannot be changed to their disadvantage. Their removal from service requires a special procedure and the control of their judicial functions vest on the higher judiciary.

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Lawyers and the Bar
Lawyers are the key functionaries assisting the judges in the administration of justice. They are officers of court and are constituted into an independent profession under an Act of
Parliament. (The Advocates Act,1961). No others may practice before the courts. Without the expert assistance of lawyers on either side of a dispute, judges will find it difficult to find the truth on disputed facts in issue and interpret the law applicable to varied situations. That is why the legal profession is often referred to as a noble and a learned profession.
There are at present approximately 2,30,000 Advocates practising in the various courts in the country. For organizational purposes they have formed themselves into bar associations. They are enrolled into the profession by the Bar Council created by Parliament under the-Advocates Act.
The Bar Councils at the State level and the Central level consist of elected members of the profession who undertake the responsibility of not only admitting new entrants, but also improving the quality of legal services particularly through the exercise of disciplinary powers over erring members of the profession. Legal Services to the poor is one of the social obligation of every lawyer required under the Bar Council rules of professional conduct.
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MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD TODAY
Rene David & John E.C. Brierley
There would appear to be three at least which occupy uncontested place of prominence: the
Romano-Germanic family, the Common law family and the family of Socialist law. These three groups whatever their value and extension throughout the world do not however take into account all contemporary legal phenomena. There are other systems, situated outside these three traditions or sharing only part of their conception of things, which prevail in a large number of contemporary societies and in their regard too, a number of observations will be furnished.
Romano-Germanic family
A first family may be called the Romano-Germanic family. This group includes those countries in which legal science has developed on the basis of Roman jus civile. Here the rules of law are conceived as rules of conduct intimately linked to ideas of justice and morality. To ascertain and formulate these rules falls principally to legal scholars who, absorbed by this task of enunciating the “doctrine” on an aspect of the law, are somewhat less interested in its actual administration and practical application. These matters are the responsibility of the administration and legal practitioners. Another feature of this family is that the law has evolved, primarily for historical reasons, as an essentially private law, as a means of regulating the private relationships between individual citizens; other branches of law were developed later, but less perfectly, according to the principles of the “civil law” which today still remains the main branch of legal science, Since the nineteenth century, a distinctive feature of the family has been the fact that its various member countries have attached special importance to enacted legislation in the form of
“codes” .
The Romano-Germanic family of laws originated in Europe. It was found by the scholarly efforts of the European universities which, from the twelfth century and on the basis of the compilations of the Emperor Justinian (A.D. 483-565), evolved and developed a juridical science common to all and adapted to the conditions of the modern world. The term Romano-Germanic is selected to acknowledge the joint effort of the universities of both Latin and Germanic countries. Through colonization by European nations, the Romano-Germanic family has conquered vast territories where the legal systems either belong or are related to this family. The phenomenon of voluntary “reception” has produced the same result in other countries which were not colonized, but where the need for modernization, or the desire to westernize, has led to the penetration of
European ideas.
Outside Europe, its place of origin, these laws although retaining membership in the RomanoGermanic family nonetheless have their own characteristics which, from a sociological point of view, make it necessary to place them in distinct groups. In many of these countries it has been possible to “receive” European laws, even though they possessed their own civilization, had their

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own ways of thinking and acting and their own indigenous institutions, all of which ante-date such reception. Sometimes reception has left some of these original institutions in place; this is particularly clear in the case of Muslim countries where the reception of European law and the adhesion to the Romano-Germanic family have been only partial, leaving some legal relations subject to the principles of the traditional, local law. The old ways of thinking and acting peculiar to these countries may also mean that the application of the new has been quite different from what it is in Europe. This question is particularly important in the case of the countries of the Far
East, where an ancient and rich civilization existed long before the reception of western law.
Finally, with respect to the countries of Africa and America, it will also be necessary to ask whether their geographical conditions and populations’ distribution, creating conditions entirely different from those in Europe, have not led to the development of laws substantially different from their European models.
Common law family
A second family is that of the Common law, including the law of England and those laws modelled on English law. The Common Law, altogether different in its characteristics from the
Romano-Germanic family, was formed primarily by judges who had to resolve specific disputes.
Today it still bears striking traces of its origins. The Common law legal rule is one which seeks to provide the solution to a trial rather than to formulate a general rule of conduct for the future. It is then much less abstract than the characteristic legal rule of the Romano-Germanic family.
Matters relating to the administration of justice, procedure, evidence and execution of judgments have, for Common law lawyers, an importance equal, or even superior, to substantive legal rules because, historically, their immediate pre-occupation has been to re-establish peace rather than articulate a moral basis for the social order. Finally, the origins of the Common law are linked to royal power. It was developed as a system in those cases where the peace of the English kingdom was threatened, or when some other important consideration required, or justified, the intervention of royal power. It seems, essentially, to be a public law, for contestations between private individuals did not fall within the purview of the Common law courts save to the extent that they involved the interest of the crown or kingdom. In the formation and development of the
Common law- a public law issuing from procedure-the learning of the Romanists founded on the jus civile played only a very minor role. The divisions of the Common law, its concepts and vocabulary, and the methods of the Common law lawyer, are entirely different from those of the
Romano-Germanic family.
And as with the Romano-Germanic family, so too the Common law has experienced a considerable expansion throughout the world-and for the same reasons: colonization or reception.
The observations made with respect to the Romano-Germanic family apply with equal value. But here again a distinction between the Common law in Europe (England and Ireland) and that outside Europe must be made. In certain extra-European countries, the Common law may have been only partially received as in the case, for example, of certain of Muslim countries or India and where it was received, attention must be given to its transformation or adoption by reason of

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its co-existence with the tradition of previous civilizations. A different environment has, in any event, created difference between the Common law of the countries where it originated and that of those into which it was imported. This observation is particularly true with respect of the
Common law family because it groups some countries such as the United States and Canada where a civilization different in many respects from that of England has developed. The laws of these countries enjoy a largely autonomous place within the family.
Relations between these two families
Over the centuries there have been numerous contacts between countries of the RomanoGermanic family and those of the Common law, and the two families have tended, particularly in recent years, to draw closer together. In both, the law has under gone the influence of Christian morality and, since the Renaissance, philosophical teachings have given prominence to individualism, liberalism and personal rights. Henceforth, at least for certain purposes, this reconciliation enable us to speak of one great family of western law. The Common law retains, to be sure, its own particular structure, very different from that of the Romano-Germanic system, but the methods employed in each are not wholly dissimilar. Above all, the formulation of the legal rule tends more and more to be conceived in Common law countries as it is in the countries of the Romano-Germanic family. As to the substance of the law, a shared vision of justice has often produced very similar answers to common problems in both sets of countries.
The inclination to speak of a family of western law is all the stronger when one considers that the laws of some states can not be annexed to either family, because they embody both
Romano-Germanic and Common law elements. The laws of Scotland, Israel, the Union of South
Africa, the Province of Quebee and the sophies in which the place and function of law are very different from what they are in the West. A true picture of law in contemporary world society would be incomplete without taking these considerations into account.
In non-western societies the governing social principles to which reference is made are of two types. On the one hand law is fully recognized as being of great value but the law itself is framed in a different concept than it is in the West; on the other, the very notion of law is rejected, and social relations are governed by other extra-legal means. The first view is that of Muslim and
Hindu societies, while the latter is that adopted in countries of the Far East and large parts of
Africa and Malagasy.
Family of Socialist Laws
The Socialist legal system makes up a third family, distinct from the first two. To date the members of the socialist camp are those countries which formerly belonged to the RomanoGermanic family, and they have preserved some of the characteristics of Romano-Germanic law.
Thus, the legal rule is still conceived in the form of a general rule of conduct; and the divisions of law and legal terminology have also remained, to a very large extent, the product of the legal science constructed on the basis of the Roman law by European universities.

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But apart from points of similarity, there do exist such differences that it seems proper to consider the socialist laws as detached from the Romano-Germanic family - the socialist jurist most decidedly do and as constituting a distinct legal family, at least at the present time. The originality of Socialist law is particularly evident because of its revolutionary nature; in opposition to the somewhat static character of Romano-Germanic laws, the proclaimed ambition of socialist jurists is to overturn society and create the conditions of a new social order in which the very concepts of state and law will disappear. The sole source of Socialist rules of law resides therefore within the revolutionary work of the legislature, which expresses popular will, narrowly guided by the Communist Party. However, legal science as such is not principally counted upon to create the new order: law according to Marxism-Leninism- a scientific truth-is strictly subordinate to the task of creating a new economic structure. In execution of this teaching, all means of production have been collectivised. As a result the field of possible private law relationships between citizens is extraordinarily limited compared to the pre-Marxist period; private law has lost its pre-eminence – all law has now become public law. This new concept removes from the very realm of law a whole series of rules which jurists of bourgeois countries would consider legal rules.
The family of Socialist laws originated in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics where these ideas prevailed and a new law has developed since the 1917 Revolution. However, the laws of the socialist or people’s republics of Europe and Asia must be classed as groups distinct from
Soviet law. These laws belong to the Socialist family. But in those of the first group a greater persistence of characteristics properly Romano-Germanic is detected, while in those of the second it is useful to enquire how these new concepts are reconciled in practice with the principles of Far
Eastern civilization which governed such societies before the Socialist era.
Other Systems
The three families just described, each of which as numerous variants, are undoubtedly the three principal families of law existing in the contemporary world. Strictly speaking there is no law in the world today which has not drawn certain of its elements from one or other of these families. Some even hold the view that all other systems, no more than survivors from the past, will ultimately disappear with the passing of time and the progress of civilization.
This attitude however proceeds from a rather native sense of superiority and is really no more than an hypothesis, it does not acknowledge an observable reality in the modern world. All contemporary states have, it is true, taken over a number of western ideas either because it was necessary to preserve their independence or because it was useful in their internal development.
It does not follow that the older ways of thinking which, not so very long ago, were widely accepted in these different societies have been totally abandoned. Everyone will recognise the superiority of western technology; opinions differ however on the superiority of western civilization taken as a whole. The Muslim world, India, the Far East and Africa are far from having adhered to it without reservation. These countries remain very largely faithful to philo society, must act legally, courts must ensure that law is respected. Law, a mirror of justice, is in

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this conception superior even to equity itself; outside the law, there can only be anarchy, or arbitrariness, chaos or, the rule of force. Law is therefore venerated, the courts are temples of justice, the judges its oracles.
Far Eastern countries reject this view. For the Chinese, law is an instrument of arbitrary action rather than the symbol of Justice; it is a factor contributing to social disorder rather than to social order. The good citizen must not concern himself with law; he should live in a way which excludes any revindication of his rights or any recourse to the justice of courts. The conduct of individuals must, unfailingly, be animated by the search for harmony and peace through methods other than the law. Man’s first concern should not be to respect the law. Reconciliation is greater value than justice; mediation must be used to remove conflicts rather than invoking law to resolve them. Laws may exist to serve as a method of intimidation or as a model; but law is not made with a view to being really applied, as in the West, Scorn is reserved for those who aspire to regulate matters according to law or whose preoccupation is its study or application, and who thereby defy convention and accepted proprieties.
Countries of the Far East have, traditionally, held the view that law is only for barbarians.
The Chinese communist regime and the westernization of Japan have not fundamentally changed this conception rooted as it in their ancient civilizations. In China the communist regime rejected the legal codes drawn up after the fall of imperial rule along western lines and, and, after some brief hesitation, then repudiated the Soviet method of building communism. The techniques finally adopted for doing so have given up to the present time a very narrow place to law. Codes on the European model have been instituted in Japan but, generally speaking, the populations makes little use of them; people abstain from using the courts and the courts themselves encourage litigants to resort to reconciliation; and new techniques have been developed for applying or removing the need of applying the law.
Muslim, Hindu, and Jewish Laws
The attitude of the Muslim, Hindu and Jewish communities about the law is easily understood by a western jurist, even though the definition of law itself in western jurisprudence has always given rise to difficulties and no single definition has so far elicited any general acceptance. One of the fundamental reasons for this lack of agreement is the debate between the proponents and adversaries of the notion of “natural law”. But it is because the idea of “natural law” exists that we are able to understand the starting premise of these other systems.
In this debate, law is held by some to be no more than the body of rules that are really observed. The application of which is entrusted to the courts. This is the view today to our western universities in which our national laws are taught. But law may also be seen as a model of ideal behavior, one not to be confused with the actual rules by which individuals act which courts apply. European universities, in their pre-nineteenth-century tradition, paid very little attention to national or customary laws of the time and taught, almost exclusively, an ideal law constructed on the basis of Roman law. In Muslim countries, in the same way, more attention is given to the model law linked to the Islamic religion than to local custom (treated as a

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phenomenon of fact) or the laws and decrees of the sovereign (treated as merely administrative measures) and neither of these is thought to possess the full dignity of law. The same can be said of Jewish law and, in a very different context, Hindu law.
Law, then, whether linked to a religion or corresponding to a particularly way of thinking about the social order, is not in either case always necessarily observed by private persons or applied by courts. It may nonetheless exert considerable influence on both “righteous” men may endeavor to rule their own lives according to what they consider to be truly the law. A student of western societies may well in a positivist perceptive concentrate attention upon the rules enacted by legislatures and applied by court or, alternatively, in a sociological perspective, classify as law only those rules which are really observed as a matter of practice. This difference in approach is not a source of any real inconvenience because in western societies there is a large degree of equivalence between justice, positive law and social manners. The same cannot however be said of non-western societies where “rules of law” (in the western sense) remain unorganized, fragmentary and unstable, and where there is generally feeling that true law is to be found elsewhere than in legislation, custom or judicial decisions. Without taking sides in the debate between positivists and advocates of natural law, Muslim and Hindu law, therefore, must be included within the major contemporary legal systems. Jewish law, despite its historical and philosophical interest, must be omitted because its sphere of influence is incomparably less than that the other two.
Far East
The situation in the Far East, especially China is completely different. Here there is no question of studying an ideal law distant from rules laid down by legislators or simply followed in practice: here the very value of law itself has traditionally been put into question.
In the West, and in Islamic and Hindu communities, law is held to be a necessary part of, indeed a basis for, society. Good social order implies the primacy of law: men must live according to law and, where necessary, be prepared to fight for the supremacy of law; administrative authorities, no less than any other part of Philippines would fall into this group.
And lastly, but from another point of view, the Romano-Germanic and Common law families are included in the same deliberately ignominious term of “capitalist” or “bourgeois laws” by jurists of the socialist camp, made up of the Soviet Union and those countries that have used its law as a model or which, like the U.S.S.R. profess an adherence to Marxist-Leninist teachings.
Black Africa and Malagasy Republic
The preceding observations regarding the Far East apply as well to the black African countries and the Malagasy Republic (Madagascar). There too, in milieux in which the community’ cohesion prevails over any developed sense of individualism; the principal objective is the maintenance or restoration of harmony rather than respect for law. The Western laws adopted in Africa are often hardly more than a veneer, the vast majority of the population still lives according to traditional ways which do not comprise what we in the West call law and without heed to what is very often nothing more than an artificially implanted body of rules.

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CUSTOM AS A SOURCE OF LAW IN INDIA
M.P. J a i n
In any scheme of teaching Jurisprudence custom has an important place as a source of law.
Indian teachers generally introduce this topic to their students through English and sometimes
Continental materials. Even the Indian authors on Jurisprudence refer mainly to foreign materials and not to Indian materials. There is, however, a rich material in Indian social and legal history which can more appropriately be made use of in explaining the place of custom in society. A growing use of this material will help to focus attention on some of the main problems of new
India. This paper is a brief attempt at noticing some of this Indian material.

I
Western Jurists
In the evolution of the human society, it appears to be beyond doubt that custom arose first, law came later. Law denotes a more definitive organisation of human society with some kind of power structure established. Customs arise whenever a few human beings come together, as no association of human beings can exist permanently without adopting consciously or unconsciously, some definite rules governing reciprocal rights and obligations. [Vinogradoff,
Collected Papers 420. As Paton observes, “Indeed custom is coeval with the very birth of the community itself”. Jurisprudence 143 (2nd ed. 1951). Even a primitive tribe may have a legal order long before it has developed a state (1941) 55 Harv. L.R.. 66-7]. It also looks to be axiomatic that, to start with, law was built upon custom. One example which immediately comes to mind is that of the English common law which in its origin was built upon custom and which later absorbed into itself the customs of the mercantile community to give to the common law world the modern Mercantile Law. [Paton, Jurisprudence 148 (2nd ed.1961). "Mercantile Law, perhaps, provides one of the most interesting examples of custom". Keeton, The Elementary
Principles of Jurisprudence 77, 81 (2nd ed. 1949)]. The Twelve Tables of Rome were based upon customs of the people [Maine, Ancient Law 18(1946)].
Custom is regarded as a source of law by the Western jurists, though they assign importance to it to a varying degree depending upon their approach and outlook. Austin having defined 'law' as the command of a political superior or definite human authority addressed to political inferiors and enforced by a penalty or sanction, held that custom becomes a law only when it receives judicial or legislative recognition. [According to Austin, nothing is entitled to the name ‘Law’ which does not possess all the attributes of state-created and state-enforced law and so, on this approach, logically, one shall have to say that customary law is not law at all, or that it is
'imperfect' or 'inchoate' law]. This excludes from the pale of law those customs which exist with all the force of law but have not come before the courts unlike those which through accident have come before the courts and have been recognised there. The rigours of the Austin's theory have been mitigated by other Analytical Jurists following Austin. Holland, though practically adopting

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Austin's definition of law, nevertheless, holds that courts do not proprio motu for the time make custom a law, that they merely decide as a fact that there exists a legal custom about which there might have been some question up to that time, just as there might be about the meaning and interpretation of an Act of Parliament, and the observance of a custom is not the cause of law; but is evidence of its existence [Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence 53, 55, (8th ed. 1896)].
Courts give operation to customs not prospectively from the date of such recognition, but also retrospectively; so far implying that custom was law before it received the stamp of judicial authentication. Allen also disagrees with Austin's thesis. He regards custom as "self-contained, self-sufficient, and self-justified law" and says that the function of the court is "declaratory rather than constitutive" [Allen, Law in the Making 67, 125-151 (5th ed. 1951)]. When a custom is proved in a court by satisfactory evidence, the function of the court is merely to declare the custom operative law. Thus custom does not derive its inherent validity from the authority of the
Court. The difficulty in the way of accepting this view is the veto which a court wields to declare a custom invalid on the ground of unreasonableness.
The Historical Jurists attached a much greater importance to custom. They held that all early law was customary, and that the function of legislation is limited to supplementing and redefining custom. According to Savigny, the real bases of all positive law is to be found in the general consciousness of people (Volksgeist). The source of law is not the command of the sovereign, not even the habits of a community, but the ‘instinctive sense of right possessed by every race’. Since this consciousness is invisible, it is to be discovered by the external acts which manifest itself in usages, manners and customs. Custom is thus evidence of law whose real source lies deeper in the minds of men. As a necessary consequence it follows that custom, as the external evidence of law in the abstract, possesses the force of law before it is received by the courts, and not as a result of this process. According to Savigny, the acts required for the establishment of customary law ought to be plural, uniform and constant. They may be judicial decisions, but these are not indispensable for its establishment, although some have thought otherwise; the authors of the acts must have performed them with the consciousness that they spring from a legal necessity.
[Kantorowicz, "Savigny and the Historical School of Law", (1937) 53 LQR. 326. Thibaut seems to concede to each class of persons a power of establishing the law by their own will, but he mentions certain restrictions to narrow down the power materially. "Custom is, for the people that has established it, a mirror in which that people may recognise itself", says Puchta. To
Puchta, custom was only self-sufficient and independent of legislative authority but was a condition precedent, of all sound legislation]. Of course, the flaw in this theory is that there are customs which are not based on an instinctive sense of right in the community as a whole, but on the interests of a strong minority, for example, slavery. Though it is also true that not all customs are consciously created, growth of much customary law is not the result of conscious thought, but of tentative practice.
The fact, however, remains that for those on whom a custom operates, it is finding by itself whether or not the stage ever comes when it is debated or discussed in a court. In the consciousness of the followers of the custom, it has a obligatory force. Take the examples of

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India; here for long before the advent of the British, customs were observed by the people, and were enforced not by the courts but by the village or community panchayats; the Government did not interfere with the prevalent norms. When the British system of Justice came, these very customs came to be pleaded before the courts which enforced them. In such a situation, custom did not become effective for the first time after judicial recognition. It was there already in full force, the difference was that instead of the panchayats it came to be enforced by the courts. Thus the Analytical Theory does not very much fit the Indian condition.

II
Hindu View of Custom
Custom has always been given a very important place as a source of law by the Hindu Jurists.
Two views have prevailed regarding the relative value of custom vis-a-vis the sruti and smriti.
The Dharmashastra writers subordinated customs to sruti and smriti which were given a higher authority. Thus, according to Gautam, dharmas (customs) of countries, castes and families, which are not opposed to Vedic scriptures, are authoritative and binding. Manu and Yajnavalkya declare that sources of Dharma are sruti, smriti and sadachara in that order. Apararka held the view that a custom repugnant to any 'clear' text of ' Vedas' is to be rejected. Mitakshara,
Dayabhaga, Mayukha also place custom as subordinate to sruti and smriti. This, however, was not the unanimity of opinion. There were dissenting voices against the view of subordinating custom. Visvarupa, Medhatithi favour the view that prescriptions of smritis (and even of sruti) need not be observed when they are vehemently condemned by the people (e.g. niyoga, though sanctioned by the texts, are, nevertheless, abhorred by custom) [Vrihaspati, Narada, Asahaya were in favour of unqualified acceptance of custom even when they were in conflict with the written laws. Some of the smritis underlined the significance of customs by saying that suppression of customs would give rise to resentment and rebellion]. In one text of the
Manusmriti itself, there is a hint to regard custom as superior to everything. According to it, smritis themselves embody practices of the people current in their days: Achara is transcendental law, and so are the practices declared in the Veda and smriti; therefore, a twice born person desirous of his own welfare should always make efforts to follow it [Kane, Hindu Customs and
Modern Law 33 (1950)]. The Arthasastra writers, e.g., Kautilya, held that usages and customs were of equal authority as evidence of law; and in case of conflict between them, the former must be taken to be of greater force as being actually observed in practice.
Whatever theory the Dharmashastra writers propounded of the validity of custom, the fact remains that customs have played a very important role as a material source of ancient Hindu law. The process of integrating custom with the law has always been going on; the Hindu Jurists were liberal in their attitude towards recognising and accepting them, e. g.. the eight forms of marriage were recognised by Dharmashastra writers even though some of the forms were highly objectionable. To start with, the dharmasutra tried to bring the text of the sruti in conformity with the customs prevailing in the contemporary society at the time they were composed. Then

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the smritis drew heavily on the customs of the people for whom they were designed. That largely explains why so many various Dharmashastras came into being, and why they differed from each other. When the smritis failed to satisfy the growing needs and changing conditions of the people, the commentaries adapted the smriti-law, by the process of interpretation, to bring in it the customs which had taken roots in the contemporary society. What the commentaries did was to take up an old text of the Dharmashastra and interpret it in such a manner that it came in harmony with social mores and customs of the people. As the Privy Council has stated, "The
Digest subordinates in more than one place the language of texts to custom and approved usage"
[Bhyah Ram Singh v. Bhyah Ugur Singh (1870) 13 MIA 373, 390]. It is how, starting with the same texts as the base, two major schools of Hindu law developed in India, and that one of them came to have four sub-schools. [As observed in Mulhukaruppa v. Sellathammal (1916) ILR 39
Mad. 298, 301, “The commentaries indicate an attempt to reconcile the text law with the actual usages of the people”. In Rutcheputty v. Rajunder (1839) 2 MIA 132, the Privy Council has stated that different schools of law chiefly arose from the difference of local custom; the propounders of law interpreted the ancient texts in such a way as to make them harmonize with local usages, in other words, they had to harmonize the written with the unwritten. In Balwant
Rao v. Baji Rao (1921) ILR 48 Cal. 30, 41, the Privy Council said that ‘the commentators do not enact, they explain and are evidence of the congeries of customs which form the law’. In
Jogdamba v. S. S. (1889) ILR 16 Cal. 3C7, at 375 the Calcutta High Court remarked, ‘The truth is that commentaries and digests ...owe their binding force not to their promulgation by any sovereign authority, but to the respect due to their authors and still more to the fact of their being in accordance with prevailing popular sentiment and practice. Their doctrines may often have moulded usage, but still more frequently they have themselves been moulded according to prevailing usage of which they are only the recorded expression’. It may also be pointed out that the process was not entirely one-sided; while customs were recognised, it would also be correct to say that customs also, to some extent, were modified and supplemented by the opinions of the
Hindu Jurists.
In Sanskrit, the word for custom is sadachar. The exact import of sadachar has been shifting from age to age and among commentators. In the earliest days, achara to be followed was that observed or declared by brahmans who were learned in the Vedas, and were highly moral and selfless (sistas). This standard gave a kind of choice or freedom to a particular jurist to be selective in accepting or recognising custom. If there was any custom which he thought was immoral or anti-social, he could discourage it by calling it as being not consonant to good conduct. Gradually, this harsh standard came to be relaxed so much so that every usage, having no visible secular purpose, came to be looked upon as binding and, lastly, the usages even of the sudras came to be enforced by the king.
From Gautama, Manu, Brahaspati etc., it follows that the customs and usages of which account is to be taken are those of districts (desa or janpada), towns and villages, castes, families, guilds, corporations or groups {gana, sreni, sangh, naigam, varga),

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III
Muslim View of Custom
The two principal sources of the Islamic law are the Koran, as containing the word of God, and the hadis or traditions, being the inspired utterances of the Prophet and precedents derived from his acts. Next important sources are : ijma, the consensus of opinion amongst the learned; urf or custom; and qiyas, the analogical deductions from the first three.
There is no doubt that, during his life time, the Prophet himself recognised the force of customary law. He either gave his express sanction to certain pre-Islamic usages prevalent amongst the Arabs, or suffered such usages to continue without expressing disapprobation. His companions, after his death, recognised many customs which were not inconsistent with the teaching of the Islamic faith. The hadis contained, to a large extent, the customary law of preIslamic Arabia. In Koran, there is not much of law. Hence the rule that it must be read in conjunction with the customs then in vogue. It is thus clear that in its formative stages the
Muslim law drew a good deal from the customs prevailing in Arabia. When, however, the principles .of the law became settled, custom was relegated to an inferior position. Though the
Muslim Jurists continued to recognise custom as a source of law on the principle "treat whatever the people generally consider to be good for themselves is good in the eye of God", nevertheless, it is now relegated to an inferior position, coming after ijma, i. e., it is considered inferior to the
Koran, the hadis and ijma, but superior to qiyas. Hence, according to the strict rule of Muslim law, a custom opposed to the principles derived from the former sources is illegal. The conditions laid down for the validity of custom, under the Muslim law are : first, it must be generally prevalent in the country; second, it must not be merely a local usage in a village or a town, though it need not be ancient or immemorial; third, it must be an established course of conduct, not merely a practice on a few occasions; and, fourth, custom being essentially territorial, it cannot affect the law in other lands, and as it is confined to a particular period it cannot affect the custom in another age [Abdur Rahim, Muhammadan Jurisprudence 55, 136, 137 (1958);
Tyabji, Principles of Muhammadan Law 415 (3rd ed. 1940)].

IV
Custom in the Modern Indian Legal System
What place was given to custom in the scheme of administration of justice in India during the
British period. The Englishmen were very particular in leaving the personal laws of the people undisturbed as much as possible and this attitude characterised the whole of the British period. In
1781, the Act of the settlement passed to remove defects from the Regulating Act, 1773, directed the Supreme Court at Calcutta to decide 'matters arising out of inheritance and succession to land and goods', and matters of 'contract and dealing between party and party', 'by the laws and usages of Muhammadans', in the case of Muhammadans and 'by the laws and usages of the Gentoos' in

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case of the Gentoos. Provisions on the same lines were made for other Presidency towns and were repeated from time to time with slight verbal variations.
As to the mofussil area, i.e., the territories beyond the Presidency towns, the starting point is
1772, when for the first time, Warren Hastings created an adalat system in Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa. The adalats were directed to decide all cases of inheritance, marriage, caste and other religious usages and institutions according to the laws of the Koran with respect to the
Muhammadans and the laws of the Shaster with respect to the Hindus. In 1781, this provision was supplemented by a provision to the effect that in all cases for which no specific directions were given, the adalats were to act according to justice, equity and good conscience. Practically the same was repeated in S. 37 of the Bengal, Agra and Assam Civil Courts Act of 1887 where
Muhammadan law and Hindu law were substituted for 'the law of the Koran and the law of the
Shaster' respectively. No mention was made in this provision of custom. Warren Hastings had supposed that the Hindus and Muslims were governed by their religious or sacredotal texts; he failed to appreciate that more than these texts, the local and personal usages had come to play an important role in the lives of the people. In course of time, better knowledge came to prevail amongst the British administrators regarding the Indian conditions, and then custom came to be given its due importance. Thus in 1827, when Monstuart Elphinstone legislated for the territories annexed to the Bombay Presidency, Regulation IV of 1827, in S. 26, deviated from the Bengal model by giving precedence to custom; it laid down that “the law to be observed in the trial of suits shall be Acts of Parliament and regulations of Government applicable to the case; in the absence of such Acts and regulations, the usage of the country in which the suit arose; if none such appears, the law of the defendant, and, in the absence of specific law and usage, justice, equity and good conscience alone”. In S. 16 of the Madras Civil Courts Act, 1873, it was laid down that to decide any question regarding succession, inheritance, marriage or caste, or religious institution, “the Muhammadan law...and the Hindu law..., any custom (if such there be ) having the force of law and governing the parties or property concerned, shall form the rule of decision....” The above provisions did not follow a uniform pattern insofar as the question of the relative position of custom vis-a-vis the personal law (as contained in the religious books) was concerned.
Except the Bombay Regulation, all other provisions left the question vague. Only the Bombay
Regulation clearly assigned precedence to custom over the personal law. The Madras provision did mention 'custom' but did not explicitly give any precedence to it over rules of personal law.
The Bengal provision did not mention custom at all. Courts were thus confronted with the question : in case of conflict between the custom and the written text of law, what was to be followed ? Insofar as the Hindus were concerned, the courts, taking note of the great importance given to custom in the ancient India, rules early that "under the Hindoo system of law, clear proof of usage will outweigh the written text of the law", which came to mean that if a custom is proved to be established on a point of Hindu law, then the courts are bound to follow it even though it may be inconsistent with some express text in the Dharmashastras or the commentaries
[Collector of Madura v. Moottoo Ramalinga (1868) 12 MIA 397, 436; Bhyah Ram Singh v.

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Bhyah Ugur Singh (1870) 13 MIA 373, 390]. The point was made still more specific in
Neelkisto Deb v. Beerchunder [(1869) 12 MIA 523] where it was said that where custom was proved to exist it would oust the general law, which, however, will regulate all outside the custom. The courts in laying down that immemorial usage is transcedental law have depended on the text of Manu which has been quoted above. This judicial approach to custom in the area of
Hindu law, even though not in conformity with the orthodox approach, was yet in conformity with the genius of the law which always gave a high regard to custom.
The position of custom in the area of Muslim law remained doubtful for quite sometime. The difficulty arose because, traditionally, the Muslim Jurists placed custom at a low level of priority.
Early in the day, the Bombay Supreme Court was called upon to decide, [Hirbae v. Sonabae, 4
Ind. Dec. 100, 112] with reference to the Bombay Presidency town, whether Khojas and Cutchi
Memons, who were Muslim by religion, but who followed the Hindu customs of inheritance and succession, should be governed by their customs or by the orthodox Muslim law. Referring to the expression 'laws and usages' of the Muslims in the clause referring to the Presidency towns,
Perry, C. J., refused to read it as meaning the application of the Koran only to the Muslims without regard to their usages. He pointed that the clause in question was framed on political grounds solely, and without reference to orthodoxy, or the purity of any religious belief. The underlying purpose of the clause was to give the benefit of their laws to the people of India. The effect of the clause was not to adopt the text of the Koran as law any further than it has been adopted in the laws and usages of the Muhammadans; and if any class of Muhammadans are found to be in possession of any usage which was otherwise valid as a legal custom, and which did not conflict with any express law of the English Government, they were just as much entitled to the protection of this clause as the most orthodox sunni.
It has been already mentioned that the rule of decision (S. 37 of the Act of 1887) for Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa, did not mention 'custom' as a source of law. It, therefore, remained a matter of doubt whether in case of Muslims, custom could prevail in derogation to the Muslim law in this territory. [As late as 1866, the Privy Council in Jowala Buksh v. Dharum Singh (I860) 10 MIA
511, 538 stated: “Whether it is competent for a family converted from the Hindoo to the
Mahomedan faith to retain for several generations Hindoo usages and customs, and by virtue of that retention to set up for itself a special and customary law of inheritance, is a question which, so far as their Lordships are aware, has never been decided. It is not absolutely necessary for the determination of this appeal to decide that question in the negative, and their Lordships abstain from doing so”]. As late as 1904, the Allahabad High Court held in Jammya v. Diwan [(1901)
ILR 23 All. 20. The High Court said that the terms of the provision in question were very positive and emphatic in terms that Muhammadan law was to be applied to the Muhammadans]. that a family custom among Muslims excluding daughter from inheritance could not be proved as the provision did not provide an opening to custom as against the Muslim law. This view had been held by the courts since long for, as early as 1866, in Surmust Khan v. Kadir Dad Khan [1
F.B. Rulings, N.W.P. (1866); also Jowala Buksh v. Dharum Singh (1866) 10 MIA 511, 538] the same view was propounded. It may be mentioned that this attitude of the court was due to the low

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place allotted to custom traditionally by the Muslim Jurists. So far as the Hindus were concerned, the same provision was interpreted differently and custom was given a high place in the scheme of law because of the high place traditionally allotted to custom by the Hindu Jurists. It was only when the Allahabad ruling came before the Privy Council for review in Mohd. Ismail v. Lala
Sheomukh [17 CWN 97] that custom got the precedence over the Muslim law and was made legally enforceable even in derogation to the orthodox Muslim law [Ali Asghar v. Collector of
Bulandshahar (1917) ILR 39 All. 574; Mt. Jaffro v. Chatta, 163 IC 650; Roshan Ali Khan v.
Chaudhri Asghar All (1929) 57 IA 29. In Md. Ibrahim v. Shaik Ibrahim, AIR 1922 PC 59, it was stated that in India “custom plays a large part in modifying the ordinary law, and it is now established that there may be a custom at variance even with the rules of Mahomedan Law, governing the succession in a particular community of Mahomedans”].
A special reference need be made to Punjab which is pre-eminently a land of customary law.
Neither the sacred books of the Hindus nor those of the Muslims have made much of an impact on the rural life of the Punjab and people are mostly governed by their customary law. In the preBritish times, these customs were enforced by the village or tribal panchayats or jirgas. On the annexation of Punjab by the British in 1849, the Governor-General, while constituting the Board of Administration, gave assurance to the people; that the “native institutions and practices shall be upheld as far as they are consistent with the distribution of justice to all classes”. Soon after, directions were issued that the lex loci or “local customs which had been obeyed by any tribe or sect” will be enforced [Sir George Campbell, Lt. Governor of Bengal, who had served in
Punjab earlier, observed in the Legislative Council that not one out of a hundred persons in the
Punjab was governed by the strict provisions of the Hindu and Muhammadan law]. Section 5 of the Punjab Laws Act, 1872 [The section runs as follows : “In questions regarding succession, special property of females, betrothal, marriage, dower, adoption, guardianship, minority, bastardy, family relations, wills, legacies, gifts, partition, or any religious usage or institution, the rule of decision shall be - (a) any custom applicable to the parties concerned which is not contrary to justice, equity and good conscience, and has not been declared to be void by any competent authority, (b) the Mohammedan law”, in cases where the parties are Hindus except insofar as such law has been altered or abolished by legislative enactment, or is opposed to the provisions of this Act, or is modified by any such custom as is referred to in the preceding clause of this section] expressly directed the courts to observe any custom applicable to the parties concerned which is not contrary to justice, equity and good conscience, and has not been altered or abolished by law, or declared by competent authority to be void, in deciding questions regarding succession, marriage, special property of women, betrothal, divorce, dower, adoption, guardianship, minority, bastardy, family relations, wills, legacies, gifts, partitions of any religious usage or institution. Custom was thus made the first rule of decision. It was at one time held by the courts in Punjab that the effect of this provision was to make custom the primary law of the
Punjab in relation to the matters specified in that section and to cast upon anyone alleging that he was governed by personal law the burden of so proving. Bringing out the implications of the above provision, the Privy Council has stated in Abdul Hussein v. Sona Dero [(1917) 45 IA 10]

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that the section raises no presumption that the parties are to be governed by custom rather than by personal law which must be applied unless the custom is proved. The clause puts the custom in the forefront as the rule of decision: the legislature has recognised the fact that in Punjab, customs largely govern the people. But, before a custom may be enforced, it must be established by the ordinary processes of evidence [Also, Vaishno Ditti v. Rameshri (1928) 55 IA 407, 421,
Salig Ram v. Munshi Ram, AIR 1961 SC 1374]. A person asserting the custom has to prove it before the courts can apply it.
There is no such thing in Punjab as a 'general custom'. Custom there is mainly tribal, and even with the same tribe, it may vary from locality to locality. Each tribe has its own customs and in the Punjab there are many tribes. Origins of the tribes differ; even with the tribes of the same origin, local and social conditions have greatly differed resulting in varying customs. There is thus no single body of customary or tribal law common to the whole of Punjab [Ujagar v. Mst.
Jeo, AIR 1959 SC 1041]. While the custom in Punjab is mainly agricultural, even the urban people are not completely free from it [Ramkishore v. Jainarayan (1921) 48 IA 405].
Customs prevail in Oudh, mainly in the matter of succession and they have figured before the courts from time to time both among Hindus and Muslims [Roshan Ali Khan v. Chaudhri
Asghar Ali (1929) 57 IA 29, 33]. In Oudh Laws Acts, 1876, S. 3, a provision similar to the
Punjab provision has been enacted. Similarly, S. 27 of the N. W. F. P. Reg. VII of 1901 made an equivalent provision giving custom precedence over the personal laws. The Central Provinces
Laws Act, 1875, did the same thing. On the Malabar Coast, Maramakatayam law of inheritance in which descent is traced in the female line, a person's heirs being the children of his sister, came to be judicially recognised on the basis of custom [Krishnan v. Sridevi (1889) ILR 12 Mad. 512].
The Kumaon Hills constitute another tract of land where customs preponderate. Among others, the hills are inhabited by people known as Khasis who have stuck to their customs on various points which are at variance with the Mitakshara. On the coast of Malabar, people known as Mopalas, who are Muslims by religion, follow not the orthodox system of Muslim law but the
Hindu law known as Marumukkthayam or matriarchal system and their customs have been applied by the courts.
It may however be mentioned that the clauses giving precedence to custom, did not have much of any special significance, for even without them, custom would have been preferred over the personal law as was held by the Privy Council in the Moottu Ramalinga case. To some extent, these clauses did away with the doubt, in the area of Muslim law, regarding the relative position of custom vis-a-vis the personal law, but even here the Privy Council's verdict had gone in favour of the custom.

V
Kinds of Customs Enforced
From the above it is clear that during the British Period, the customs came to be given a preeminent place as a rule of decision. This happened as a result of statutory provisions, or where

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these were deficient, by the judicial interpretation. The courts accepted and applied customs of all types, e.g., tribal, communal, sectarian, local, family etc.
Most of the customs brought before the courts are tribal, communal or sectarian, i.e., those which apply to a particular caste, community, or group residing in a particular territorial area
[Parandhamayya v. Navaratna Sikhamani, AIR 1949 Mad. 825; Venkata Subba Rao v.
Bhujangayya, AIR I960 AP 412]. A few examples may be noted here ; Customs in Punjab,
Malabar coast, Kumaon hills are all of this category. Apart from these, courts have recognised several miscellaneous customs of various groups. The Kamma community in Andhra has a custom of affiliating a son-in-law and giving him a share in the property; this adoption known as illatom adoption has been recognised by the Court. The Jain community, irrespective of its various sects in which it is divided, has a custom that a widow can make an adoption without the consent of her husband (except in Madras and Punjab) [(1947) 74 IA 254 : AIR 1948 PC 177;
Sheo Singh Rai v. Mussumut Dakho (1878) 5 IA 87; Chotay Lal case (1878) 6 IA 15].
Recently, the Supreme Court in Munnalal v. Raj Kumar [AIR 1962 SC 1493] reviewed the large number of cases having a bearing on this point and sustained the custom as one prevailing in the
Jain community as such irrespective of the locality where they may reside or the sect in which they are divided. Another custom of Jains recognised by the courts is that a widow has full power to alienate the self-acquired property of her deceased husband [Sheo Singh Rai v. Mussumut
Dakho (1876-1878) ILR 1 All. 688; Shimbhu Nath v. Gayan Chand (1894) ILR 16 All. 379;
Chotay Lall v. Chunnoo Lall (1879)ILR 4 Cal. 744, 752]. A custom prevails among the Chetti inhabitants of a few villages in Madura District whereby when a husband during the life of his wife marries another wife, he sets aside a portion of his property for the first wife's maintenance
(called moopu) and the rest of the property is divided in two parts, each part going to the sons of each wife [Palanjappa Chettiar v. Alayan Chetti (1921) 48 IA 539]. Nairs in South Malabar have peculiar usages. Some of them have been judicially established. Amongst them, polyandry was legally recognised, and descent of property was through females. Adoption of females with the family when necessary to preserve it was also recognised [Thiruthipalli Raman Menon v.
Variangattil Palisseri Raman Menon (1900) 27 IA 231].
A family custom is one which applies to a particular family only. At an early stage in the evolution of the Indian legal system, doubt had been entertained by the courts on the question whether a family custom, different from a local custom, could be regarded as legally enforceable.
In Tarachand v. Reeb Ram [3 Mad. HCR 50] the Judges of the Madras High Court referred to the jurisprudential theories and said that they all referred to customary law, antagonistic to the general law, to be established by evidence of the acts of a single family confessedly subject to the general law. In Basvantrav v. Mantappa [1 Bom. HCR, app. XLII], the Bombay High Court refused to give effect to a family custom saying that "it would be a dangerous doctrine that any petty family is at liberty to make a law for itself, and thus to set aside the general law of the country". But this view could not remain in force very long. From the very beginning, the trend of the Privy Council was different. To the same effect were the observations of the Privy Council in Serumah v. Palathan, 15 Cal. W. Rep. P.C. 4], a family was held to have retained the mithila

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law even though it migrated from there, and had been residing in Bengal, for generations. In
Abraham v. Abraham [(1863) 9 MIA 199. In this case the parties were left free to adopt the law.
It was also seen that Thibaut supports the view that a family is capable of making an applicable custom], the Privy Council had definitely accepted the possibility of a Christian family, converted from Hindu or Muslim religion, to have its law. These cases made the Bombay and
Madras views regarding the efficacy of a family custom completely untenable and so the courts changed their opinions. [Shidhojiray v. Naikojiray, 10 Bom. HCR 228; Bhau Nanaji Utpat v.
Sundrabal, 11 Bom. HCR 249. The Court held that the words usage of the country in Reg. IV of
1827 are sufficiently general to allow either of a very large or restricted application].
In a number of cases, too many to recount here, family customs have been applied by the courts. A family of jats migrated from Delhi to U.P. in 1858. It was held that according to customs applied to jats in Delhi, adoption of an orphan was valid and that the family must be presumed to have carried this custom with it to U.P. and so it must be applied to it. Impartibility of estates is a creature of custom and it has been enforced in a large number of cases as a family custom. In certain cases where impartibility of zamindari has been sustained because of a family custom, a right to maintenance in certain members of the family has also been recognised because of the family custom. An interesting institution created by custom, prevalent among certain families in certain parts of the country, is that of a 'composite family', i.e., two or more families agree to live and work together, pool their resources, throw their gains and labour into the joint-stock, shoulder the common risks, utilise the resoursces of the units indiscriminately for the purposes of the whole family. A Jain family became Vashnabs, but even then the Jain custom was applied to it and it was held that change in religion did not affect the laws and customs by which the personal rights and status of the members of the family were governed. A family custom governing succession of a Muslim family in Oudh has been upheld by the Privy Council.
Commenting upon the legal enforceability of a family custom of succession, the Privy
Council stated in Shiba Prasad Singh v. Prayag Kumari [(1932) 59 IA 331] that "a Hindu family, no doubt, cannot by agreement between its members make a custom for itself of succession to family property at variance with the ordinary law. But where a family is found to have been governed as to its property by a customary rule of succession different from that of the ordinary law, that custom is itself law. The rule of succession in such a case is recognised by the state as part of the law of the family, though it is no more than the result of a course of conduct of individual subjects of the state constituting the family”. It has been held judicially that a family custom is capable of being destroyed by disuse.
A local custom is one which is binding on all persons in the local area where it prevails. A few examples of such customs can be found in the Indian case-law, though it will be seen that they are few as compared to the tribal or family customs which have been noticed above. Another point to note is that while customs in India in the area of family relations and succession to property are either tribal or communal or family, the local customs are more of a secular nature and do not affect family relations or succession; they create other rights. One of the most widely spread customs in several parts of India is the right of pre-emption. Pre-emption is essentially a

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Muslim concept and the Muhammadan law deals with it in details. But in certain areas of India, the right of pre-emption came to be recognised as prevailing amongst the non-Muslims also as a matter of custom. It has also been held that the rules of Muhammadan law of pre-emption would apply to non-Muslims also except insofar as such rules are modified.
Section 18 of the Indian Easements Act stipulates that an easement may be acquired by custom. It has thus been held that a right of privacy may be established as a customary easement in a locality. Rights not amounting to easements have been recognised by the courts as customary rights. Thus the right of pasturage in the land of another, right to bury dead on another's, right to worship, right to hold festivals, right to remove earth from a portion of a field, right to a village pathway, have all been judicially conceded. In a number of cases, the Calcutta High Court has held that a fluctuating body of persons cannot acquire a customary right in the nature of a profita-prendre. Patna High Court disagrees with this view. But Bombay High Court has held that members of a village are not a fluctuating body.

VI
Requisites of a Valid Custom
A custom is a rule which in a particular family or in a particular district, has, from long usage, obtained the force of law. It is not that each and every custom can be legally enforced. A custom to be legally recognisable and enforceable must fulfil several requisites, viz., it must be ancient, certain and reasonable, and, being in derogation of the general rules of law, must be construed strictly. A neat formulation of a valid custom is contained in the Hindu Marriage Act and the Hindu Succession Act wherein it is said that the expression 'custom' and 'usage' signify any rule which, having been continuously and uniformly observed for a long time obtained the force of law among Hindus in any local area, tribe, community, group or family : Provided that the rule is certain and not unreasonable or opposed to public policy.
One of the attributes of an enforceable custom is that it should be certain and not vague; that the course of conduct upon which the custom rests must not be left in doubt but be proved with certainty. The reason behind this rule is simple to understand. If one is left in doubt as to what the custom is, he cannot apply it. If a custom is vague, the courts cannot be definite about its content and so cannot give effect to it.
A custom to be valid must be ancient. The Royal Court in England laid down the rule that country custom was only valid if immemorial. It could not be transferred from one country to another, nor could it be changed. At first, immemoriality must have referred to the actual memory of any person living, since, in the first centuries after the Conquest, law was preserved by oral tradition. Later, it was necessary to prove that there was no record of any different rule.
The problem can be illustrated by an important case in 1346 (Y.B. 20, Ewd. III). The Prince of
Wales held a court at Macclesfield which tried a plea of covenant on simple contract. The defendant demanded judgment “saying that, by the common law used in the country of Cheshire and elsewhere throughout the whole realm of England no one need answer any claim of covenant

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without a special deed testifying to that covenant”. The plaintiff claimed a contrary custom at the
Eyres of Macclesfield. The King's Bench held that there was no such custom, since the Eyres had first been held in the time of Edward I, “after the time of memory”. As records were maintained in writing, the Central courts appear gradually to have limited customs to those recognised when the earliest records started, or not contradicted since that time. They fixed on the year 1189
(Throne of Richard I, from which date the earliest rolls of the King's Bench are available) as the beginning of legal memory, an appropriate date as most royal court rolls start about that time
[Lord Blakburn in Dalton v. Angus (1880-81) 6 AC 740, 811; Wolstanton Ltd. v. Newcastle
Under-Lyme Corporation (1940) AC 860. The courts, however, have decided that in the case of an alleged custom it is sufficient to prove facts from which it may be presumed that the custom existed at that remote date and this presumption should in general be raised by evidence showing continuous user as of right going as far back as living testimony can go. This presumption is rebuttable (1940) AC 860, 876].
But the expression 'immemorial origin' in India does not have the same sense as in England.
Though in the beginning, the Privy Council appeared to be of the view that a custom should be ancient, the judicial attitude somewhat softened later. The Allahabad High Court frankly stated,
“We cannot in these provisions apply the principles of the English Common Law, that a custom is not proved if it is shown not to be immemorial. To apply such a principle...would be to destroy many customary rights of modern growth in villages and other places. It would be inexpedient...to attempt to prescribe any such period.” In one case, the Calcutta High Court held that a right of pasturage being enjoyed for 40 years was not immemorial and hence not customary. In fact, the general view taken by the Calcutta High Court is that either 1773 A.D. or
1793 A.D. is the date for treating a custom which has been in existence as immemorial.The
Bombay High Court has taken the view that if within the last 20 years, there have occurred a number of instances in which the alleged custom has been recognised, the presumption arises of immemorial usage. In Mt. Subhani v. Nawab [(1940) 68 IA 1, 31, AIR 1941 PC 21], the Privy
Council held that in India it is not of the essence of the rule that the custom to be binding must be ancient and its antiquity must be carried back to a period beyond the memory of man - still less, that it is ancient in the English technical sense. It depends upon the circumstances of each case what antiquity must be established before the custom can be accepted. What is necessary to be proved is that the usage has been acted upon in practice for such a long time as to show that it has, by common consent, been submitted to as the established governing rule of the particular locality. In the instant case, a custom proved to be in existence over a period of nearly 30 years was held legally enforceable. The Privy Council has held that customary law, if found to exist in
1880, must be taken to have the ordinary attribute of a custom that it is ancient.
The Supreme Court of India has stated that a custom derives its force from the fact that by long usage it has obtained the force of law, but the English rule that a custom to be legal and binding must have been used so long that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary should not be strictly applied to Indian conditions. All that is necessary to prove is that the usage has been acted upon in practice for such a long period and with such invariability as to show that it

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has, by common consent, been submitted to as the established governing rule of a particular locality. The Andhra High Court has held that a custom being in existence for 40 years, is an enforceable custom. The Calcutta High Court has held recently that the rule of legal memory does not apply to custom in India, even though it is proved or assumed that the law was otherwise previously; proof of existence of a custom for 50 years is enough to give it validity of law, even though it is proved that previous to that period a different state of things existed. In Bari v.
Tukaram [AIR 1959 Bom. 54], the Court held legally enforceable as a customary right, a right to remove earth from a portion of a field which right had been enjoyed for the last 30 years. In
Bhiku v. Sheoram [AIR 1928 Nag. 87], a right enjoyed for 20 years by kumhars to take earth from a portion of a field was held valid as a customary right.
From the above, it is clear that there is no uniform rule regarding the time factor for which a custom must have been in operation before it is legally recognised. The minimum period for this purpose appears to be 20 years. But the High Courts differ in their approach on this point. Now, the definition of custom adopted by the Hindu legislation says 'for a long period' instead of
'immemorial', which denotes that the English rule has not been adopted, but as 'long period' has not been defined, uncertainty as to what that is continues in the views of the various High Courts.
A custom should not be unreasonable. It should not be against reason, but the reason referred to here "is not to be understood as meaning every unlearned man's reason but artificial and legal reason warranted by authority of law", and, further, "it is sufficient if no good legal reason can be assigned against it".
Examples of customs held unreasonable by the courts are not many [In Wolstanton Ltd. v.
Newscastle Under-Lyme Corporation (1940) AC 860, the House of Lords held that a custom for the lord to get minerals beneath the surface of copyholds or customary freehold lands without making compensation for subsidence and damage to buildings, was not a reasonable custom].
One or two examples of unreasonable customs may be considered here. A custom of total remission of rent on the ground that a certain portion of the land was subject to inundation resulting in the destruction of crops, the extent of such destruction not being specific, has been held to be unenforceable in law both because it is unreasonable and uncertain [Shibnarain
Mookerjee v. Bhutnath Guchait (1918) ILR 45 Cal. 475].
A right of pasturage over the land of another may be regarded as unreasonable if it completely deprives the owner of his right to the lands. It is not possible to deprive the owner of his land completely. In the instant case, right of pasturage was being enjoyed on swampy land.
Later the land became fit for cultivation. The Court held that a part of the land may be given on rent so long as sufficient land was left for pasturage for those who are entitled to it and that no such right can be claimed over the whole of the land. It has been held that it is the usage which makes the law, and not the reason of the thing for it cannot be said that a custom is founded on reason, though an unreasonable custom is void; for no reason, even the highest whatsoever, would make a custom or law. The circumstance that the reason for the custom has subsequently been found to be wrong cannot affect its validity. It is no requirement of a valid custom that it

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should be deducible from any accepted principle of law. A right having been established 50 years ago and which has not been shown to have since been denied or disputed in any decided case cannot be overthrown on the strength of recently expounded theories regarding its basis.
A custom should not be immoral or opposed to public policy or against justice, equity and good sense. There is, however, no fixed test to judge the morality or otherwise of a custom. In
Gopi v. Jaggo [(1936) 63 IA 295], the Privy Council allowed a custom which recognised and sanctioned remarriage of a woman who had been abandoned and deserted by her husband.
According to the custom, desertion by the husband dissolved the marriage tie leaving the woman free to re-marry. In Nanee Tara Naikin v. Allarakia Soomar, the Bombay High Court had recognised the custom of adoption of girls by the dancing girls. But the judicial view changed. In
Mathura Naikin v. Esu Naikin [(1880) ILR 4 Bom, 545], the Court held the custom to be immoral, for the profession of dancing girls was immoral, and adoption by them of girls was designed to perpetuate this profession. But in matters of succession, dasis (dancing girls) have been held to be governed by their customs and a custom excluding married dasis from inheritance to another dasis has been judicially accepted.
Following customs regarding divorce have been held to be immoral; a custom permitting a woman to desert her husband at her pleasure and marry again without his consent, a custom by which the marriage tie could be dissolved by either husband or wife against the wish of the divorced party on payment of a sum of money.
There was nothing immoral in a custom permitting divorce by mutual agreement. In certain cases it has been held that unless both the parties had specifically agreed, a divorce granted by a caste panchayat would be against public policy and could not be enforced by the courts. The
Madras High Court has recently held the proposition to be too wide.
A custom abhorrent to decency or morality however long practised and recognised by a community cannot be enforced by the courts. Thus a custom permitting marriage with daughter's daughter was held immoral.
It is under this heading, that the courts exercise a kind of 'censorial' power on the customs.

VII
Proof of a Custom
Before the advent of the British period, the customs of the people were mostly unwritten and unrecorded and were enshrined in the "unexpressed consciousness of the people' and were enforced by the village panchayat. With the coming in of the British methods and forms of administration of justice, it became necessary and imperative to establish customs in the courts before they could be enforced. It thus became necessary to ascertain the customs and record them in writing. No longer could the custom remain in the consciousness of the people.
The first important principle laid down by the courts in a large number of cases is that a party alleging that he is governed by a custom must specifically allege the same and prove its existence; there is no presumption that a particular person or class of persons is governed by a

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custom and the onus to prove it rests on him who alleges it. This principle is followed strictly so much so that even in those areas, like Punjab and Oudh, where the statutes give preference to customs over the personal law of the party concerned, there is no presumption that a custom exists; it must be alleged and proved. The Privy Council has stated that what is required before an alleged custom can receive the recognition of the courts, and so acquire legal force, is satisfactory proof of usage so long and invariably acted upon in practice as to show that it has, by common consent, been submitted to as the established governing rule of the particular family, class or district of the country.
The custom must be established by clear and unambiguous proof, by cogent and satisfactory evidence. In the absence of such an evidence the court cannot come to a conclusion whether any custom is really operative or what is its content and scope. But, at the same time, the Privy
Council has made it clear that rigorous and technical rules of proof, such as are insisted upon in
England, are not required in India.
A custom cannot be enlarged or extended by parity of reasoning, analogy or logical process.
One custom cannot be deduced from another. As the Supreme Court has stated: "Theory and custom are antithesis; custom cannot be a matter of mere theory but must always be a matter of fact. Thus a community living in one part of the country may have evolved a particular custom but from that it does not follow that the community living in another district is necessarily following the same custom". In the Kamma Community in the Andhra Pradesh, there is a custom that if estrangement between wife and husband occurs, dowry and all presents given to the bridegroom by the bride's people at the time of the marriage must be handed back to the bride. The
Andhra High Court refused to extend it by the analogy to a situation when the bride died on the ground that there could be no greater estrangement than 'death'. But on evidence tendered the custom was held proved. Thus a custom has to be established by evidence and not by a priori methods. What the courts want is clear and unambiguous evidence with instances of the enforcement of the custom, though it has also been laid down that proving of specific instances was not absolutely necessary at all times. A family custom can be proved by establishing to the same group, i.e., families having a common origin, and settled in the same part of the country. A custom maybe proved by general evidence as to its existence by members of the tribe or family who would naturally be cognizant of its existence, and its exercise without controversy. This may be said to be the effect of Ss. 48 and 49 of the Evidence Act [Section 48 runs as follows :
“When the court has to form an opinion as to the existence of any general custom or right, the opinions, as to the existence of such custom or right of persons who would be likely to know of its existence if it existed, are relevant”. Section 49 runs as : “When the court has to form an opinion as to the usages and tenets of any body of man or family, ...the opinions of persons having special means of knowledge therein, are relevant facts”]. Decisions of courts regarding a custom are relevant under S. 42 of the Indian Evidence Act, though under that section they are not conclusive. It has been held again and again that where a custom is repeatedly brought to the notice of the courts, the courts may hold that custom was introduced into the law and that no

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further proof was necessary of the custom in each case. This is the effect of S. 56 of the Evidence
Act according to which nothing need be proved of which courts can take judicial notice.
Therefore, a custom by repeated recognition by courts becomes entitled to judicial notice.
Very great reliance has often been placed by the courts on wajib-ul-arz or riwaz-i-am for proof of customs. Those are village administration papers which were directed to be prepared by
Regulation VII of 1822. These papers have been received in evidence under S. 35 of the Indian
Evidence Act which says that An entry in any public or other official book, register, or record stating a fact in issue or relevant fact, and made by a public servant in the discharge of his official duties, or by any other person in performance of a duty specially enjoined by law of the country in which such book, register or record is kept, is itself a relevant fact. The riwaz-i-am is a public document or record and is admissible in evidence to prove the facts entered thereon subject to rebuttal. The statements therein may be accepted even if unsupported by instances, as the
Supreme Court has emphasized that 'the fact that the entries therein are the result of careful research of persons who might also be considered to have become experts in these matters after an open public inquiry, has given them a value which should not be lightly underestimated. Thus an entry in the wajib-ul-arz or riwaz-i-am may be given in evidence as a relevant fact because being made by a public officer; it contains an entry of a fact which is relevant.
These documents contain a record of customs prevalent in the villages in respect of whom they are prepared. The manner to prepare these papers with respect to custom appears to be that the officer recorded the statements of persons who were connected with the villages. Some of the persons whose evidence is taken may be the proprietors of villages who made statements declaring the existence of the custom in question.
Entries in these documents constitute a prima facie evidence of the customs, but it is not conclusive and it may be rebutted by other reliable evidence. Also, the weight to be attached to the documents depends upon their intrinsic quality. As the Privy Council has stated, its weight may be very slight or may be considerable according to circumstances. A wajib-ul-arz, as stated by the Privy Council in Balgobind v. Badri Prasad [(1923) 50 IA 196], when properly used, affords most valuable evidence of custom and is much more reliable than oral evidence given after the event. On the other hand, as observed by the Privy Council in Uman Parshad v.
Gandharp Singh (1887) 14 IA 127], they at times contain statements which would appear to have been concocted by the persons making them in their own interest and are therefore to be disregarded, being worse than useless. With this precaution taken, the courts have depended on the records and decided a large number of cases on the bases of the entries therein of the customs without calling for any additional supporting evidence. And they regard the record as more valuable and reliable than subsequent oral evidence given by the parties after a dispute as to custom has arisen. The evidentiary value of these documents can be shaken by showing that the officer preparing them neglected his duties or was misled in recording a custom. In Uman
Parshad. v. Gandharp Singh [(1887) 14 IA 134], the Privy Council refused to treat wajib-ul-arz as authoritative because it found that it was a concoction and was made at the instance of one of the parties to the dispute and that her views were entered in the record not as her views but as

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the official record of a custom. This, however, is an extreme case of its kind. Invariably, the courts follow these documents as evidencing custom and rarely has the basis or the authenticity of these documents been ever challenged. It may however be noted that courts have held that presumption in favour of customs as recorded in these documents would be weak where women are adversely affected as they have no opportunity to appear before revenue officers and only a few instances would suffice to rebut it.
Further manuals of customary law in accordance with riwaz-i-am have been issued by authority for each district which stand on much the same footing as the riwaz-i-am itself as evidence of custom. Even if there be no evidence of instances, still the custom mentioned in the manual of the customary law of the district, there is sufficient prima facie evidence of the existence of the custom, subject, of course, to rebuttal, and that it ought not to be held insufficient merely for want of instance.
The inhabitants of the Kumaon Hills, known as Khasis, are governed by customs which are at variance with the Mitakshara on many points. As usual when any case came from this territory for decision, the court demanded strict proof of the custom and at times ignorant and simple people could not always muster sufficient proof to prove their customs. With the result, the people suffered injustice because many of their customs failed to get recognition at the hands of the courts. The U.P. Government felt that it was inequitable and imposing an impossible task to require the people of Kumaon, unsophisticated and uneducated as they were, to make them adduce proof to establish their customs and, therefore, it undertook to investigate and ascertain the customs of these people. In 1919, the Government appointed Shri Panna Lal, I. C. S., to make a collection of local customs of Kumaon and the result was the Hindu Customary Law in
Kumaon published in 1920 by the authority of the Government. This book has been held to be admissible in evidence in the courts under S. 35 of the Indian Evidence Act as it was compiled by making a local inquiry into the actual existing customs of the people.
Besides the above-mentioned official attempts at ascertaining the customs of the people, some private attempts have been made in that direction. Based on the riwaz-i-ams and the judicial decisions, some treatises came to be prepared by scholars. One such book was brought out by Mr. William Rattigan in 1880 containing customs of the Punjab; it has run into several editions since its publication, and has assumed a great authority in matters of Punjab Customary
Law, so much so that it has been noticed even by the Privy Council in Mt. Subhani v. Nawab
[AIR 1941 PC 21], as a book "of unquestioned authority in Punjab". This Digest of Customary
Law has invariably been cited in judicial decisions. The Supreme Court has recently stated that the authoritative value of Rattigan's Compilation of Customary Law is now beyond controversy, having been recognised by the Punjab courts and even by the Privy Council. But where there is a conflict between riwaz-i-am and Rattigan’s Digest, the entries in the former ordinarily prevail. In
Jammu and Kashmir, the High Court has referred to Sant Ram Dogra's Code of Tribal Custom.
There is some difference of opinion in the judgments of the Privy Council itself over the question whether questions of the existence of an ancient custom are generally questions of law or are mixed questions of law and fact or simply of fact. In Palaniappa Chetty v. Deivasikamony

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Pandara [(1917) 44 IA 147], the Privy Council held it as a mixed question of law and fact. In several other cases, it held it to be a question of fact only.

VIII
Abrogation of Custom
While it was the settled policy of the British administration to preserve customs of the people in the administration of justice, there were certain forces which were working for their abrogation. One such effort, on a very big scale, was made through the Muslim Shariat Act,
1937, which abrogated custom applicable to Muhammadans and restored to them their personal law. Except agricultural land, all questions regarding intestate succession, special property of females, including personal property inherited or obtained under contract or gift or any other provision of personal law, marriage, dissolution of marriage, including talaq, ila, zihar, lian, khula and mubarrat, maintenance, dower, guardianship, gifts, trust and trust property, and wakfs
(other than charities and charitable institutions and charitable and religious endowments) the rule of decision in case where the parties are Muslims should be the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat)
[To a limited extent, custom was abolished by the Cutchi Memons' Act, 1920. These people were governed by the Hindu law of inheritance and succession. This Act gave them an option to place themselves under the Muslim personal law by means of a declaration and thus abrogate custom].
Option was given to the Muslims to adopt the personal Jaw in preference to their customary law in matters pertaining to adoption [Muslim law does not recognise adoption, but custom permits adoption in Punjab. Nur v. Bhawan, 162 IC 854], wills and legacies. The provisions of S. 2 are coercive, while those of S. 3 are persuasive. The reasons which were given to abrogate custom were ‘uncertainty and the expense of ascertaining custom’ and ‘inadequate rights granted to women under the customary law as compared to the Muslim law’. It was pleaded that customary law was uncertain and indefinite whereas the Muslim personal law existed in the form of a veritable code and was too well-known to admit of any doubt or to entail any great labour in the shape of research, and so abolition of customs would ensure certainty and definiteness to the mutual rights and obligations of the public. This argument, of course, may not stand the test of scrutiny. But a much more sound reason to abrogate custom was that under it the position of women in matters of inheritance was inferior to that under the Muslim law. The general rule of intestate succession under custom was agnatic succession which excluded all females except a widow and daughter who were allowed a life interest or maintenance. The Muslim personal law accords a better position to women. The abrogation of customary law was a result of the agitation carried on by such bodies as the Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Hind, an organisation of Muslim religious men. Support was lent by many Muslim Women Organisations which condemned the customary law as adversely affecting their rights.
With a view to introducing uniformity in, and to liberalize, the law applicable to the Hindus, certain portions of it have been codified recently. By far and large, the effect of this legislation has been to reduce the importance of custom though it is not correct to say that custom has been

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completely abrogated. Some force is still given to customary law. Thus while S. 4 (a) of the
Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, gives overriding effect to the Act and abrogates a custom with respect to any matter for which the Act makes a provision, customs in respect of following matters have been left intact, viz., recognition of marriage between parties within degrees of prohibited relationship, and sapindaship rites and ceremonies regarding celebration of marriage, divorces and thus a customary right to obtain dissolution of a Hindu marriage is not abrogated.
Section 4 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, provides for the overriding effect of the Act in respect of matters dealt with by it. Any custom inconsistent with it is abrogated. The Act does not recognise impartibility except that created by sanad or government grant. Impartibility by custom has now been abrogated and succession to such property would now be regulated by the rules which apply to other property. Custom regarding power of disposal is not abrogated; whether a person has power to dispose his property by will is a matter outside the Succession Act; it is to be decided by reference to custom.
Similarly, S. 4 of the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, gives overriding effect to the Act. On two matters, however, customs have been saved : Adoption of a married person or of a person over 15 years of age, only if custom permits.
Concluding Remarks
The foregoing survey would show that, after the advent of the British in India, custom came to be given a place of honour in the administration of justice. A large volume of case-law arose in
India having a bearing on custom. Custom came to play a very important part as a source of law; it took a place second only to the statutory law; custom was given preference over the religious laws of the parties. This was a reasonable and just approach for, in practice, the law of the shastra and the shara was not observed by the people in all its pristine purity and that all kinds of customs had ingrained themselves in the scheme of things. It was only just and equitable that the customs which people had been observing in practice be enforced rather than the theoretical law contained in the books; it would have been harsh with the people to force them to forego their customs in favour of the orthodox system of law.
All kinds of customs - family, local, tribal - came to be applied. Formally, the tests applied to adjudge the legal enforceability of a custom were the same as those laid down in England, but in their practical application, they were not rigidly enforced, and the courts showed a great amount of flexibility of approach and toleration towards customs. Thus about the qualification that a custom to be applicable should be antiquated, we have already seen the liberality of approach which the courts adopted towards this maxim in India, and, in a large number of cases, customs were enforced when there was evidence of their operation over a period of twenty years or so.
This is not so in England where a custom must be in existence since 1189 A.D. Similarly, the courts, earlier in the day, declared that they would not insist upon technical methods of proof, and many customs were held proved even though the quantity and quality of evidence in support of them left something to desire [While generally that was the attitude, there are a few cases on

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record where the courts showed some intolerance towards some customs without any rational reason. One such case is Gopalayyan v. Raghupatiayyan, 7 Mad. HC 250. The Civil Judge found that among the Brahmins of the locality there prevailed a custom, 'uniform and uninterrupted', 'for the last 134 years', of adoption of sister's son. Nevertheless, the Madras High
Court refused to accept the custom saying, “In the case of Brahmins it is impossible in any case to believe in the existence of a customary law of which no trace appears in any written authority of the place to which they belong”]. Further, in England, there is nothing like a family or a tribal custom; there the custom is 'local' having the force of law in a particular locality. But in India, it is not so; here family customs came to be fully recognised and enforced. Similarly, the communal or tribal customs were enforced, whereas such would not be the case in England. It may be noted that a large mass of custom here is tribal or sectarian.
In England, the term ‘usage’ is used for a general line of conduct adopted by persons in a particular department of business life. In India, the term ‘usage’ has been used in a completely different sense. Usages accepted by the courts have had nothing to do with trade or commerce but covered all aspects of family relations. By and large, the term 'usage' has been used synonymously and interchangeably with custom. Bombay Regulation IV of 1827 speaks of the
‘usage of the country’, the Punjab Act, 1872, of the ‘customs of the parties’. In the recent Hindu legislation, customs and usage have been defined in the same way. In some earlier cases, it was said that a custom is a usage of long standing [In Edward v. Sheikh Gozaffar Hussein [3 CWN
21], the Court stated: “A long time must elapse before a custom can grow up; but this is not necessarily the case with respect to usage. There is a great difference between a ‘custom’ and
‘usage’ and that clearly the latter may be established in a much less period of time than a custom.
We are not prepared to say how long a period must elapse before such a usage can grow up, but it can grow even in 12 years”] but, in effect, it makes no difference, for in India the rule of immemorial antiquity does not operate, and a usage of twenty years standing even if it may not be characterised as custom, is followed nevertheless.
Another doctrine adopted in India, for which no parallel can be found in England, is that a family can renounce customs applicable to it and adopt other customs. Another English rule was held not applicable to India which is that if a custom was alleged as applicable to a particular district, and the evidence tendered in its support proved that the rights claimed had been enjoyed by the people outside the district, the custom would fail.
The looseness with which the English tests of a valid custom were applied in India had a good result in the formative stages of the judicial system, for, that way most of the customary law of the people was preserved. Even in matters of proof, the courts were not very technical or scrutinising. [In two cases, Rup Chand v. Jambu Parshad (1909) 37 IA 93 (adoption of a married person amongst Jains) and Chiman Lal v. Hari Chand (1913) 40 IA 156 (adoption completed merely by unequivocal declaration to that effect and treatment of the adoptee as adopted son) though the Privy Council was not satisfied with the evidence, as it was 'somewhat limited' in character and so cautioned against treating these cases as precedents for the future, did, nevertheless, apply custom to the instant situations at hand]. Had those tests been rigidly applied,

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most of the customary law would have disappeared resulting in great injustice to the unsophisticated people; it would have created a great void in the judicial system because in the early British days the legislature was not active, did not enact laws in the area of private law, and judges had to decide cases, in the absence of law, by justice, equity and good conscience. In part, the judicial attitude of tolerance and indulgence to custom may be explained by the fact that legislature being inactive, and there being no lex loci in the country, if customs were rejected on technical grounds, there would be no law to apply and the courts would be forced to invent principles to decide cases. Rather than resort to principles borrowed from a foreign Jurisprudence and unknown to people, it was better to enforce such customs as were available even though they might not fulfil all the rigours of English law. The judicial attitude was thus to some extent born out of necessity of the situation. This attitude towards custom did introduce an element of uncertainty and confusion as to the rights of individuals but that was for long the bane of the
Indian legal system, and this uncertainty was not so dangerous as would have arisen had the customs been abrogated and principles foreign to the people introduced.
Not only were customs recognised and legally enforced, a great effort was made to ascertain them and to reduce them in writing. It was done administratively, like compilation of riwaz-i-am, in addition to what happened judicially when a custom was held proved. Thus the customs which so long had been unwritten, and lived in the consciousness of the people, became certain and written.
This made the system more definite, but it did, on the other hand, stereotype the customs; the element of flexibility and growth disappeared; customary law became rigid and lost its capacity of organic growth. Thereafter, the system could grow and be developed by legislation, and it was not the policy of the British administration to interfere with the personal laws of the people except when there was public opinion for it. To take an example, in the area of Muslim law, the Shariat Act was passed as a result of the demand of the Muslim people. This Act abrogated, to a large extent, custom modifying the Muslim law. In the area of Hindu law reformative legislation was undertaken from time to time as a result of public opinion, which abrogated custom as well as regarded Hindu law as backward. One difference of approach between Hindus and Muslims may however be underlined. Whereas custom was abrogated to restore orthodox Muslim personal law, there is no example where a custom was abrogated to restore a principle of Dharmashastra. Whatever changes were made were to reform
Hindu law and to that extent, custom or text, whatever came in the way was abrogated. So much so, that through recent Hindu legislation, Hindu law has been codified and reformed and made uniform throughout the country, certain customs have been still preserved even at the cost of uniformity.
It appears that customs have had their heyday and they have practically exhausted their efficacy as law-creating agency. They have now ceased to act as a fruitful agency of law reform. New customs are difficult to get recognition from the courts. Their ascertainment has also led to their fixity. The future legal growth in India will be mostly due to legislation, and to some extent, judicial interpretation and precedent, though comparatively, the latter would be less important than the former.
And, usually, when a new legislation is passed custom to that extent is abrogated as is depicted by the recent Hindu legislation. This trend, however, is in line with the developments which have taken place in every complex society, where the custom becomes less effective. The test of custom is continued observance and customs ex hypothesi cannot be suddenly created to meet a new problem. Custom is

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useful for situations which have already occurred, but cannot create a rule to deal with a future difficulty. The predominance of custom makes the system less uniform; it varies from family to family, from region to region and from community to community. It places a double burden on the judiciary which has to decide not only questions of fact, but also to take evidence to decide existence and content of the custom alleged to be applicable to the facts. Judicial proceedings thus become dilatory and timeconsuming. It becomes expensive for the parties for they have to produce witnesses not only to testify to the facts of the case but also to custom. Till a custom is judicially accepted, position remains vague and indefinite for no one can feel sure whether the custom would be accepted as valid or not. All these considerations point to one inevitable result - abrogation of custom and enactment of legislation instead. This has already been achieved to some extent. As time passes on, custom is bound to lose its pre-eminent position which it has enjoyed so long in India. It was inevitable till the legal system i tself was in its formative stages. But when the legal system has achieved maturity, people have also become sophisticated and literate and, therefore, time is ripe for uniform legislation and abolition of custom. In every mature and developed system, custom plays a very minor role. Take the example of
England. There is one other very important reason as to why custom should now be abrogated. Most of the customs are tribal and communal or sectarian, and so long as custom survives, these class distinctions are also bound to survive. It would lead to a better integration of the people, if the sense of separation of each community arising out of its distinctive customs were removed. As it happens, in every progressive society, custom ceases to play an important role after a stage of social evolution is reached which appears to have been reached in India. It may be that customs of certain tribes may have to be preserved for a little longer time; the Constitution seeks to do that with respect to certain very backward areas like NEFA and Nagaland. These people are in a backward state of evolution, and their modes should not be changed suddenly till they have reached a stage of evolution where they can assimilate new ideas and principles and give up their habitual and traditional patterns without much violence to their feelings and susceptibilities. But, as regards the rest of the people, these considerations do not prevail; and with them, no justification to keep their disparate customs appears to be imperative any longer.

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LEARNING THE LAW
Glanville Williams
CASE LAW TECHNIQUE

Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dictum
English courts make a habit of following their previous decisions within more or less welldefined limits. This is called the doctrine of precedent. The part of a case that is said to possess authority is the ratio decidendi, that is to say, the rule of law upon which the decision is founded.
Finding the ratio decidendi of a case is an important part of the training of a lawyer. It is not a mechanical process but is an art that one gradually acquires through practice and study. One can, however, give a general description of the technique involved.
What the doctrine of precedent declares is that cases must be decided the same way when their material facts are the same. Obviously it does not require that all the facts should be the same. We know that in the flux of life all the facts of a case will never recur; but the legally material facts may recur and it is with these that the doctrine is concerned.
The ratio decidendi of a case can be defined as the material facts of the case plus the decision thereon. The same learned writer who advanced this definition went on to suggest a helpful formula. Suppose that in a certain case facts A, B and C exist; and suppose that the court finds that facts B and C are material and fact A immaterial, and then reaches conclusion X (e.g. judgment for the plaintiff, or judgment for the defendant). Then the doctrine of precedent enables us to say that in any future case in which facts B and C exist, or in which facts A and B and C exist, the conclusion must be X. If in a future case facts A, B, C and D exist, the fact D is held to be material, the first case will not be a direct authority, though it may be of value as an analogy.
What facts are legally material? Those depends on the particular case, but take as an illustration a “running down” action, that is to say, an action for injuries sustained through the defendant’s negligent driving of a vehicle. The fact that the plaintiff had red hair and freckles, that his name was Smith, and that the accident happened on a Friday are immaterial, for the rule of law upon which the decision proceeds will apply equally to persons who do not possess these characteristics and to accidents that happen on other days. On the other hand, the fact that the defendant drove negligently, and the fact that in consequence he injured the plaintiff, are material, and a decision in the plaintiff’s favour on such facts will be an authority for the proposition that a person is liable for causing damage through the negligent driving of a vehicle.
The foregoing is a general explanation of the phrase “the ratio decidendi of a case.” To get a clearer idea of the way in which a ratio decidendi is extracted, let us take a decided case and study it in detail. I set out below the case of Wilkinson v. Downton [1897] 2 QB 57, where the plaintiff was awarded damages by a jury for nervous shock, and the trial judge then heard

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argument on the question whether the verdict could be upheld in law. The first part of the judgment, which is all that needs be considered here, runs as follows.
WRIGHT, J. – In this case the defendant, in the execution of what he seems to have regarded as a practical joke, represented to the plaintiff that he was charged by her husband with a message to her to the effect that her husband was smashed up in an accident, and was lying at The Elms at Leytonstone with both legs broken, and that she was to go at once in a cab with two pillows to fetch him home. All this was false. The effect of the statement of the plaintiff was a violent shock to her nervous system, producing vomitting and other serious and permanent physical consequences at one time threatening her reason, and entailing weeks of suffering and incapacity to her as well as expense to her husband for medical attendance.
These consequences were not in any way the result of previous ill-health or weakness of the constitution; nor was there any evidence of predisposition to nervous shock or any other idiosyncrasy. In addition to these matters of substance there is a small claim for 1s.10½d. for the cost of railway fares of persons sent by the plaintiff to Leytonstone in obedience to the pretended message. As to this 1s.10½d, expended in railway fares on the faith of the defendant’s statement, I think the case is clearly within the decision in Pasley v. Freeman (1798) 3 T.R.
51. The statement was a misrepresentation intended to be acted on to the damage of the plaintiff. The real question is as to the £100, the greatest part of which is given as compensation for the female plaintiff’s illness and suffering. It was argued for her that she is entitled to recover this as being damages caused by fraud, and therefore within the doctrine established by Pasley v. Freeman and Langridge v. Levy (1837) 2 M. & W. 519. I am not sure that this would not be an extension of that doctrine, the real ground of which appears to be that a person who makes a false statement intended to be acted on must make good the damage naturally resulting from its being acted on. Here there is no injuria of that kind. I think, however, that the verdict may be supported upon another ground. The defendant has, as I assume for the moment, wilfully done an act calculated to cause physical harm to the plaintiff
– that is to say, to infringe her legal right to personal safety, and has in fact thereby caused physical harm to her. That proposition without more appears to me to state a good cause of action, there being no justification alleged for the act. This wilful injuria in law malicious, although no malicious purpose to cause the harm which was caused nor any motive of spite is imputed to the defendant.
It remains to consider whether the assumptions involved in the proposition are made out.
One question is whether the defendant’s act was so plainly calculated to produce some effect of the kind which was produced that an intention to produce it ought to be imputed to the defendant, regard being had to the fact that the effect was produced on a person proved to be in an ordinary state of health and mind. I think that it was. It is difficult to imagine that such a statement, made suddenly and with apparent seriousness, could fail to produce grave effects

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under the circumstances upon any but an exceptionally indifferent person, and therefore an intention to produce such an effect must be imputed, and it is no answer in law to say that more harm was done than was anticipated, for that is commonly the case with all wrongs.
The reader will notice that the judge does not cite any authority for his decision that the £100 is recoverable. The only authorities he cites are authorities on which he says he prefers not to rely. The reason is that at the date when the case was decided there was no English authority on the general question whether it was a tort intentionally to inflict bodily harm on another. There was, indeed, the very ancient tort of battery, which is committed when D hits or stabs or shoots P.
But Downton committed no battery upon Mrs. Wilkinson; nor did he assault her by threatening a battery. Consequently, the case was one “of first impression,” and the judge decided it merely on common-sense principles. It would be a grave approach to a civilised system of law if it did not give a remedy on such facts.
Let us now see how the ratio decidendi is to be extracted. This is done by finding the material facts. The judge has already done much of the work for us, because he has omitted from his judgment many of the facts given in evidence that were obviously irrelevant to the legal issue
– e.g. the address at which the plaintiff lived. But the judgment mentions the address at which the husband was supposed to be lying, which also is clearly irrelevant. As a first step in boiling it down we may say that the essential facts, and the pith of the judgment, were as follows:
The defendant by way of what was meant to be a joke told the plaintiff that the latter’s husband had been smashed up in an accident. The plaintiff, who had previously been of normal health, suffered a shock and serious illness. Wright, J. held that the defendant was liable, not perhaps for the tort of deceit but because the defendant had wilfully done an act calculated to cause physical harm to the plaintiff, and had in fact caused such harm.
The above would represent the sort of note that an intelligent student would make of the case.
How are we to frame the ratio decidendi? There are two main possibilities.
The first would be to take such of the detailed facts as may be deemed to be material, plus the decision on the facts. This would result in the following rule: that where the defendant has wilfully told the plaintiff a lie of a character that is likely (a clearer word that “calculated”) to frighten and so cause physical harm to the plaintiff, and it has in fact caused such harm, the defendant is liable, in the absence of some ground justification.
The ratio omits to specify the particular lie told by the defendant, because this was immaterial. What mattered was not the particular lie as to the plaintiff’s husband’s alleged injury, but the more general fact of lying. The particular lie told by the defendant was material only in the sense that it was the sort of lie that was likely to frighten and cause physical harm to the plaintiff. But, it may be objected, such a ratio would be too narrow, because the learned judge evidently intended to lay down a wider rule. He did not confine his judgment to lies, but spoke only of wilfully doing an act which is calculated to and does cause physical harm; and this gives

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us the true ratio. It was immaterial that the particular form of mischief perpetrated by the defendant took the form of a verbal lie; it might have been some other act likely to cause harm, and the legal outcome would have been the same. This, indeed, is common sense. A person with
Downton’s juvenile sense of humour who dresses up as a ghost, or who puts a squib under somebody else’s chair, would doubtless find himself in the same legal category as Downton.
Again, the judge did not speak of fright when he formulated the principle of his decision. He spoke of causing physical harm, which is much wider. On this principle, an outrageous threat causing suffering is a tort. In a subsequent case, Janvier v. Sweeny [1919] 2 K.B. 316, which approved Wilkinson v. Downton, the defendant threatened to arrest and prosecute the plaintiff, a foreign servant-girl, if she did not give certain information; the defendant knew that any charge he brought against the girl would be quite unfounded, and the girl became ill with distress. It was held that she had a good cause of action. Another application of the principle occurs where the harm operates directly on the plaintiff’s body, not indirectly through the mind – as where the defendant blackens a towel with which the plaintiff is about to wipe his face, or secretly adds poison to the plaintiff’s drink. Although these situations have not been the subject of reported decisions, there is no doubt that they would fall under the principle of Wilkinson v. Downton.
The reader may now be feeling rather puzzled to the meaning of ratio decidendi. We started off with a possible narrow ratio decidendi of the case, incorporating the fact of lying and the fact of fright. Then we passed to a wider ratio, which evidently accords with common sense as well as with the language of the judgment, in which the facts of lying and fright have disappeared.
How can this be reconciled with our definition of ratio decidendi as the material facts plus the decision thereon? Were not the lie and the fright material facts in Wilkinson v. Downton? If there had been no lie and no fright, and no equivalent facts in their place, the plaintiff would not have won. What exactly do we mean by a “material fact”?
The answer is that we have not been using this expression in a consistent way, and it is necessary to restate the position in more exact language. What is really involved in finding the ratio decidendi of a case is a process of abstraction. Abstraction is the mental operation of picking out certain qualities and relations from the facts of experience. Imagine a baby in whose household there is a terrier called Caesar. The baby will be taught to call this dog “bow-wow,” because, “bow-wow” is easier to say than “Caesar.” If he sees another dog he will guess or be told that this other dog is to be called “bow-wow” as well. This is an example of one of the baby’s earliest feats of abstraction. Abstraction comes through the perception of similarities between individual facts, and all language and all thinking depend upon it.
The next point to be noticed is that this process of abstraction may be carried to progressively higher flights. The individual dog Caesar is, at a low level of abstraction, a terrier; at a higher level he is a dog; higher still, a mammal and then an animal and a living thing. In the same way a man might say that he was born at the Piccaninny Nursing Home; in London; in England; in
Europe. All these are “facts,” but they are facts belonging to different levels of abstraction.

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We are not in a better position to state the ratio decidendi of a case. The ascertainment of the ratio decidendi of a case depends upon a process of abstraction from the totality of facts that occurred in it. The higher the abstraction, the wider the ratio decidendi. Thus a rule that “it is a tort to tell a lie that is likely to and does cause fright and consequent physical harm” is a narrow rule, belonging to a low level of abstraction from the facts of the particular case in which it was laid down; leave out the reference to fright, and it becomes wider; replace “tell a lie” by “do any act with intent to affect the plaintiff in body or mind” and it becomes wider still. It is the last rule that is the ratio decidendi of Wilkinson v. Downton. We carry on the process of abstraction until all the particular facts have been eliminated except the fact of the doing of an act that is intended to affect the plaintiff adversely and is likely to cause physical harm; and the fact of the occurrence of such harm.
How do we know when to stop with our abstraction? The answer is: primarily by reading what the judge says in his judgment, but partly also our knowledge of the law in general, and by our common sense and our feeling for what the law ought to be. It so happens that in the case we have been considering the learned judge formulates the rule fairly clearly, but sometimes the rule stated in the judgment incorporates facts which as a matter of common sense are not essential, and sometimes it goes to the opposite extreme of being too sweeping – as can be demonstrated either by the use of common sense or by referring to other decided cases. The finding of the ratio decidendi is not an automatic process; it calls for lawyerly skill and knowledge.
Distinguishing
Certain general truths implicit in the foregoing discussion may now be stated more explicitly.
In the first place, a case may have not but several rationes decidendi, of ascending degrees of generality. We have seen two of three possible rationes in Wilkinson v. Downton. The third was accepted not only because it was stated by the judge but also because it accorded with common sense and with other authorities. Sometimes a judge will lay down a rule that is narrower than is required by common sense, and a later court may then say that the rule ought to be read more widely, by abandoning some limitation unnecessarily expressed in it. Indeed, one such unnecessary limitation can be found in the judgment in Wilkinson v. Downton. The rule stated by Wright, J. refers to a person who has “wilfully” done an act calculated to cause physical harm, and the primary meaning of a “wilful” act is one that is done with the intention of bringing about a particular consequence. Downton did not, perhaps, intend to cause Mrs. Wilkinson a serious illness, but he did intend to frighten her, and that was sufficient. But, as a matter of common sense, the rule should be extended also to one who is merely reckless as to the harm in question
(and the word “wilful” is, indeed, capable of extending to recklessness). If Downton had made the lying statement to Mrs. Wilkinson in order to persuade her to accompany him for some secret end of his own, realizing that the statement would be likely to frighten her but not desiring (and therefore not intending) the fright itself, his liability should be just the same as for a tort of intention. This was the essential position in the case of the foreign servant-girl referred to before: what the defendant intended in that case was to put pressure upon the girl to make her talk; he

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must have foreseen the possibility of causing her great distress, but his mind was directed towards making her do what he wanted, not towards distress. In analysis, the case is one of recklessness as to the plaintiff’s fright, not one of intention as to the fright; but the legal liability should be, and is, the same.
One may argue that there is another unnecessary limitation contained in the judgment in
Wilkinson v. Downton. The judge referred to the fact that the plaintiff had been in normal health, yet it is not possible but probable that the decision would have been just the same even if her health had previously been poor - for the fact that the plaintiff is in poor health can be no excuse to a defendant who tells her a cruel lie that would be likely to cause her physical harm. The fact that the particular plaintiff had been in good health removed a complication that the judge might otherwise have had to consider, and for that reason he referred to it; but all the same a later court may, on mature consideration and when the question arises, decide that the limitation is unnecessary. Conversely, it sometimes happens that a judge will lay down a rule that is unnecessarily wide for the decision of the case before him; a later court may say that it is too wide, and needs to be cut down.
This point leads on to the second. The phrase “the ratio decidendi of a case” is slightly ambiguous. It may mean either (1) the rule that the judge who decided the case intended to lay down and apply to the facts, or (2) the rule that a later court concedes him to have had the power to lay down. The last sentence is rather clumsy, but what I mean is this. Courts do not accord to their predecessors an unlimited power of laying down wide rules. They are sometimes apt to say, in effect: “Oh yes, we know that in that case the learned judge purported to lay down such and such a rule; but that rule was unnecessarily wide for the decision of the case before him, because, you see, the rule makes no reference to fact A, which existed in the case, and which we regard as a material fact, and as a fact that ought to have been introduced into the ratio decidendi.” One circumstance that may induce a court to adopt this niggling attitude towards an earlier decision is the necessity of reconciling that decision with others. Or again, the court in the earlier case may have enunciated an unduly wide rule without considering all its possible consequences, some of which are unjust or inconvenient or otherwise objectionable. Yet another possibility is that the earlier decision is altogether unpalatable to the court in the later case, so that the latter court wishes to interpret it as narrowly as possible.
This process of cutting down the expressed ratio decidendi of a case is one kind of
“distinguishing.” It may be called “restrictive” distinguishing, to differentiate it from the other kind, genuine or non-restrictive distinguishing. Non-restrictive distinguishing occurs where a court accepts the expressed ratio decidendi of the earlier case, and does not seek to curtail it, but finds that the case before it does not fall within this ratio decidendi because of some material difference of fact. Restrictive distinguishing cuts down the expressed ratio decidendi of the earlier case by treating as material to the earlier decision some fact, present in the earlier case,

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which the earlier court regarded as immaterial, or by introducing a qualification (exception) into the rule stated by the earlier court.
Wilkinson v. Downton has not been cut down, because the wide principle has commended itself to later judges. If, however, a case ever arises in which Wright J.’s wide rule is thought to carry the law too far, the decision can be restrictively distinguished.
I have stressed this matter of distinguishing because it plays a most important part in legal argument. Suppose that you are conducting a case in court, and that the other side cites a case against you. You then have only two alternatives (that is, if you are not prepared to throw your hand in altogether). One is to submit that the case cited is wrongly decided, and so should not be followed. This is possible only if the case is not binding on the court. The other is to
“distinguish” it, by suggesting that it contains or lacks some vital fact that is absent or present in your client’s case. Sometimes you may have the sympathy of the judge in your effort to distinguish it, even though the distinction you suggest involves tampering with the expressed ratio decidendi of the precedent case and even though you have no authority for the suggested distinction. Your judge may be gravely dissatisfied with the case and yet, owing to our excessively strict doctrine of precedent, it may be impossible for him to overrule it. In such circumstances it is simply human nature that he will distinguish it if he can. He may, in extreme and unusual circumstances, be apt to seize on almost any factual difference between this previous case and the case before him in order to arrive at a different decision. Some precedents are continually left on the shelf in this way; as a wag observed, they become very “distinguished.”
The limit of the process is reached when a judge says that the precedent is an authority only “on its actual facts.” For most practical purposes this is equivalent to announcing that it will never be followed. It is not suggested that this extreme form of distinguishing is a common occurrence, for generally judges defer to the decisions of their predecessors both in the letter and in the spirit, even though they dislike them. But restrictive distinguishing does happen, and the possibility of its happening makes it of great importance to the lawyer.
Obiter Dicta
In contrast with the ratio decidendi is the obiter dictum. The latter is a mere saying by the way, a chance remark, which is not binding upon future courts, though it may be respected according to the reputation of the judge, the eminence of the court, and the circumstances in which it came to be pronounced. An example would be a rule of law stated merely by way of analogy or illustration, or a suggested rule upon which the decision is not finally rested. The reason for not regarding an obiter dictum as binding is that it was probably made without a full consideration of the cases on the point, and that, if very broad in its terms, it was probably made without a full consideration of all the consequences that may follow from it; or the judge may not have expressed a concluded opinion.
An example of an obiter dictum occurs in Wilkinson v. Downton when the learned judge is considering the argument that the plaintiff is entitled to recover damages for the tort of deceit. At

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first sight this may seem a good argument, because the defendant could certainly be said in a popular sense to have deceived the plaintiff. But it is generally taken to be essential for the tort of deceit that the defendant should have intended the plaintiff to have acted on the statement, and that the plaintiff should have so acted to his detriment, for which detriment he now claims damages. Mrs. Wilkinson recovered 1s. 10½d. as damages for deceit, because this was a sum of money that she had spent in reliance on the defendant’s deceitful statement. But the fact that she became ill was not an act of reliance upon the statement. It was a spontaneous reaction to the statement. Consequently, the learned judge preferred not to rest his judgment upon this ground.
He did not positively pronounce against it, but his words seem to indicate that he thought that as the law now stands the claim could not properly be based on the tort of deceit. One may say, therefore, that there is a very tentative dictum against the plaintiff on this particular issue. But the point was not finally decided, and in any case was not made the ground of the decision, and so the observations made upon it were obiter.
There is another kind of obiter dictum, which perhaps is not, properly speaking, an obiter dictum at all, namely, a ratio decidendi that in the view of a subsequent court is unnecessarily wide. It is not an obiter dictum in the primary meaning of that phrase, because it is constructed out of the facts of the case and the decision is rested upon it. But, as we have seen, later courts reserve the right to narrow it down, and in doing so they frequently attempt to justify themselves by declaring that the unnecessarily wide statement was obiter. The real justification for the practice of regarding what is really ratio decidendi as obiter dictum, which is to say for restrictive distinguishing, is the undesirability of hampering the growth of English law through the too extensive application of the doctrine of precedent. A court may restrictively distinguish its own decisions, or those of a court on the same level, but it will not generally dare to do this with the decisions of courts superior to it in the hierarchy, particularly the House of Lords.
It is frequently said that a ruling based upon hypothetical facts is obiter. This is often true.
Thus if the judge says: “I decide for the defendant; but if the facts had been properly pleaded I should have found for the plaintiff,” the latter part of the statement is obiter. But there is at least one exception. In the past, when the defendant pleaded an “objection in point of law” (the former
“demurrer”), legal arguments might take place on this before the trial, and for the purpose of the argument and the decision it was assumed that all the facts stated in the plaintiff’s pleadings were true. A decision pronounced on such assumed facts is not an obiter dictum. However, the practice of arguing the law before adducing evidence is now virtually obsolete.
If a decision would otherwise be a binding authority, it does not lose that status merely because the point was not argued by counsel (this will be important only as a way of attacking a decision that is of merely persuasive authority). But what is called a decision sub silentio is not binding: that is to say, one in which the existence of the particular point was not perceived by the court, so that it was not discussed in the judgment in Barrs v. Bethell [1981] 3 W.L.R. 874. This is so, at least, where the precedent case is that of the same court. The House of Lords would probably regard its own decision sub silentio as binding on the Court of Appeal.

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WELFARE STATE AND RULE OF LAW
W. Friedmann
The scientific significance of the vast volume of discussion – and otherwise – about the meaning of the rule of law is of modest proportions.
In a purely formal sense, the rule of law means no more than organized public power. In that sense, any system of norms based on a hierarchy of orders, even the organized mass murders of the Nazi regime, qualify as law. As the ‘science of law’ is understood by positivists theories – the rule of law means the rule of organization. Such a concept is as unassailable as it is empty.
It is on the rule of law in its ideological sense, as implying the yardstick by which to measure ‘good’ against ‘bad’ law that the discussion has centred. The difficulty however is that to give to the ‘rule of law’ concept a universally acceptable ideological content is as difficult as to achieve the same for ‘natural law’. In fact, the two concepts converge. Just as natural law philosophy covers whole spectrum from revolutionary to ultra-conservative ideologies, so the rule of law means to one the absolute integrity of private property, to another the maintenance of private enterprise, free from state control and official regulation, and to another the preservation of the ‘right to work’ against the power of unions to determine conditions of labour. To some, the rule of law means a minimum of administrative power, even if it entails the sacrifice of good government, whereas to others it means, on the contrary, assurance by the state to all of minimum standards of living and security.
Is it possible to extract, from the welter of extravagant and conflicting claims, any minimum content that is generally acceptable? Such an attempt must, of course, base itself on values and standards acceptable to contemporary society, not on conditions of the past. For this reason, we already noted in an earlier chapter (see p.378), Dicey’s formulation of the rule of law is no longer acceptable, since it equates the rule of law with the absence not only of arbitrary, but even of ‘wide discretionary power’.
The weaknesses of Dicey’s conception are magnified in the modern reformulation of the rule of law by Hayek, which (a) identifies the rule of law with the economic and political philosophy of laissez-faire, and (b) is predicated on the fixity of legal rules, and the corresponding absence of judicial discretion.
Other than in the purely formal sense, we cannot formulate any content for the ‘rule of law’ which would be equally applicable to Democratic, Fascist, Socialist and Catholic states. The problem is narrowed down if we seek to establish a meaning for the rule of law in modern democratic society, but even here we shall have to differentiate between various types of democracies. Thus, the Common-law tradition emphasizes the need for a unitary system of judicial control as an essential safeguard of individual liberties against administrative arbitrariness, while the Continental systems regard the full-fledged hierarchy of administrative courts as a more secure safeguard against abuse of public power.

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But the differences within the common-law family are no less important, especially as between the British and the American models of a 'government under law'. Any attempt to formulate a concept of the rule of law acceptable to modern democratic ideas must seek to find a common denominator.
A democratic ideal of justice must rest on the three foundations of equality, liberty and ultimate control of government by the people. It is, however, far from easy to give these concepts a specific content. Democracy is certainly based on the ideal of equality, but no democratic state has seriously attempted to translate this ideal into the absolute equality of all. There are numerous inevitable inequalities of function and status, between adults and infants, between sane persons and insane, between civilians and military, between private citizens and officials. We can still not formulate the principle of equality in more specific terms than Aristotle who said that justice meant the equal treatment of those who are equal before the law. We can give to this apparent tautology a more concrete meaning by saying that a democratic ideal of justice demands that inequalities shall be inequalities of function and service but shall not be derived from distinctions based on race, religion, or other personal attributes. In a society governed by international law we should add that inequalities must not be based on nationality. But in a society still dominated by national sovereignty this is no more than a pious aspiration.
The meaning of 'liberty' is hardly more easy to define. In terms of a democratic ideal of justice, liberty means certain rights of personal freedom which must be secure from interference by government. They include legal protection from arbitrary arrest, freedom of opinion and association, of contract, labour and many others. Briefly, they may be subsumed under the two broad categories of the freedom of the person and the freedom of the mind. But there is perhaps only one legal and constitutional maxim of general validity which can be deduced from this principle, that in so far as an individual is granted specific rights they should be secure from arbitrary interference.
This means that a judiciary as independent from interference by the executive as possible, given the interlocking of state functions and the human factor in the judicial function, is an essential of the democratic ideal of justice. But it is impossible to lay down a generally accepted rule either as to the substance of those rights or as to the manner of their protection. The
Declaration of Rights, adopted in 1948 by the United Nations, is vastly different from the Bill of
Rights embodied in the American Constitution. The Australian Constitution contains no individual rights other than the guarantee of religious freedom and perhaps- though this is still very much open to doubt-a protection of the individual from the restriction of free inter-state trade by state regulation (Section 92), British law knows of no guarantees of individual rights other than the limited guarantees of personal freedom in the Bill of Rights of 1688 and the
Habeas Corpus Acts. Some additional protection for individual is provided by the procedures established under the European Convention on the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. In one type or democracy, a written constitution, which it is normally very difficult to alter, formulates and at the same time petrifies the meaning of the rule of law in a manner binding upon

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Legislative and executive alike. Under these systems, a law court acquires the decisive function or an authoritative interpreter or the meaning of the rule of law, within the framework of the
Constitution. This conception or 'Government under law', classically represented by the United
States legal system, commends itself especially to federal democracies (though not to all of them) and the post-war Constitution of West Germany and India have placed a Court in a comparable position of ultimate arbiter, both of individual rights guaranteed in the constitution, and of the respective rights and powers of federation and states. Although the Canadian Bill of Rights
(1960) is, in form, an ordinary statute, the Supreme Court of Canada, in the Drybone case treated it as 'higher law', which invalidates any legislative provision incompatible with it (such as discrimination against Indians). The only difference between this type of constitutional guarantee and that of the aforementioned federal constitutions is that the Canadian Bill of Rights can, in theory, be amended or abrogated by ordinary statute. It is difficult to exaggerate the difference between this system of ultimate judicial control, which gives way to political control only in the rare cases of constitutional amendment, and the purely political control of constitutional power which prevails in countries such as Great Britain. There the rule of law leaves Parliament as the supreme law-giver, and the Judge has the much more limited function of interpreting statutes, in so far as they come before him. If his interpretation differs too much from that of prevailing public opinion, a simple statute will alter the law. The difference between these two types of democratic systems is far more fundamental than that between English and Continental ideals of justice which Dicey exaggerated so much,
Lastly, the principle of control by the people means that law must ultimately be the responsibility of the elected representatives of the people. This is, indeed, a vital principle but it can say little about the technique by which the modern legislator can discharge this function.
A more serious and universal danger to the principles of representative democracy arises from the decline of active civic participation- a product of the explosive increase of numbers, of urbanization and of the dulling impact of modern mass media of communication. Some democracies - e.g. Australia - seek to solve the problem of apathy by statutory compulsion to vote. But even such a system-which may other democracies reject & as basically undemocratic cannot create an active sense of participation, beyond the occasional process of voting. On the national level, only a few small democracies, notably, Switzerland has been able to preserve something of a direct participation of the average citizen in national processes. The large democracies of today must seek to maintain or revive the average citizen’s sense of responsibility and participation by a variety of devices: education in public and international affairs, which of course, is meaningful only where freedom of press and other media of opinion is vigorously maintained ; the decentralization of functions in the body political which enables the citizen to participate actively in the affairs of his local community (covering such vital fields as educational health, town planning and the like), of his church, his trade union or the various social services.
None of these devices can counter the basic facts of our society, which tend to separate the elected representatives of the people more and more from the electors, because of numbers,

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distances and the complexities of the modern machinery of government. It is all the more important that the law should be rigorous and vigilant in its watch over abuses, e.g. in assuring freedom from pressure in elections, in the standards of integrity imposed upon members of legislative bodies no less than those of the executive and the judiciary. By such preventive and curative devices, the law can help to maintain or restore the principles of control by the people and the means by which it attempts to do so much vary from country to country and from one situation to another. The basic safeguard or this aspect of the 'rule or law' lies, however, in extralegal elements only a society whose members are imbued with their personal sense of responsibility can profit from legal safeguards.
No contemporary analysis of the rule of law can ignore the vast expansion of government functions which has occurred as a result both of the growing complexity of modern life, and of the minimum postulates of social justice which are now of the established public philosophy in all civilized countries.
Five different states functions call for analysis. They result from the activities of the state: first, as Protector; secondly, as Provider; thirdly, as Entrepreneur; fourthly, as Economic
Controller; fifthly, as Arbitrator.
The state acts first as a protector. This is its traditional function, and classical liberal thought regards it as the only legitimate function of the state. Older British and American decisions reflect this conception in describing defence, foreign affairs, police and the administration of justice as the legitimate functions of the state. To this may be added a limited taxing power confined to the efficient discharge of these functions. These are the traditional spheres of state sovereignty, and consequently, it is in this field that the inequalities which detract from the rule of law in Dicey's sense are most evident, though Dicey consistently attempted to belittle them for the sake of his principle. The immunities and privileges of the Crown, in regard to litigation, taxing, submission to statutes and other fields, are survivals of feudal sovereignty; the special law and jurisdiction for military forces are an aspect of the defence power. The important prerogatives of the executive lie in the fields of foreign affairs and defence. The emergency defence powers of the executive in time of danger, the so-called acts of state, and other prerogatives which are above judicial scrutiny are all detractions from the principle of equality. They are bearable only as long as state functions are limited. As the activities of the state extend in the direction of industrial and commercial enterprise and of social services, the whole field of these privileges and immunities requires redefinition and limitation; otherwise it would gradually engulf a growing portion of the whole field of law.
But for further and increasingly important functions of the modern state now look for adequate legal analysis. The first of these is the function of the state as provider. Legally it expresses itself in two different ways, Many important social services are discharged through the imposition of compulsory duties and conditions on private relationships. A multitude of statutory duties affects both public and private law; their infringement leads to fines, as well as to remedies at the suit of persons protected by the statute. There is a parallel expansion of common-law duties

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of employers towards employees through the assimilation of new principles of public policy by the law courts. At the same time, social minimum standards are enforced through compulsory conditions in contract. Service contracts are subject to many such compulsory terms. The Truck
Acts invalidate provisions for payment in kind to defined categories of servants. Repatriation
Acts compel the reinstatement of ex-servicemen. Agriculture Acts lay down compulsory terms of agricultural tendencies in the interests of agricultural efficiency. Employment contracts are subject to compulsory insurance terms.
The discharge of social-service functions also requires a multitude of active administrative and managerial functions by government departments or independent public authorities. Public and
Private law are intermingled. Catchment boards, regional hospital boards, repatriation
Commissions, forest commissions, discharge administrative functions of a social- service character. In doing so, they must make contracts, buy and sell large quantities of equipment and other goods, engage and dismiss staff, and undertake altogether a multitude of activities regulated by the law of property, tort and contract. The main legal problem here is the adjustment of discretion and private law obligations. The discussion of this problem has shown the need to bring the legal duties of public authorities into line with the general law, except where this would impair the fulfillment of overriding public duties.
Next the modern state acts as entrepreneur. It increasingly engages in the conduct of industrial and commercial activities. It does so either directly, through the state ownership of ships or railways or increasingly through independent corporate authorities, such as coal boards, transport commissions, atomic energy authorities or state trading and development corporations.
Sometimes, the state simply acquires a controlling interest in a company. The legal form of the enterprise, which is, from a sociological and economic point of view, a matter of accident, should not determine legal rights and liabilities. While the Crown must be made fully liable in tort and in contract, commercial and industrial activities should as a rule be carried on by incorporated public authorities. The Crown will always enjoy certain privileges, for example, freedom from certain taxes; but the incorporated public authority should be subject to the same rights and liabilities as any other legal person. It should be liable for taxes, rates and other charges and be bound by general statutes. This is the legal position of the nationalized industries in Britain.
Subjection to ordinary legal liabilities need not, prevent the fulfillment of economic, social and other planning functions. Both government departments and separate public authorities operate in the service of public interests or national plans, to which the legal principle of security of transactions must be adjusted. As we have seen, the break clauses in government contracts safeguards the power of the government to terminate contracts which have lost their purpose, such as war supplies, subject to fair compensation and indemnification. This is no worse, and in some cases compares favorably with the standard terms contractually imposed by private industries on the other party. But the government should not be judge in its own case. Disputes arising from such contracts should be justiciable, whether before the ordinary courts, an arbitration court, or an administrative tribunal.

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In a mixed economy public enterprise operates side by side with private enterprise. In
Australia, for example, a decision of the High Courts has confirmed the constitutional power of the Commonwealth to establish a government operated inter state airline, but has denied it the power to operate an inter-state airlines monopoly. As a result, a government controlled airline operates side by side with private airlines.
In many cases, public and private enterprises co-exist in the same field, as a result of partial or ad hoc nationalisations. Thus, in France, the largest motor-car manufacturer, Renault, is a state enterprise, nationalized after the Second World War. The other motor- car manufacturers remain in private hands, In India, the new steel mills constructed by. British, German and Soviet contractors are, in accordance with the Indian Constitution, state-owned. But a sizable sector of the steel industry remains in the hands of the giant private concern, TATA.
There are also indirect forms of competition between private and public enterprise; where alternative products of services compete for the same market, This, in Britain coal, electricity, gas and atomic energy are operated by government-owned corporations, while the production and refining of oil remains in private hands.
Does the rule of law demand that the Government should dispense its favours equally among its own instrumentality and the private operators? Is there anything objectionable, for example, in the government giving all air-mail contracts to the government, enterprise or ordering civil servants to use no other air transport? It seems that to hold so would; be an impossible legal fetter on policy decisions in a democratic community. The establishment of public enterprises is the result of a parliamentary decision and subject to parliamentary control. It is a perfectly legitimate objective for the government of the day to encourage a form of enterprise which it regards as preferable to private enterprise, within the limits set by a Constitution or other positive legal restrictions. It would be absurd to expect a Labour Government to allocate contracts equally among its own enterprise and private competitors if this is contrary to its avowed policy, and in the play of political forces it will be for any alternative government to reverse this policy if it wishes. For the sake of continuity, a wise government will act with moderation either way; but this is a matter of policy, not of law,
The dual role of the state which both enters into the field of government and industrial commercial management and, at the same time, acts as the general controller over the allocation of economic resources for the nation, leads however to a further and more subtle problem. The state as economic controller allocates scarce resources among different industries and for different purposes. Economic necessity may reinforce social policy. In a social democracy like modern Britain after the war or India at the present time, essential industries are favoured as against luxury industries, exports at the expense of home consumption. This means not only the allocation of essential materials and foreign exchange according to a priorities plan, but also sometimes the direction of labour. In this capacity, the state can exercise a two fold vital influence which is not immediately apparent in individual legal transactions, but which regulates them by remote control. A state can thwart certain industries and encourage others. But it can so

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exercise a vital influence on the scope of individual liberties. Steel or coal are purely economic commodities; paper is not only an economic commodity which costs money, but also the material basis without which intellectual freedom is bound to wither. Again, the direction of labour threatens one of the most vital aspects of person restricted by existing social and economic conditions, by newspaper or broadcasting monopolies, economic compulsion, and other factors.
But the threat is no less great if it comes from the state itself. The problem does not exist in a totalitarian planned economy, where any protection of individual freedoms is at best conditional and where such rights of private property and enterprise as remain are clear]y subject to overriding state necessities. But it is acute in a planned economy of the democratic type which regards certain individual freedoms as essential and recognizes the existence of a private economic sector along with public enterprise.
The power of the government of the day to throttle criticism by its policy in allocating paper or broadcasting licences, or to curtail freedom of personal movement by direction of labour, certainly raises one of the gravest problems in modern planned democracy. Under the American
Constitution, such action might result in complex legal controversies, about the interpretation of the Bill of Rights of the Constitution, in particular the First, fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. In
Great Britain, this is a matter of purely political decision, for Parliament and public opinion. The vigilance of Parliament and public opinion may, in special cases, justify the setting up of representative commissions to investigate problems of urgent concern. But, ultimately, it is the alertness and strength of a conviction of a community on which the prevention of destruction of liberties by such eroding processes depends.
Finally, the state functions as arbiter between different groups in society. The term
'collectivist' state is often used loosely. A social-service state need not be collectivist. It can be a parental or dictatorial state, dispensing social welfare amongst citizens while forbidding them to engage in any autonomous collectivist association, like Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy or France's
Spain. On the other hand, the state may take complete responsibility for all group activities going on within its borders, while regarding their quasi- autonomous organization as convenient and necessary .from an administrative and managerial point of view. This is the position in Soviet
Russia where the managements of state- operated industries face trade unions.
But the trade unions arc not genuinely autonomous collective organizations. They represent group interests, within a well defined national plan, and subject to overriding state policy ensured by the one-party system, political pressure and the many other sanctions at the disposal of the totalitarian state. In the modern democratic society, group associations are still permitted to develop freely in principle and to adjust their relations by 'mutual agreement’, which is in the sphere of private law. This purely passive functions of the state is proving increasingly insufficient. As the moral and legal authority of employers' associations and trade unions increases, their agreements become more and more a matter of national concern. The vast majority of states are now in a condition of more or less permanent economic crisis. They cannot afford a prolonged standstill of production, or a rise of prices, profits and wages which paralyses

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the economic capacity of the nation. Hence the state must intervene, by wage boards, conciliation commissioners, compulsory rewards, as arbitration courts and other means designed to ensure industrial peace as well as a certain amount of public influence on the formation of prices and wages. It is almost impossible to reconcile a compulsory national wage policy with the recognition of full freedom or organized groups and the consequent right of unimpeded collective bargaining. The most desirable solution is voluntary agreement and persuasion, but this leaves the legal dilemma unsolved. Freedom of association must include the freedom not to associate. It is true that, increasingly, agreements made between the major employers' and employees' associations are applied to the whole industry so that even non-members join in the benefits of such agreements. Graver, however, than this situation would be the recognition of a general principle of compulsory union membership as a condition of employment. This would transform democratic industrial society into that of the corporate state. The practical difference is small, for the trend is towards powerful unions which hardly need coercion. The freedom of the occasional dissenter makes a difference of principle out of proportion to its economic significance.
In short, the state as arbiter in a democratic country has three tasks. The maintenance of a rough balance between contending organized groups and the usually unorganized consumer; the protection of the individual freedom of association; and the safeguarding of overriding state interests. Our individual ideals of the rule of law may correspond to the enlightened rationalism of the eighteenth-century aristocracy, to nineteenth- century Manchester middle-class liberalism, to the value system of Catholic Church, or to the centrally directed economy of a Socialist state. But a meaningful definition of rule of law must be based on the realities of contemporary society, and this means that we must recognize the irreducible minimum functions of modern government, as well as the ubiquitous strength of group power. This still leaves plenty of choice between different ideas. A meaningful formulation of the rule of law for a contemporary democracy can only set the sights. It cannot be spelt out in terms of nineteenth-century ideals, of the philosophy of the Founding Fathers, of a Bentham or a Dicey. The basic value remains of the conditions that enable the individual to develop into a morally and intellectually responsible person. But the means by which this goal is to be attained cannot be deeply influenced by the social conditions in which we live. The ideal of social welfare, i.e. of the responsibility of the community for minimum standards of living and protection against the major vicissitudes that would leave the individual-except the fortunate few- destitute and degraded, provided only with the theoretical freedoms of contract, property and trade, is now almost universally accepted. But welfare and work, without responsibility, can lead to the completely regimented and conditioned society. The rule of law in democracy must, therefore, safeguard the elementary rights of participation in the process of government. It must devise adequate protection against the abuse of both public and private power. Now the balance is to be struck must, to a large extent, depend on the changing conditions of society. Today the elementary standards of living are, more than at any previous period, protected by social-security laws and the recognition of collective bargaining as the

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predominant instrument of regulation of labour conditions. Emphasis is therefore, shifting to safeguards against administrative arbitrariness, the legal immunities of public authority, the excessive concentration of corporate power and abuses of union power over the individual. No less important are efforts designed to preserve effective, as distinct from nominal, freedom of opinion, and measures to preserve or restore the minimum possibilities of civic participation in public affairs without which democracy must wither. In all these fields the law has a vital part to play. That the content of the rule of law cannot be determined for all time and all circumstances is a matter not for lament but for rejoicing. It would be tragic if the law were so petrified to be unable to respond to the unending challenge of revolutionary changes in society. To the lawyer, this challenge means that he cannot be content to be craftsman. His technical knowledge will supply the tools but it is his sense of responsibility for the society in which he lives that must inspire him to be Jurist as well as lawyer.
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50 YEARS OF FREEDOM UNDER RULE OF LAW: INDIAN EXPERIENCE
J.S. Verma
“THE MAJOR problem of human society" observed the Supreme Court of India "is to combine that degree of liberty without which law is tyranny with that degree of law without which liberty becomes license” [Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, AIR 1975 SC 2299]. The perennial dilemma is to discover a measure of right balance appropriate to the ever-shifting tangle of human affairs. “A large part of the effort of man over centuries has been expended in seeking a solution of this great problem”. There are two aspects of government: Governing the governed and the government controlling itself. The devise adopted by all self-governing peoples devoted to the values of liberal democracy is the 'Rule of Law' as a moral, cultural and constitutional underpinning of this process.
The predicament of many of the emergent democracies in the post World War-II scenario indicates that the mere adoption of loftily worded constitutional documents without the spirit of liberty and constitutionalism, is a mere rope of sand.
In many of the renascent democracies political activity has failed to ‘exhibit a decorous regard for the rules of constitutional game’. Federal constitutional structures failed to accept restraints on power at both the central and regional levels. Problems of pluralism presented the most difficult challenges to constitutionalism.
The experiments of Government and republicanism in India present to the political scientist an exciting arena. The English penchance for pragmatism has had its own though subtle influence on the judicial approach to many legal problems. As Prof. Atiyah rightly said, "Rights and duties after all, may exist on paper, but those who are unimpressed by pieces of paper may still have a healthy respect for threats of imprisonment remedies are ultimately what matter" and that it was the "profoundly English belief that an independent judiciary, and a judiciary with the power to issue practical orders, was more important than any number of grand theoretical declarations about the
Rights of Man" [P.S. Atiya: Pragmatism and Theory in English LAW 21 (1987)].
The machinery of justice in India, amidst all the din and clamour of democracy, has been greatly influenced by Rule of Law as a transcendental and paramount value, over-seeing the exercise of all powers. The concept of Rule of Law shares the common English inheritance and apart from the statement of generalities, it embraces a body of specific detail. It is this detail that furnishes the foundation for a pragmatic system of governance. The editors of Prof. de-Smith explain its contents:
"that laws as enacted by Parliament be faithfully executed by officials; that orders of courts should be obeyed; that individuals wishing to enforce the law should have reasonable access to the courts; that no person should be condemned unheard, and that power should not be arbitrarily exercised"
[de Smith, et al: Judicial Review of Administrative Action, 5th ed. 1995, 14]..
Indian Courts emphasised this content when they said that Rule of Law is an ‘expression to give reality to something which is not readily expressible but which postulates the pervasiveness of the spirit of law throughout the whole range of governmental action’. That is where “Law has reached

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its finest moments when it has freed man from the unlimited discretion of some ruler”. True enough that “Where discretion is absolute, man has always suffered”.
It was suggested in the majority opinion in Keshvananda Bharti v. State of Kerala [AIR 1973
SC 1461] that “rule of law” and “democracy” were amongst the “Basic Structures” of the Indian constitution not amenable to the amending process under Article 368 of the Constitution. [In another case] Supreme Court observed [Chief Settlement Commissioner, Punjab v. Om Prakash, AIR
1969 SC 33 at 36]:
In our constitutional system, the central and most characteristic feature is the concept of the rule of law which means, in the present context, the authority of the law courts to test all administrative action by the standard of legality. The administrative or executive action that does not meet the standard will be set aside if the aggrieved person brings the appropriate action in the competent court.
The equality aspect of Rule of Law and of democratic republicanism is in Article 14 of the
Constitution of India which was described by Das C.J. as combining the English Doctrine of Rule of
Law and the American equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The first part of
Article 14 enshrines the basic principle of Republicanism. It was held that Rule of Law is an essential feature of the Constitution of India, and absolute discretion in matters affecting the rights of the citizens is repugnant to Rule of Law [AIR 1959 SC 149; AIR 1967 SC 1170; AIR 1967 SC
1836; AIR 1967 SC 1427]. It has also been held that the requirement of Article 14 is that every
State action must satisfy the test of non-arbitrariness even if the action is in the field of contract.
In a case where large numbers feared refoulment, the Court said [N.H.R.C. v. State of
Arunachal Pradesh, AIR 1996 SC 1234 at 1239]:
We are a country governed by the Rule of Law. Our constitution confers certain rights... on citizens. Every person is entitled to equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. So also, no person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. Thus the State is bound to protect the life and liberty of every human-being, be he a citizen or otherwise, and it cannot permit anybody or group of persons, e.g., the AAPSU, to threaten the Chakmas to leave the State.
Learned author (Jeffrey Jowell) pointing out the contemporary dimension of the Rule of Law said,
The Rule of Law has meant many things to many people. To A.V. Dicey it meant the virtual exclusion of official discretion, which he equated with arbitrary power The Rule of Law is seen as a principle of institutional morality. Its application is by no means confined to the courts, although courts are instruments in its elaboration British constitution, although unwritten, nevertheless rests upon two fundamental principles, the one being the legal sovereignty of Parliament, the other the Rule or Supremacy of Law
[“Rule of Law Today” Jeffrey Jowell (Changing Constitution-2nd. ed.)].
In this talk I propose to advert briefly to three areas of the assimilation of Rule of Law into the judicial process. The first area is the concept, dear to Dicey’s heart, of the doctrine of separation of powers under the Indian constitution. Second is the area of personal liberty which the Indian courts

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have always held very high in the constitutional scale of values. The third is the perennial dilemma of fixed rules versus discretionary justice.
In the case of Delhi Laws [1951 SCR 747], the Indian Supreme Court noted the absence of specific provisions in the Constitutional document exclusively vesting legislative powers in the legislature and judicial powers in the judiciary. Did the constitution, then, incorporate doctrine of separation of powers at all? The majority opinion, however, imported the "essence" of the doctrine of separation of powers and the doctrine of constitutional limitation and trust implicit in the constitutional scheme. A necessary corollary of this principle, as later predicated in Chandra
Mohan v. State of Uttar Pradesh [AIR 1966 SC 1987, 1993] was the separation and independence of the judicial branch of the state.
Justice Kania [in the Delhi Laws case at 797] observed:
Although in the Constitution of India there is no express separation of powers, it is clear that a legislature is created by the Constitution and detailed provisions are made for making that legislature pass laws. Is it then too much to say that under the Constitution the duty to make laws, the duty to exercise its own wisdom, judgment and patriotism in making laws is primarily cast on the legislature? Does it not imply that unless it can be gathered from other provisions of the Constitution, other bodies, executive or judicial, are not intended to discharge legislative functions?
Again, in the famous case of Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain, the doctrine of separation of powers was elevated to the position of a basic feature. It was observed:
The exercise by the legislature of what is purely and indubitably a judicial function is impossible to sustain in the context even of our co-operative federalism which contains no rigid distribution of powers but which provides a system of salutary checks and balances.
It is contrary to the basic tenets of our Constitution to hold that the Amending Body is an amalgam of all powers - legislative, executive and judicial. 'Whatever pleases the emperor has the force of law' is not an article of democratic faith. The basis of our
Constitution is a well-planned legal order, the presuppositions of which are accepted by the people as determining the methods by which the functions of the government will be discharged and the power of the State shall be used.
In this context the recent trend of Judicial Activism requires mention. Judicial Activism in India encompasses also an area of legislative vacuum in the field of human rights. In that area enforceable directions have been given by the Supreme Court to fill the vacuum till the enactment of suitable legislation to occupy that field. Guidelines have been framed to regulate exercise of discretion by public authorities in discharge of statutory functions to exclude arbitrariness and promote the concept of equality enshrined in Article 14 and for the realisation of the right to life and personal liberty guaranteed in Article 21. The silence of the Constitution and the abeyances left to be filled by the growth of conventions developed by the constitutional functionaries in its working have been filled by recognition of those conventions within the meaning of the enacted provisions.
This exercise has been performed by the Supreme Court of India in consonance with the

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constitutional scheme itself. The doctrine of separation of powers under the Indian Constitution is to be understood and appreciated in this manner.
Thus, we see one of the cardinal incidents of Rule of Law being developed and integrated by constitutional interpretation.
In the area of personal liberty, the Supreme Court has shown great concern for the protection of the great entrenched rights under the Constitution. Article 21 of the Constitution lays down that
“no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law”. In A.K. Gopalan case [AIR 1950 SC 27] the words “according to the procedure established by law” came in for interpretation. The question specifically posed was whether they should receive an interpretation in strict positivist terms or whether they need to be interpreted in a manner which would ensure a fair and reasonable procedure. The Court opted for a narrow positivist interpretation. Indeed, one of the Judges even stated that, “If a law provided that the cook of the Bishop of Rochester be boiled in oil, it would be valid under Article 21”. Later in the case of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India [AIR 1978 SC 597], the Supreme Court interpreted those very expressions as non-positivist norms and importing the idea of resonableness. It held that the procedure established by law must be “right, just and fair and not arbitrary or oppressive” and the court was arbiter of what was right, just and fair.
When the country’s territorial integrity was threatened by political terrorism and by armed groups seeking to achieve their political ideologies through violence, certain legislations granting special powers were enacted. The constitutional validity of the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities
(Prevention) Act of 1987 (TADA) came up for consideration before the Supreme Court. In particular, the provisions of sub-sections (8) and (9) of Section 20 which imposed a ban on the release on bail of a person accused of an offence punishable under the law (except on certain strict conditions) came in for challenge. The provisions of the 'Act' and Section 20 (8) and (9) were held not violative of Article 21 of the Constitution, however, with a view to preventing the misuse of the wide powers under the law, the Court initiated regime of strict review of the cases by Committees of high placed officials both at the Centre and in the States to reassure themselves that no miscarriage of justice occur. This innovation operated as a great check on the exercise of the powers. In later case, R.M. Tewari v. State (NCT of Delhi) [1996 (2) SCC 610, 615] the Supreme Court gave a recognition to the importance to the recommendations of such Committees. The court observed:
If the recommendations of the Review Committee, based on the material present, is, that resort to provisions of the TADA Act is unwarranted for any reason which permits withdrawal from prosecution for those offences, a suitable application made under Section
321 CrPC on that ground has to be considered and decided by the Designated Court giving due weight to the opinion formed by the public prosecutor on the basis of the recommendation of the High Power Committee.
In Shaheen Welfare Association v. Union of India [1996 (2) SCC 616], the Supreme Court took note of the long delays in the trials of person accused under the TADA. It made further judicial innovations for liberalising bails. The Court classified the persons proceeded against under

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that law into four different groups, classified on the basis of the nature of the role played by each of them making a distinction between real hard-core terrorists on the one hand and others who had minor roles in alleged terrorist activities. The Supreme Court also made specific orders for grant of bail in the three out of the four classes of cases. The Court itself indicated the terms subject to which such bails be granted. This judicial activism greatly protected personal liberty. As a result of these measures, the number of under-trials in custody under TADA which was 14,446 in 1996 came down to almost 10 per cent of that figure in about a year.
Though acts of terrorism against the unity and integrity of the country are to be dealt with firmly and the citizenry protected against such misguided and senseless violence, the Government must be open and honest about its policies of anti-terrorist measures and control measures must be limited, well-defined and directed only against terrorism and terrorists and conducted within the limits of the law and the constitutional obligations of the State. The TADA which was a temporary legislation expired by efflux of time. It was not given new lease of life by the legislature.
The Supreme Court had again occasion to deal with similar stringent provisions against grant of bail under the Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. Section 37 (b)(ii) is similar in language to the corresponding provisions under the TADA. The Supreme Court held that nevertheless provisions of Section 167(2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure, which made it obligatory for the release of an accused on bail beyond the period stipulated in the proviso to
Section 167 (2) would continue to apply and that wherever charges were not brought against the detained person within the specified time, he would be entitled to bail as of right. These judicial approaches to questions of personal liberty have greatly enhanced the quality of justice.
I may now briefly advert to the third area. Dicey's requirement of predominance of regular law as opposed to wide discretionary authority had caught judicial imagination. In an earlier case of
Jaisinghani v. Union of India [1967 (2) SCR 703 at 718], the Supreme Court quoting from
Dicey's Law of the Constitution (10th edition) had held, “The rule of law from this point of view means that decisions should be made by the application of known principles and rules and, in general, such decisions should be predictable and the citizen should know where he is”. But in the later pronouncement it referred to this as only “an aspiration for an ideal and not based on any down-to-earth analysis of practical problems with which a modern government is confronted” and that “In the world of action, this ideal cannot be worked out and that is the reason why this exposition has been rejected by all practical men”. The Court also pointed that Dicey's formulation of Rule of Law namely, “the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law, as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power, excluding the existence of arbitrariness, of prerogative, even of wide discretionary authority on the part of the government” had been discarded in the later editions of his book.
The Indian experience of freedom under Rule of Law would be incomplete without reference to the recent experience of Judicial Activism. Access to justice has been ensured to everyone by liberalisation of the rule of ‘locus stand’? A large section of the people in India comprise of
‘havenots’ who suffer from different kinds of disability and are not even aware of all their

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constitutional rights. Access to courts for them has become a reality through the medium of PIL brought by social activists, not busy bodies, who are well-equipped to espouse their cause. The principle underlying Order 1 Rule 8, Code of Civil Procedure has been applied in public interest litigation to entertain class action and at the same time to check misuse of PIL. The appointment of Amicus Curiae in these matters ensures objectivity in the proceedings. Judicial creativity of this kind has enabled realization of the promise of socio-economic justice made in the Preamble to the
Constitution of India.
Exercise of the power of Supreme Court under Article 32, itself a Fundamental Right, with the aid of plenary power of the Supreme Court under Article 142 to make such order as is necessary to do complete justice in the cause has enabled the Supreme Court to grant the relief appropriate in the cause for enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. The Directive Principles of State Policy in Part
IV of the Constitution which contain the mandate for governance and fulfillment of the promise of a welfare State have been used to enlarge the scope and content of the Fundamental Rights. The horizon of the Rule of Law in India has been expanded by judicial activism.
In recent years accountability of public authorities and probity in public life has been achieved through the medium of PIL. Any aberration due to arbitrariness in exercise of public power and misfeasance of public authorities results in violation of the Fundamental Rights of the people of the country. The doctrine of public trust has been introduced by judicial decisions. Preservation of ecology and environment based on the principle of sustainable development to reconcile the conflicting interest of development with the preservation of healthy environment has been recognised as an enforceable Fundamental Right. The underlying principle is that ecology and environment are incapable of ownership being nature's gift and are to be preserved in trust for the future generations. The present generation is a trustee for its preservation.
The right to equality has been emphasised in the implementation of Rule of Law by activating the investigative agencies to perform their statutory duty of investigative crime alleged to have been committed by holders of high public offices. In several instances of serious economic and other offences of corruption involving higher dignitaries the process of investigation was activated to enforce accountability irrespective of the status of the accused. Thus, accountability and probity in public life has been enforced judicially. Such a course became necessary because of inertia of the investigative agencies to discharge their statutory duty of investigating the crimes and prosecuting the offenders on account of the high offices held by them. The procedure of 'continuing mandamus' was devised by the Supreme Court to direct investigation and monitor its progress till its completion with the filing of the chargesheet in the competent court to commence the trial according to the prescribed procedure [Vineet Narain v. Union of India, AIR 1996 SC 3386]. The guarantee of ‘equality’, a facet of Rule of Law has thereby been realised.
In this manner by judicial creativity to suit the Indian conditions the recent phase of Judicial
Activism has advanced the cause of justice, attempted to achieve the constitutional purpose in accordance with constitutional scheme and thereby ensured proper implementation of the Rule of

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Law. This is an attempt to realise the hopes and aspirations of the people and to strengthen the foundation of Rule of Law which is the bedrock of democracy.
Indian democracy is a living and vibrant democracy. The judiciary has striven to unite its people in common bonds of justice. An American Constitutional writer (Hugh Evander Willis) speaking of the American Supreme Court said that, "it is easier to speak of a solar system without a Sun than to speak of the American democracy without the Supreme Court and that the constitutional rights of the American people were safe in the hands of their Supreme Court".
It is with some justification that the Indian judiciary can, in the 50th year of India's independence, say with reverence and humility that the constitutional rights of its people are safe in the hands of the Indian judiciary.

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RULE OF LAW: CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES
M.N. Venkatachaliah
Treating ‘Rule of Law’ as the operating instrument of justice, the author defines the concept and its three essential components. Before examining the challenge which maintenance of Rule of
Law is posing before criminal justice system, he examines certain significant factors causing major tension and threatening to denude fundamental values of Indian life, and the needs for: good governance, morality and standards in public life; and checking corruption in public life. He hopes this to be remedied by universal education on right conduct, fear of good, love etc.
INTRODUCTION
ROBERT BOLT's play “A Man For All Seasons” refers to an incident when Sir Thomas
More was urged by his daughter, Margaret, and his son-in-law, Roper, to arrest a man they regarded as evil. Margaret said, “Father, that man's bad” More replied, “There is no law against that.” And Roper said, “There is! God's law!” More then said: “Then God can arrest him. I know what's legal, not what’s right. And I’ll stick to what's legal ....I am not God. The currents and eddies of right and wrong, which you find such plain sailing, I can’t navigate. I'm not a voyager.
But in the thickets of the law, Oh, there I'm a forester.” Roper would not be appeased and he levelled the charge that More would give even the Devil the benefit of law. More said, “Yes.
What would you do? Cut a great road through the law to get after the Devil?" Roper retorted, “I’d cut down every law in England to do that! “This drew More to say, “Oh?...And when the last law was down, and the Devil turned round on you, where would you hide, Roper, the laws from coast to coast – man’s law, not God’s - and if you cut them down - .... Do you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then? .... Yes, I'd give the Devil the benefit of law, for my own safety’s sake”.
Concept of Rule of Law
The concept of ‘Rule of Law’ is the outcome of the legal and political experience of people.
‘Rule of Law’ embodies the hard fought gains in the common law traditions of England. It is the culmination of a long and bitter struggle of the.common lawyers against royal tyranny. As far back as in the 13th Century, Bracton maintained that even Kings were subject to law. He exhorted, “The
King shall not be subject to man, but to God and the Law since law makes the King”. Law would, then bind both the King and his subjects. James I, who believed in the divine right of Kings, declared that the King’s will was supreme. He told the judges not to interfere with his prerogative courts, such as the Star Chamber. Chief Justice, Sir Edward Coke repudiated the King's claim and declared that judges would follow the common law and the King was under the law. Indeed, the judges won the struggle against the Royal claim to rule by prerogative. The Parliament, with the aid of common lawyers, won the ‘glorious bloodless’ revolution against the Kings. But, in the place of the King's supremacy, the supremacy of the Parliament came to be established. The

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supremacy of law, which Bracton and Coke had fought for and won, came to mean the supremacy of Parliament and its penchant for “elective dictatorship”. Men realised that it would be a grave mistake to equate legitimacy with the “sovereign will” or majority rule alone, to the exclusion of other constitutional values. The doctrine of supremacy of Parliament in England meant that the subject had no guaranteed rights which the Parliament could not change. The liberties of the subject were mere implications of two fundamental postulates. The first was that a British subject may say or do as he pleased, provided, he did not violate any substantive law or impinge on the rights of others. It was said the right to swing ones own arm could only be up to the nose of the next man.
The second postulate was that public authorities have only such powers as were expressly authorised by common law or the statutes. As supremacy of Parliament need not necessarily mean legitimacy, need arose to find out ways for protection from the power of Parliament itself.
Three Components of the Concept
Parliamentary supremacy could be checked only by the doctrine of Government of enumerated powers under a written constitution and by making some rights, such as the right of life, to liberty, to reputation, beyond the reach of Parliament. From time immemorial, the presence for an immutable higher law acting as limitation on all sources of temporal power was recognised as Natural Law. But, its practical derivative was the Bill of Rights which withdraw the Rights to Life and Liberty from the vicissitudes of the political controversy and placed them beyond the reach of the majorities. They depend on the outcome of no election nor could the Parliament exercising its legislative power alter them. The principal concern of the Rule of Law is to limit and discipline public power.
There are three essential components of this concept of ‘Rule of Law’ The first is that the law is supreme over the acts of both Government and private persons. There is now law for all. The second is that the Rule of Law requires for its operation the making of just laws which embody and give expression to the more general and somewhat amorphous normative principles of ‘Rule of Law’. “rights and duties, after all, may exist on paper, but those who are unimpressed by pieces of paper may still have a healthy respect for threats of imprisonment. An independent judiciary, and a judiciary with the power to issue practical orders, was more important than any number of grand theoretical declarations about the Rights of Man” But often enough, there are no satisfactory answers as to how Rule of Law is enforced. The courts, in the ultimate analysis, do not have either the power of the sword nor the power of the purse. Many a time in American constitutional history, the wielders of political power Jefferson, Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Nixon questioned the judicial authority and were disinclined to accept the wisdom or the authority of the courts. As an American Constitutional lawyer observed, “constitutionalism works, our liberties are protected, and our society is free because the weak depend upon the Rule of Law and the Rule of Law depends upon voluntary compliance. When the test comes, that realisation must be strong enough for the people to rise up, morally and politically, and overwhelm the offender. The roots of constitutionalism lie in the heart of the people.”

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The third is that the exercise of public power must find its ultimate source in some legal rule and the relationship between the State and the individual must be regulated only by law. This third principle is the bond that unites the governors and the governed. If this obligation of the government is broken, then it would be unrealistic to expect a voluntary, unilateral adherence to law by the citizenry. Government is a potent teacher; it teaches its people by its own example. If government is seen as a habitual violator of the law, it is nothing short of an open invitation to anarchy. No self-governing people can for long be held down by any government which itself is seen to be a violator.
The Concept as the Operating Instruments of Justice
The doctrine of ‘Rule of Law’ is that laws ought to be equal, general and known. It shall be administered by independent judges. The three organs of State shall be separate. 'Rule of Law' envisages the pervasiveness of spirit of law throughout the whole range of Government. It gives expression to something, which is otherwise inexplicable. It is the 'met-wand' for harmonising individual liberty and public order. 'Rule of Law' is the operating instrument of justice in a civilized society. Indeed, the historical foundations of 'Rule of Law' go back to the Greeks and the
Romans. Their concept of natural law recognised as a test of legality of the laws ‘right reason in agreement with nature’.
Our Constitution rests on federalism, democracy, constitutionalism, the Rule of Law and respect for minority rights. “These defining principles function in symbiosis. No single principle can be defined in isolation from the others, nor does any one principle trump or exclude the operation of any other.” Democracy is a fundamental value in our own constitutional and political culture and is an essential interpretive consideration. A sovereign people exercise this right to selfgovernment through the democratic process. A functioning democracy requires a continuous process of discussion.
There has been strong debate inspired, perhaps, by the exhortation of the Franks Committee that, “The rule of law stands for the view that decisions should be made by the application of known principles of laws. In general, such decisions will be predictable, and the citizen will know where he is.” The view was that any governmental action should be on the basis of pre-determined rules. But then the complexity of the modern State requires discretionary powers. Discretion is not necessarily the anti-thesis of the Rule of Law. Justice Mathew said, “If it is contrary to the Rule of
Law that discretionary authority should be given to government departments or public officers, then there is no rule in any modern state”.
Amongst challenges to 'Rule of Law' and constitutionalism are: (a) The problems of pluralism; (b) The effect of globalisation and the global economic order on Indian cultural values;
(c) The problems of the criminal justice system; and, (d) Good governance and moral integrity and standards in public life.

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SOME SIGNIFICANT FACTORS
Law and the Problems of Pluralism in the Society
The Canadian Supreme Court, in a recent pronouncement on the secessionist claims of one of the provinces in Canada, made some observations which are worth recalling. It said, “We highlight that a functioning democracy requires a continuous process of discussion. The
Constitution mandates government by democratic legislatures, and an executive accountable to them, resting ultimately on public opinion reached by discussion and the interplay of ideas". At both the federal and provincial level, by its very nature, the need to build majorities necessitates compromise, negotiation, and deliberation. No one has a monopoly on truth, and our system is predicated on the faith that in the market place of ideas, the best solutions to public problems will rise to the top. Inevitably, there will be dissenting voices. A democratic system of government is committed to considering those dissenting voices, and seeking to acknowledge and address those voices in the laws by which all in the community must live.” “A constitution may provide an added safeguard for fundamental human rights and individual freedoms which might otherwise be susceptible to government interference. Although democratic government is generally solicitous of those rights, there are occasions when the majority will be tempted to ignore fundamental rights in order to accomplish collective goals more easily or effectively. Constitutional entrenchment ensures that those rights will be given due regard and protection ... a constitution may seek to ensure that vulnerable minority groups are endowed with the institutions and rights necessary to maintain and promote their identities against the assimilative pressures of the majority”.
Basic Dispositions of Human Neurological Inheritance
Those who deal with laws in a pluralist society may need to learn some basic truths about the human personality and basic dispositions of the human neurological inheritance.
In the functioning of the human brain (the area of our “ignorance seems to expand with that of knowledge”) the affect based beliefs are disassociated from, and are in perpetual conflict with, the reasoning intellect. The belief systems and the reasoning faculties, which are mutually incompatible, co-exist. Of the major disasters in human history, individual aggressiveness for selfish, personal motives appear to have played not so important a part compared to the collective, unselfish loyalty and devotion to a leader, tribe, nation, religion or political ideology. The self-assertive tendencies in the emotional life of man are, perhaps, less harmful to the species than his selftranscending or integrative tendencies. His blind devotion to religion, dynasty or political system indicates that his individual, belligerent pursuit of self-interest is insignificant. The human brain is described as a hierarchical system consisting of three brains representing the reptilian, the paleomammalian and neo-mammalian; the first one set to perform stereo-typed instinctively determined functions; the second determining emotional behaviour; and the third concerned with higher intellectual functions which determine the higher dimensions of cerebration. The contrast between the functioning of the higher intellectual centres, which accounts for imagination,

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mysticism, intuition, exploration and achievement and the impulses of blind loyalties of the lower centres, enhances the risk of misuse of these achievements and have established many worlds on a single earth.
Pluralist societies are the result of this choiceless inheritance of man. This is the in-built dilemma of all human organisations. Plural societies are the product of irreversible movements of mankind. Short of genocide or mass transportation, most of them are here to stay. Pluralism is not a mere transient vestige of a historical condition but a permanent feature of the public culture of modern democracies. There is, therefore, the need for a great sensitivity, vision and foresight needed to handle the problems of pluralism.
Globalisation, Global Economic Order and Indian Cultural Values
Protection of MNCs' Rights, Keener Rivalaries Between MNCs and Rise in Criminalisation of
Politics
The Human Development Report, 1999 contains some reflections on the effect of globalisation which are poignant. It said, “Globalisation, a dominant force in the 20th century's last decade, is shaping a new era of interaction among nations, economies and people. It is increasing the contacts between people across national boundaries - in economy, in technology, in culture and in governance. But it is also fragmenting production processes, labour markets, political entities and societies”. “National and international economic policies shifted sharply in the 1970s and 1980s towards more reliance on the market - diminishing the role of the State". But the share in global income of the richest fifth of the world's people is 74 times that of the poorest fifth. Nearly the top fifth of world's people in the richest countries enjoy 82 per cent of the expanding export trade and
68 per cent of foreign direct investment - the bottom fifth, barely more than one per cent.
An author speaking on “When Corporations Rule the World” said, “A review of the accomplishments of the three Bretton Woods institutions bring their actual functions into sharp focus. The World Bank has served as an export-financing facility for large Northern-based corporations. The IMF has served as the debt collector for Northern-based financial institutions.
GATT has served to create and enforce a Corporate Bill of Rights protecting the rights of the world’s largest corporations against the intrusion of people, communities, and democratically elected governments”. There has been a new generation of financiers clustered around the merchant banks, the institutional investors, stock brokerage firms, large insurance companies, etc.
A massive concentration of financial power has taken place in the last 10 years: from these transformations, a new breed of institutional speculators’ has emerged as a powerful actor overshadowing and often undermining bonafide business interests. Their activities include speculative transactions in commodity futures, stock options and manipulation of currency markets, including the plunder of central banks' foreign exchange reserves. The daily turnover of foreign exchange transactions is more than $ one trillion a day, of which only 15 per cent corresponds to actual commodity trade and capital flows. Industrialised countries hold 97 per cent of all patents. Eighty

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per cent of patents granted in the developing countries are owned by residents of industrial countries. At the root of all this is the growing influence of organised crime, estimated to gross
$1.5 trillion a year, rivalling multinational corporations as an economic order. Global crime groups have the power to criminalise politics, business and the police, developing efficient networks, extending their reach deep and wide. The three richest people on earth are wealthier than the 36 poorest countries combined. One per cent of the wealth of the 200 richest people, or
$8 billion, could provide universal access to primary education for a year. Eighty-eight per cent of Internet users live in industrialised countries, which represent only 17 per cent of the global population. The cause for the stock markets tumbling in South-East Asia in 1997 was 'bad loans and bad habits’ which plagued financial institutions. The New York Herald Tribune of July 13, 1999 speaks of a recovery of markets in South-Asia. But James Harmon, Chairman of the ExportImport Bank of the United States, says “The truth is that many of the reforms are not proceeding.
Old habits die hard”.
Threat of Denudation of Fundamental Values of Life
What needs to be guarded against in the spate of the inevitable changes that globalisation has brought is the denudation of the fundamental values of Indian life by the onslaught of a different culture and value system which survives on competitive consumerism, hedonism, epicurianism and attendant ethic neutrality. The most significant of these developments is the erosion of family values and new relationship built around and on the foundations of the de-humanising influence of technology. Science and technology have, it is true, improved the standards of living. But they will usher in new kinds of prosperity, new notions of wealth, new pattern of control over the means of production and, also correspondingly, newer kinds of poverty and deprivations. The dehumanising effect of unbridled materialism needs to be counter-balanced by restoration of ethical values of life.
The Human Development Report also indicates The rise of culture as an economic good has added to the identification of culture with commodities that can be sold and traded - crafts, tourism, music, books, films etc. Although the spread of ideas and images enriches the world, there is a risk of reducing cultural concerns to protecting what can be brought and sold, neglecting community, custom and tradition. It is stated that, “It continues to grow. For the United States the largest scale export industry is not aircraft, computers or automobiles - it is entertainment, in films and television programmes”. The only stabilising force could be the ethical values which are now old-fashioned. The Indian ethical value system recognised moral values as objective and not merely subjective. It held certain basic virtues such as integrity and cleanliness of personal life, truthfulness, honour, dignity, duty, discipline and friendship as eternal and immutable. These values can alone harness the dehumanising effect of materialism and technology. It must, however, be emphasised that it will be a great error to think that materialism, science and technology are evils, that exposure to global influence is bad and that India should not become part of the global economic order. They are not only desirable but are absolutely essential for

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modern society. Without competition excellence cannot be achieved. It is essential that India should compete in the international and industrial race. But, the object is not merely to survive but to prevail. But, materialism has its own dehumanising influence which triggers a sense of ethic neutrality. This has to be balanced and neutralised by certain accepted, though old-fashioned, values which, for want of a better world, may be described as spiritual.
CHALLENGE TO MAINTAIN RULE OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The challenge to ‘Rule of Law’ by the present criminal justice system is perilous. I am afraid, if something is not done by a determined and concerted effort immediately, the whole system might collapse. There is an immediate need for a massive de-criminalisation for auxiliary adjudicative services and a systemic assurance against the violation of human rights in the investigation of crimes. The affront to human dignity in the process has been enormous. Citizenry has become hostile, belligerent, distrustful and alienated. Incivility and insolence of power towards law-abiding citizens has irretrievably eroded the confidence of people in the system. But, despite all the harshness of the investigation machinery, the results are poor. Not even 10 to 15 per cent of the prosecutions for heinous offences succeed. There are excellent, tried and proven systems for changing the face of the criminal justice system. It is amazing as to why and how those in authority turn their faces away from such available technology for improvement in the investigation and prosecution of crimes. The administration of criminal justice in the adversarial mould depends entirely on evidence, and quite often on oral evidence of witnesses. Today, witnesses are intimidated, suborned, bribed and won over. The result is for all to see. There needs to be an increasing dependence on scientific evidence through modern forensic science techniques. A massive build-up of modern forensic science facilities, intensive training for investigators, prosecutors and judicial personnel is absolutely necessary. It must be realised that an unjust acquittal is much a miscarriage of justice as an unjust conviction. It is not the severity of punishment but the certainty of punishment that deters crime. No amount of economic development or desired social change is ever possible or enduring without an efficient criminal justice system. This is the importance of inter-institutional-complimentarities. An inefficient criminal justice system is the worst negation of the Rule of Law.
Need for Good Governance, Moral Integrity and Standards in Public Life
The most important element in the Rule of Law is good governance. Good governance in a sense means that all public power and public wealth are used only for public good. In the last few years of this decade, the Central Government's expenditure rose from Rs. 92,808 crores to Rs.
2,68,107 crores. The deficit in 1948-49 budget was Rs. one crore. In 1997-98 it was Rs. 86,345 crores. This increasing expenditure is a serious problem. In a study of legal institutions in Asian
Economic Development entitled, The Role of Law, there is a reference to the proliferation of court cases in which government is a party. The study says that, “The extensive delegation of lawmaking authority to the executive has resulted in a proliferation of rule making at all levels. The major

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check on the legality of these rules has been the judiciary, and citizens have made ample use of this institution. Sample studies on the outcome of cases, in which the State is a party, suggest that the non-State parties have a high chance of winning such cases. In appeal cases against the tax administration, the courts reversed agency adjudication in 95 per cent of all cases. In land administration, the courts reversed agency adjudication in 95 per cent of all cases. In land matters, non-state parties win in 60 to 65 per cent of the cases, and in other matters the success rate may even be higher. These numbers are very high by comparative standards. They may be seen either as evidence of the independence of Indian courts of the low level of compliance with the law by state bureaucrats”'.
The World Development Report, 1997 on ‘The State in a Challenging World’ says, "The clamour for greater government effectiveness has reached crisis proportions in many developing countries where the State has failed to deliver even such fundamental public goods as property rights, roads, and basic health and education. There a vicious circle has taken hold: people and businesses respond to deteriorating public services by avoiding taxation, which leads to further deterioration in services. Matching the State’s role with its capability is the first element in this strategy. Where state capability is weak, how the State intervenes - and where - should be carefully assessed. Many States try to do too much with few resources and little capability, and often do more harm than good. A sharper focus on the fundamentals would improve effectiveness. But here it is a matter not just of choosing what to do and what not to do - but of how to do it as well.
But capability is not destiny. Therefore, the second element of the strategy is to raise state capability by reinvigorating public institutions. This means designing effective rules and restraints, to check arbitrary state actions and combat entrenched corruption”.
Need for Checking Corruption in Public Life
There is again the problem of venality of offices and corruption in public life. Herman Finer in “The Theory and Practice of Modern Government” refers to the amusing instances of patronage of public offices in the old days in France. He said, “All public offices were a species of private property, and a voluminous jurisprudence governed their transmission. This jurisprudence is at pains to explain that the offices which were vendible and hereditable were of a two-fold nature: they were at once a property and a public function”. “Ability, however, unsupported by money or family, was almost certain of exclusion from public office. The system, in short, was venality by tempered favoritism”. Finer spoke of how public offices were bought and sold with frantic frenzy:
Prices rose, but there was a frantic buying. Ministers made the most of their financial discovery. As it soon became too difficult to invent new offices, the old ones were doubled or trebled - that is, divided up among several holders, who exercise their functions in rotation, or who did what the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were too fond of doing, employed a humble subordinate to carry them out.

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Offices were sought, then, with a frenzied energy, and they were created with cynicism.
Desmarets, one of Louis XIV s Comptroller-Generals, had proposed to the King the establishment of some quite futile offices, and the latter asked who would ever consent to buy such situation. “Your Majesty”, replied Desmarets, “is forgetting one of the most splendid of the prerogatives of the Kings of France - that when the King creates a job, God immediately creates an idiot to buy it”.
Let us skip making any comparisons here in relation to our own system.
HOPE FOR AN EFFECTIVE REMEDY
What then is the remedy? The problems of this country are too enormous, too complicated to be amenable to simplistic solutions. Cybernetics requires that complexity of the problem must be matched equally by the complexity of the solutions. But the one golden thread that runs through all the process of Indian self-renewal is the restoration of the culture of the inner man and respect for the old-world conviction that without a moral perception of means and ends intellect is a selfstultifying instrument and that the scornful impatience of the egoist surely wrecks a mission.
Almost 77 years ago, Chakravarty Rajagopalachari wrote this when he was serving a political sentence in the Vellore Jail:
We all ought to know that Swaraj will not at once or, I think, even for a time to come, be better government or greater happiness for the people. Elections and their corruptions, injustice, and the power and tyranny of wealth, and inefficiency of administration, will make a hell of life as soon as freedom is given to us.
Hope lies only in universal education by which right conduct, fear of good, and love, will be developed among the citizens from childhood. It is only if we succeed in this that
Swaraj will mean happiness. Otherwise it will mean the grinding injustices and tyranny of wealth. What a beautiful world it would be, if everybody were just and God-fearing and realised and happiness of loving other! Yet, there is more practical hope for the ultimate consummation of the ideal in India than elsewhere.

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RULE OF LAW*
Dicey’s Rule of Law**
Dicey said:
“It means, in the first place, the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power, and excludes the existence of arbitrariness, of prerogative, or even of wide discretionary authority on the part of the government. Englishmen are ruled by the law, and by the law alone; a man may be punished for a breach of law, but he can be punished for nothing else. It means, again, equality before the law, or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law courts; the ‘rule of law’ in this sense excludes the idea of any exemption of officials or others from the duty of obedience to the law which governs other citizens or from the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals; there can be nothing really corresponding to the
‘administrative law’ (droit administratif) or the ‘administrative tribunals’ (tribunaux administratifs) of France. The notion which lies at the bottom of the ‘administrative law’ known to foreign countries is, that affairs or disputes in which the Government or its servants are concerned are beyond the sphere of the civil courts and must be dealt with by special and more or less official bodies. This idea is utterly unknown to the law of
England, and indeed is fundamentally inconsistent with our traditions and customs.”
According to Dicey the Rule of Law as he formulated it was a principle of the English
Constitution. The preface to the first edition says that the book ‘deals with only two or three guiding principles which pervade the modern constitution of England,” and the book shows that the Rule of Law is one such principle. This is important, for the modern version of that rule does not assert that it is a principle of the English Constitution, but that the rule is an ideal by reference to which that Constitution must be judged.
Dicey’s “Rule of Law” has been criticised by eminent writers, and it would be outside the scope of this lecture to consider that criticism in detail. I will, however, make certain observations about Dicey’s “Rule of Law” which would be generally accepted today.
(a) Dicey wrote in the hey-day of laissez-faire and he dealt with the rights of individuals not with the powers of the administration.
_____________________
*

H.M. Seervai, The Position of the Indian Judiciary under the Constitution of India 83-96
(1970).

**

A.V. Dicey, Law of the Constitution (1885).

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(b) It is tempting to say that the welfare state has changed public law, and consequently delegated legislation and the exercise of judicial functions by administrative bodies have increased. But the true view is that Dicey’s Rule of Law, which was founded on the separation of powers, fixed public attention on administrative law and delegated legislation. Dicey dealt with individual liberty and criticised administrative discretion. But he did not deal with the administration as such, and he failed to distinguish between discretion given to public officials by statute and the arbitrary discretion at one time claimed by the King.
(c) Administrative law existed in England when Dicey’s book was published in 1885. the
“prophetic vision” of Maitland saw in 1887 that even as a matter of strict law it was not true that the executive power was vested in the King. England, he said, was ruled by means of statutory powers which could not be described as the powers of the King. All that we could say was that the King had powers, this Minister had powers and that Minister had powers. In oft quoted words, Maitland said that England was becoming a much governed nation, governed by all manner of councils and boards and officers, central and local, high and low, exercising the powers which had been committed to them by modern statutes. And Prof. Wade has come to the same conclusion in his appendix to the ninth edition of Dicey’s Law of the Constitution.
(d) In his Law of the Constitution, Dicey did not refer to the prerogative writs of mandamus, prohibition and certiorari by which superior courts exercised control over administrative action and adjudication. These writs belong to public law and have nothing to do with private law, and had he noticed those writs he could not have denied the existence of administrative law in
England.
(e) Dicey’s picture of the Englishmen protected by the Rule of Law, and the Frenchmen deprived of that protection because public authorities in France enjoyed privileges and immunities is now recognised as a distorted picture. This recognition is not confined to academic lawyers. An eminent judge, Lord Denning, has said that far from granting privileges and immunities to public authorities, the French Administrative Courts exercise a supervision and control over public authorities which is more complete than which the Courts exercise in
England. And that is also the view of leading writers on Constitutional and Administrative Law today. Dicey himself showed “a change of heart” in his long Introduction to the eighth edition of the Law of the Constitution. There, he doubted whether law courts were in all cases best suited to adjudicate upon the mistakes or the offences of civil servants, and he said that it was for consideration whether a body of men who combined legal knowledge with official experience, and who were independent of government, would not enforce official law more effectively than the High Court. It is a measure of Dicey’s intellectual integrity that he abandoned the doctrine of a lifetime and recognized official law, and a special tribunal substantially on the lines of the
Couseil d’Etat, as better suited to enforce that law than the High Court. It is unfortunate that
Dicey did not re-write the book in the eighth edition, but contended himself with a long
Introduction which marked a real change in his thinking. The text remained unchanged, and the
Introduction was forgotten or ignored, so that an intemperate judge like Lord Hewart L.C.J. could

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speak of “the abominable doctrine that, because things are done by officials, therefore some immunity must be extended to them.” Coming from a Lord Chief Justice, these words seen ironic, for, on grounds of public policy, the most malicious words of judges of superior courts in the discharge of their judicial duties enjoy absolute immunity. But Lord Hewart would have been shocked had anyone spoken of “the abominable doctrine that because things are done by judges in their judicial capacity, therefore, some immunity must be extended to their most malicious words.” (f) When Dicey maintained that the Rule of Law required “the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by ordinary courts” and that the Rule of Law was inconsistent with administrative law and administrative tribunals, he created a false opposition between ordinary and special law, and between ordinary courts and special tribunals. The two kinds of laws existed even in his day, and ordinary courts, as well as special tribunals, determined the rights of parties. His antithesis was false in fact and untenable in principle. A law administered by the courts and by special tribunals is equally the law of the land; the determinations of courts and of special tribunals are determinations under the law. As we have seen, Dicey himself came to recognise that it may be necessary to create a body of persons for adjudicating upon the offences or the errors of civil servants as such adjudication may be more effective in enforcing official law. This effectively destroyed the opposition between ordinary law administered by ordinary courts and special law administered by special tribunals. As Devlin J., speaking of England, put it, it does not matter where the law comes from: whether from equity, or common law or from some source as yet untapped. And it is equally immaterial whether the law is made by Parliament, or by judges or even by ministers, for what matters is “the Law of
England.”
That courts alone are not the best agencies for resolving disputes is shown by the history of the Commercial Court in England. When it was established, it first proved popular and succeeded in arresting the trend in favour of arbitration. After the First World War two judges were sitting full time on the Commercial List. In 1957, out of twenty-six cases only sixteen were actually tried, the rest being stayed, withdrawn or settled, and the question arose whether there was any point in retaining the Commercial Court. In 1960 the Lord Chancellor took an unusual step – he called a Commercial Court Users’ Conference. The Conference presented a Report which is important because it shows why people preferred arbitration to adjudication by the Commercial
Court. Mr. Justice Megaw, who was appointed to the Commercial Court, gave a practice direction which went back to an earlier and simpler procedure. The calling of the Commercial Users’
Conference, and the emphasis in the practice direction on the service which the court rendered, is a timely reminder that judicial power is not property which belongs to the law courts and which therefore can be “usurped” by others, but that judicial power exists to render a service, and if the service is not good enough it will be ignored.
Prof. Robson has given an even more striking example. Before the Committee on Ministers’
Powers evidence was given by the National Federation of Property Owners and Ratepayers

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representing the owners of more than £1,000 millions capital invested in industrial, trading and residential property throughout the United Kingdom. The Federation demanded that the appellate jurisdiction of ministers and their departments should cease. But the Federation did not demand the transfer of such jurisdiction to ordinary courts of law but to a special tribunal consisting of a full-time salaried legal member appointed by the Lord Chancellor, and two part-time honorary members who could bring administrative experience to bear on administrative matters. The
Federation also suggested that the special tribunal should also take over the jurisdiction of the country court judges and the courts of summary jurisdiction in respect of appeals from the decisions, acts or orders of local authorities, an appeal from the special tribunal being permitted only on points of law.
(g) When Dicey said that wide discretionary authority was inconsistent with the Rule of Law he might have expressed his political philosophy, but he certainly did not express a principle of the English Constitution for in fact wide discretionary power existed in England. A leading modern textbook on English Constitutional law observes that if it is contrary to the Rule of Law that discretionary authority should be given to government departments or public officers, then the Rule of Law is inapplicable to any modern Constitution. Dicey’s dislike of discretionary power was due, first, to the fear of abuse, and, secondly, to the belief that the judicial function consists in applying settled principles of law to the facts of a case, and not in the exercise of discretionary power. Taking the second point first, the exercise of discretionary power formed then, and forms now, a large part of the work of regular courts. Thus, where an accused pleads guilty, the only question which remains is one of punishment, and here the judge has a very wide discretion. Again, if discretion is opposed to the Rule of Law, a final court with discretionary power to admit or reject an appeal or an application, would contravene the Rule of Law, and yet most final courts, including our Supreme Court, possess this power, and, what is more, exercise it without assigning any reasons. Again, the power to adjoin a case, to allow an amendment, to condone delay, to award costs are discretionary powers, and like all discretionary powers may be abused. But the law confers all necessary discretionary powers notwithstanding the possibility of abuse, though it is usual to provide safeguards against abuse. But the safeguards are not always effective. When High Court judges say, as I have heard them say, “We prefer to be wrong: you can go to the Supreme Court after obtaining special leave from it,” judicial power is abused, and the safeguard of an appeal nullified in a practical sense, for an appeal by special leave is expensive, and if the amount at stake is small, few persons will spend thousands of rupees to set right a palpably wrong decision. Nor is it enough to say that the judge is independent and an administrative tribunal is not. First, there is no reason why an administrative tribunal cannot be made independent of Government. Secondly, in England, judges of the superior courts are practically irremoveable, but judges of subordinate courts can be removed by the Lord Chancellor for inability or misbehaviour, and Justices of the Peace, who are an essential part of the administration of justice, can be removed by the Lord Chancellor at pleasure. Again, though in theory, the members of the Conseil d’Etat in France are removable by the executive, in practice no member has been removed for rendering judgments unpalatable to the Government, though

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many such judgments have been rendered. The ultimate guarantee against abuse of power, legislative, judicial and executive, lies in the political and legal safeguards against such abuse, in a vigilant public opinion, and in a sense of justice in the people generally.
(h) The emphasis which Dicey laid on personal freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention is as true, if not more true, as when Dicey wrote his book. Dicey’s doctrine that all classes in the
United Kingdom were subject equally to the ordinary law of the land administered by the ordinary courts was true in the very limited sense that a public servant was individually liable for a tort or a crime. But equality before the law did not mean equality of rights and duties. An unpaid tax is a debt due to the State, but the Income-tax authorities have powers for recovering that debt which private creditors do not have for the recovery of their debts.
I said earlier that Dicey asserted that his Rule of Law was a principle of the constitution. The modern version of the Rule of Law takes a different line. In a well-known book on Constitutional
Law, it is said that the Rule of Law “demands” the payment of compensation in certain circumstances where a person is injured by a change in the law; discretionary power should not be arbitrary power. You will notice that this view does not assert that the Rule of Law is a principle of the English Constitution, and in fact it is not. The Rule of Law thus formulated belongs to the realm of political and moral philosophy, and can be accepted or rejected according as one accepts or rejects that philosophy. “The Rule of Law becomes a banner under which opposing armies march to combat” says one leading text-book on Administrative Law. “The
Rule of Law, which is a fine sonorous phrase, can now be put alongside the Brotherhood of Man,
Human Rights and all the other slogans of mankind on the march,” says Prof. Jackson. And he rightly observes that the doctrines of the separation of powers and the Rule of Law give little help in determining the practical question: what mattes should be assigned to special tribunals and what to courts of law.
Speaking for the Privy Council, Lord Atkin formulated that concept in the following oftquoted words:
“As the executive, he (i.e. the Governor) can only act in pursuance of the powers given to him by law. In accordance with British jurisprudence no member of the executive can interfere with the liberty or property of a British subject except on the condition that he can support the legality of his action before a court of justice.”
And this passage has been cited and followed by our Supreme Court.
Is the above discussion merely theoretical? I think not, if we consider Nanavati case and
Bharat Singh case in the light of that discussion. Nanavati case involved no question about
Dicey’s Rule of Law, nor even of the rule of law, because the Governor did not claim the power to act without the authority of law. The question was whether the suspension of Nanavati’s sentence by the Governor under Art. 161, which expressly conferred on him the power to grant reprive or respite, was valid in law. The majority held that it was not, because according to the majority the power of the Governor did not extend to suspending the sentence after the Supreme

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Court had admitted an appeal from it. Sinha, C.J. observed that to uphold the power of the
Governor to suspend the sentence would involve a conflict between the executive and the judiciary, for an order of the Supreme Court releasing an accused on a bail of Rs. 10,000 could be nullified by obtaining a simple order of suspension from the Governor:
“Avoidance of such a possible conflict will incidentally prevent any invasion of the rule of law which is the very foundation of our Constitution.”
Here you have the distracting influence of the emotional and political overtones of A.V.
Dicey’s Rule of Law, and of the doctrine of the separation of powers from which it is easy to slip unconsciously into the belief that judicial power is “property.” I say “unconsciously” because judges may be quite unaware that they are treating judicial power as property. If this appears to be a fancy of my own, let me give you a delightful passage from Prof. Robson. Discussing Prof.
Morgan’s remark that the acquisition of judicial functions by the executive was “all the more unwarrantable” because courts of law had not in their turn encroached on the functions of the executive, Prof. Robson said:
“(Prof. Morgan) writes as though the executive and the judiciary were riparian owners bargaining over a strip of land or European powers carving up an African colony.”
And he adds
“Neither the executive nor the judiciary has any immutable ‘right’ to a particular province....” Applying this to Nanavati case, if judicial power were “property,” the release of a convicted person on a bail of Rs. 10,000 would be legal exercise of a right of property, and the nullification of that order by the Governor’s reprive would violate a legal right and thus appear to be against the Rule of Law.
But if we lay aside Dicey and the separation of powers, it is clear that Nanavati case raised no question of the rule of law. Judicial power to try and punish an accused person and the executive power to exercise clemency and to pardon the accused, or to commute or remit his punishment, or to suspend his sentence by a reprive or respite, is part of our Constitutional scheme. The power to pardon, said Taft C.J., exists to ameliorate or avoid particular criminal judgments. It is a check entrusted to the Executive for special purposes. It requires no argument to show that occasionally miscarriage of justice does take place; that occasionally a judge enters the arena of conflict and his vision is blinded by the dust of controversy. Among other reasons, the power of pardon exists to remedy the miscarriage of justice or to remedy the consequence of human failings in a judge. Such miscarriage can take place in passing a sentence of death; it can take place equally in keeping an appellant in prison by refusing him bail. If, as the Supreme
Court admits, the Rule of Law is not violated if the sentence of death is in effect wiped out by a free pardon, surely it is fanciful to say that the Rule of Law is violated if release on a bail of Rs.
10,000 by a Court is wiped out by a reprieve or respite which suspends the sentence. The Rule of
Law, like the name of God, can sometimes be invoked in vain.

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The State of M.P. v. Bharat Singh [AIR 1967 SC 1170] also did not raise any question about
Dicey’s Rule of Law, though it did raise a question about the Rule of Law in the strict legal sense.
In Bharat Singh case, it was contended that as the executive power of the State was co-extensive with its legislative power, an executive order restricting the movements of a citizen could be passed without the authority of any law, and the Supreme Court’s decision in Kapur case [Rai
Sahib Ram Jawaya Kapur v. State of Punjab (1955) 2 SCR 225] was relied upon to support the contention. The Supreme Court could have pointed out, but did not, that the principle of Kapur case directly negatived the contention when that case held that though the authority of law was not necessary for Government to carry on trade, such authority was necessary when it became necessary to encroach upon private rights in order to carry on trade. The Supreme Court distinguished Kapur case on the ground that it involved no action prejudicial to the rights of others. Even so, Bharat Singh case is really disposed of by the court’s observation that “every act done by the Government or by its officers must, if it is to operate to the prejudice of any person be supported by some legislative authority,” for that is the strict legal meaning of the Rule of Law. For reasons which I have already given, it was wholly unnecessary to refer to the first meaning which Dicey gave to the Rule of Law, or to Dicey’s contrast between the English and the Continental systems.

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LEGAL SERVICE/AID AND LOK ADALAT
R. Swaroop
Need for introduction of an adequate and comprehensive legal aid/service programme had been felt for many years and it was increasingly being realized that there could not be any real equality in criminal cases unless the accused got a fair trial of defending himself against the charges laid and unless he had competent professional assistance. In Hussainara Khatoon v.
State of Bihar [AIR 1979 SC 1369, 1375], the Supreme Court observed that it was not possible to reach the benefits of the legal process to the poor, to protect them against injustice and to secure to them their constitutional and statutory rights unless there was a nationwide legal service programme to provide free legal services to them. Impressing upon the Government of India as also the State Governments, the urgent necessity of introducing a dynamic and comprehensive legal service programme with a view to reaching justice to the common man, the Supreme Court in Hussainara Khatoon case observed:
“Today, unfortunately, in our country the poor are priced out of the judicial system with the result that they are losing faith in the capacity of our legal system to bring about changes in their life conditions and to deliver justice to them. The poor in their contact with the legal system have always been on the wrong side of the line. They have always come across ‘Law for the poor’ rather than ‘Law of the poor’. The law is regarded by them as something mysterious and forbidding – always taking something away from them and not as a positive and constructive social device for changing the social economic order and improving their life conditions by conferring rights and benefits on them. The result is that the legal system has lost its credibility for the weaker sections of the community. It is, therefore, necessary that we should inject equal justice into legality and that can be done only by dynamic and activism scheme of legal services.
We would strongly recommend to the Government of India and the State
Governments that it is high time that a comprehensive legal service programme is introduced in the country. That is not only a mandate of equal justice implicit in
Article 14 and right to life and liberty conferred by Article 21, but also the compulsion of the Constitutional Directive embodied in Article 39-A.”
The State cannot, therefore, avoid its constitutional obligation to provide free legal aid to the accused by pleading financial or administrative inability. The State is under a Constitutional mandate of equal justice implicit in Article 14 and right to life and liberty conferred by Article 21, but also the compulsion of the Constitutional Directive embodied in Article 39 A, to ensure fair trial and whatever is necessary for this purpose has to be done by the State. It is also the constitutional obligation of the Court, as the guardian of the fundamental rights of the people, as a sentinel on the qui vive, to enforce the fundamental right of the accused to fair trial and his right

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to free legal aid or to secure assistance of a counsel, where he cannot afford to engage one, on account of indigence or poverty.
There are several reasons why, the right to legal aid or to avail legal services in a country like
India, which is under-developing, democratic republic, wherein, the ‘Welfare State’ doctrine has been adopted, assumes wider significance. There are several reasons, aspects and facets prevalent in this country, which would prompt to have a very effective, useful and efficient infrastructure for providing free and competent legal aid in a country like India, where less than 33 percent of the people know how to write and read sufficiently and usefully. Majority of the people are poor or indigent and most of them live below the poverty line, even though poverty line is drawn liberally, and not upon an International Standard. It is imperative to reach the goal of ‘equal access to justice,’ which is a constitutional commandment and statutory imperative. Legal-aid is not a charity or a chance, but as stated, it is constitutional mandate to the State and right of public, which is not now an opinion, but a constitutional obligation and compulsion. As such it is not a pledge or a plan of a Government, but has assumed, the status of people’s movement. Somebody has rightly said, “What is the use of the system, which does not help lowly and lost, poor and downtrodden and which creates distance between law and justice.” It is in this context, the provisions for legal services have been made in the Constitution as well as in the Legal Services
Authorities Act, 1987, over and above the provisions made in Section 304 of the Criminal
Procedure Code, 1973.
2. Constitutional Mandate
“The State is under a constitutional mandate to provide free legal aid to an accused person who is unable to secure legal services on account of indigence and whatever is necessary for this purpose has to be done by the State. The State may have its financial constraints and its priorities in expenditure but, as pointed out by the Court in Rhem v.
Malcolm [377 F. Supp. 995]: “the law does not permit any Government to deprive its citizens of constitutional rights on a plan of poverty” and to quote the words of Justice
Black mum in Jackson v. Bishop [404 F Supp 2d, 571]: “human considerations and constitutional requirements are not in this day to be measured by dollar considerations”
(Khatri v. State of Bihar, AIR 1981 SC 928, 930).
The Founding Fathers of the Constitution of India have right from the Preamble, taken a positive approach of doctrine of philosophy of Equal Justice which becomes apparent on the plain perusal of the preamble of the Constitution. The preamble promise is further strengthened by the constitutional provisions in Articles 14, 19, 21, 22(1), 32, 39-A, 51-A and 226 of the Constitution of India. Article 22(1) of the Constitution, expressly provides that, “No person, who is arrested, shall be detained in custody, without being informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall he be denied of the right to consult and to be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice.”

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Long before the Constitution, even in the Old Criminal Procedure Code, under Section
340(1), it had been provided that:
“Any person, accused of an offence before the Criminal Court or against whom proceedings are instituted, under this Code, or any such Code, may of right, be defended by a pleader.”
Free legal services an essential element of fair procedure: When under Article 21 of the
Constitution of India, no person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law, it is not enough that there should be some semblance of procedure provided by law but the procedure under which a person may be deprived of his life or liberty should be ‘reasonable’, fair and just [Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC
597]. Now, a procedure which does not make legal services available to an accused person who is too poor to afford a lawyer and who would, therefore, have to go through the trial without legal assistance, cannot possibly be regarded as ‘reasonable, fair and just.’ It is an essential ingredient of reasonable, fair and just procedure to a prisoner who is to seek his liberation through the court’s process that he should have legal services available to him.
Insertion of Article 39A providing for equal justice and free legal aid -As a principle of policy to be followed by the State: The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976 has inserted Article 39-A as a Directive Principle of State Policy. This Article stipulates that –
“39-A. Equal justice and free legal aid – The State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on the basis of equal opportunity and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities” [Enforced w.e.f. 3.1.1977].
This article (Article 39-A) also emphasises that free legal service is an inalienable element of
‘reasonable, fair and just’ procedure for without it a person suffering from economic or other disabilities would be deprived of the opportunity for securing justice. The right to free legal service is, therefore, clearly an essential ingredient of ‘reasonable, fair and just’ procedure for a person accused of an offence and it must be held implicit in the guarantee of Article 21. This is a constitutional right of every accused person who is unable to engage a lawyer and secure legal services on account of reasons such as poverty, indigence or incommunicado situation and the
State is under a mandate to provide a lawyer to an accused person if the circumstances of the case and the needs of Justice so require, provided of course the accused person does not object to the provision of such lawyer.
“It is [legal assistance to poor or indigent accused] necessary sine qua non of justice and where it is not provided, injustice is likely to result and undeniably every act of injustice corrodes the foundations of democracy and rules of law, because nothing rankles more in the human heart than a feeling of injustice and those who suffer and cannot get justice because they are priced out of the legal system, lose faith in the legal

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process and a feeling begins to overtake them that democracy and rule of law are merely slogans or myths intended to perpetuate the domination of the rich and the powerful and to protect the establishment and the vested interests...”
In Khatri v. State of Bihar [AIR 1981 SC 928] the Court went a step further and held that the constitutional obligation of the State to provide free legal service to an indigent accused extends not only at the stage of trial but also at the stage when he is first produced before the Magistrate.
However, in Suk Das v. Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh [AIR 1986 SC 991, 993] the
Supreme Court, further observed that, “of course, it must be recognized that there may be cases involving offences, such as, economic offences or offences against law prohibiting prostitution or child abuse and the like, where social Justice may require that legal service may not be provided by the State.
Exercise of this fundamental right whether conditional upon the accused applying for free legal assistance: In Sukh Das v. Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, the Supreme Court while interpreting legal aid as a fundamental right which the state is constitutionally obliged to provide to every indigent accused in criminal proceedings, dealt with the question whether this fundamental right could lawfully be denied to the accused if they did not apply for free legal aid.
The Court has observed:
“But the question is whether this fundamental right could lawfully be denied to the appellants if they did not apply for legal aid. Is the exercise of this fundamental right conditional upon the accused applying for free legal assistance so that if he does not make an application for free legal assistance the trial may lawfully proceed without adequate legal representation being afforded to him? Now, it is common knowledge that about 70% of the people living in rural areas are illiterate and even more than that percentage of the people are not aware of the rights conferred upon them by law. Even literate people do not know what are their rights and entitlements under the law. It is this absence of legal awareness which is responsible for the deception, exploitation and deprivation of rights and benefits from which the poor suffer in this land. Their legal needs always stand to become crisis oriented because their ignorance prevents them from anticipating legal troubles and approaching a lawyer for consultation and advice in time and their poverty magnifies the impact of the legal troubles and difficulties when they come. Moreover, because of their ignorance and illiteracy, they cannot become self-reliant; they cannot even help themselves. The law ceases to be their protector because they do not know that they are entitled to the protection of law and they can avail of the legal service programme for putting an end to their exploitation and winning their rights. The result is that poverty becomes with them a condition of total helplessness. This miserable condition in which the poor find themselves can be alleviated to some extent by creating legal awareness amongst the poor. That is why it has always been recognized as one of the principal items of the programme of the legal aid movement in the country to promote legal literacy. It would in these circumstances

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make a mockery of legal aid if it were to be left to a poor, ignorant and illiterate accused to ask for free legal service. Legal aid would become merely a paper promise and it would fail its purpose. This is the reason why in Khatri v. State of Bihar [AIR
1981 SC 928] we ruled that the Magistrate or the Sessions Judge before whom an accused appears must be held to be under an obligation to inform the accused that if he is unable to engage the services of a lawyer on account of poverty or indigence, he is entitled to obtain free legal services at the cost of the State...” [Refer also to State of
Kerala v. Kuttan, 1988 Cri LJ 453].
In Khatri v. State of Bihar, the Supreme Court has held thus:“But even this right to free legal services would be illusory for an indigent accused unless the magistrate or the Sessions Judge before whom he is produced informs him of such right. It is the common knowledge that about 70 per cent of the people in the rural areas are illiterate and even more than that percentage of people are not aware of the rights conferred upon them by law. There is so much lack of legal awareness that it has always been recognized as one of the principal items of the programme of the legal aid movement in this country to promote legal literacy. It would make a mockery of legal aid if it were to be left to a poor ignorant and illiterate accused to ask for free legal services. Legal aid would become merely a paper promise and it would fail in its purpose. The Magistrate or the Sessions Judge before whom the accused appears must be held to be under an obligation to inform the accused that if he is unable to engage the services of a lawyer on account of poverty or indigence, he is entitled to obtain free legal services at the cost of the State. Unfortunately the judicial Magistrate failed to discharge this obligation in the case of the blinded prisoners and they merely stated that no legal representation was asked for by the blinded prisoners and hence none was provided.” The Supreme Court in that case directed the magistrates and Sessions judges in the country“We would, therefore, direct the magistrates and Sessions judges in the country to inform every accused who appears before them and who is not represented by a lawyer on account of his poverty or indigence that he is entitled to free legal services at the cost of the State. Unless he is not willing to take advantage of the free legal services provided by the State, he must be provided legal representation at the cost of the State.”
The Supreme Court also directed the State of Bihar and required every other State in the country“[T]o make provision for grant of free legal services to an accused who is unable to engage a lawyer on account of reasons such as poverty, indigence or incommunicado situation. The only qualification would be that the offence charged against the accused is such that, on conviction, it would result in a sentence of imprisonment and is of such a nature that the circumstances of the case and the needs of social justice require that he

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should be given free legal representation. There may be cases involving offences such as economic offences or offences against law prohibiting prostitution or child abuse and the like, where social Justice may require that free legal services need not be provided by the State.”
Reports of Law Commission of India
Though even in the old Criminal Procedure Code, under Section 340 (1), it had been provided that: “Any person accused of an offence before the Criminal Court or against whom proceedings are instituted, under this Code, or under any such Code, may of right, be defended by a pleader.”
[Section 303 of the new Code corresponds to the said section, with the addition of the words ‘of his choice’ at the end]. The emphasis being on “any person accused of an offence in a criminal case is entitled to be defended, as of right, by an Advocate”, this right under the said section did not make it obligatory on the part of the Court in a Sessions case, to assign a pleader for the defence of the accused at the expenses of the State. However, many High Courts issued circulars and orders, and incorporated rules in the Criminal Rules of Practice providing for assignment of an advocate for the defence of an accused in Session trials and other cases of serious nature in consonance with the Constitutional mandate and fundamental human rights.
Right to be provided with a lawyer by the State: For the first time it was in the year 1958, the Law Commission of India in its Fourteenth Report Volume I on the subject “Reform of
Judicial Administration” made certain recommendations for State legal aid and emphasized for right to assignment of counsel at government expense. It observed, - “Unless some provision is made for assisting the poor man for the payment of court-fees and lawyer’s fees and other incidental costs of litigation, he/she is denied equality in the opportunity to seek justice.” (p.487).
Again in 1969 the 41st Law Commission Report, the Law Commission strongly recommended that representation by a lawyer should be made available at Government expenses to accused persons in all cases tried by a Court of Sessions (Vol.1, paras 24, 34-38). The Law Commission in its Forty Eighth Report also suggested for making provision for free legal assistance by the
State for all accused who were undefended by a lawyer for want of means.
Recommendation codified in Section 30: This recommendation has now been codified in sub-section (1) of Section 304 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, with this change made by the
Joint Committee, that the State aid will be available only where the accused “has not sufficient means to engage a pleader”. Section 304 reads,“304. Legal aid to accused at State expenses in certain cases (1) Where, in a trial before the Court of Session, the accused is not represented by a pleader, and where it appears to the Court that the accused has not sufficient means to engage a pleader, the Court shall assign a pleader for his defence at the expense of the
State.
(2) The High Court may, with the previous approval of the State Government, make rules providing for-

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(a) the mode of selecting pleaders for defence under sub-section (1);
(b) the facilities to be allowed to such pleaders by the courts;
(c) the fees payable to such pleaders by the government, and generally, for carrying out the purposes of sub-section (1).
(3) The State Government may, by notification, direct that, as from such date as may be specified in the notification, the provisions of sub-section (1) and (2) shall apply in relation to any class of trials before other Courts in the State as they apply in relation to trials before Courts of Sessions.”
The section provides that when in the trial and more so in trials before the Court of
Sessions, the accused is not represented by a pleader or an Advocate and when it appears to the
Court that the accused has not sufficient means to engage an Advocate, the Court shall assign a pleader or an Advocate for his defence at the expense of the State. Under Section 304(3), the
State Government, may, by notification, direct that the provisions of sub-section (1) will apply to any class of trials before other Courts in the State.
A bare reading of the provisions under Section 304 of the Criminal Procedure Code make it crystal clear that in a criminal trial, the Magistrate or the Sessions Court before whom the accused appears must be held to be under an obligation to inform the accused that if he is unable to engage the services of a lawyer on account of poverty or indigence or any other disability, he is entitled to free legal services, at the cost of the State. It is, therefore, imperative for a Presiding
Officer, in charge of a trial to inform every accused, who appears before him and who is not represented by a private lawyer on account of the poverty, ignorance or by any disability that he is entitled to free legal services, at the cost of the State.
While, it is settled position of law that to provide legal aid to accused persons without means in all cases tried by a Court of Session, is a mandatory constitutional necessity, it is further necessary that such lawyer should be of competence. Such counsel appointed for the accused must be given the complete brief of the case and time to prepare the case. Failure to this is a denial of proper representation of the accused and vitiates the trial. [Raj Kishore v. State, 1969
Cri LJ 860 (Cal): AIR 1969 Cal 321]. Also, no counsel can be thrust upon the accused without ascertaining the wishes of the accused and without giving him any choice in selecting his lawyer as Article 22(1) of the Constitution guarantees that choice to be accused.
Committee for Implementing Legal Aid Scheme (CILAS)
Concerned with the programme of legal aid as it is the implementation of a constitutional mandate, in September, 1980, the Government of India, with the object of providing free legal aid, by a resolution dated 26th September, 1980, appointed “Committee for Implementing Legal
Aid Schemes” (CILAS) with P.N. Bhagwati J (as he then was) as the Chairman to monitor and implement legal aid programs on a uniform basis in all the States and union territories. The
Committee evolved a model scheme for legal aid programme, [which includes organization of legal aid camps] and set up several legal aid and advice boards throughout the country.

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But on a review of the working of the CILAS, certain deficiencies had come to the fore. It was, therefore, felt that it would be desirable to constitute statutory legal service authorities at the national, State and District levels so as to provide for the effective monitoring of legal aid programmes. Therefore, the Legal Services Authorities act, 1987 (Act No.39 of 1987) was enacted with a view to constitute Legal Services Authorities at National, State and District
Levels. However, the Act not having been brought into force (The Act was brought into force with effect from 9-11-1995, almost eight years after its enactment) the term of Committee was extended again for a period of one year on and from the 14th May, 1990 or till the National Legal
Service Authority was constituted under the Legal Services Authorities Act, whichever was earlier. Constitution of Legal Aid Boards and Committees:
Many states evolved their own programmes and even enacted State Legislation or promulgated certain schemes or Rules to provide Legal Aid to under privileged and disadvantaged sections of the society. For effective implementation and to achieve the desired objective of providing Free Legal Aid and Advice to the poor, State Boards, District Legal Aid
Committees and Taluka Committees were constituted. But it was felt that enactment of a Central
Legislation to co-ordinate and promote the activities of the various States in providing Legal Aid and Advice to the poor was desirable to monitor and implement legal aid programmes on a uniform basis in all the States and union territories.
Need for Strategic Legal Aid Programme
It is now acknowledged throughout the country that the legal aid programme which is needed for the purpose of reaching social justice, to the people cannot afford to remain confined to the traditional or litigation oriented legal aid programme but it must, taking into account the socioeconomic conditions prevailing in the country, adopt a more dynamic posture and take within its sweep what we may call strategic legal aid programme consisting of promotion of legal literacy, organization of legal aid camps, encouragement of public interest litigation and holding of lok adalats or niti melas for bringing about settlements of disputes whether pending in Courts or outside. [Center of Legal Research v. State of Kerala, AIR 1986 SC 2195]. As observed by
Justice Bhagawati “....what is necessary is to supplement the traditional legal service programme with strategic legal service programme. The strategic legal service programme aims at prevention and elimination of various kinds of injustices which the poor as a class suffer because of poverty and endeavours to launch a frontal attack on the poverty itself with the ultimate goal of its eradication from the society. It does not involve merely quantitative extension of traditional legal services to the poor but instead requires a qualitative and radical change in the whole emphasis, aims and functioning of the legal service programme. It involves novel, radical, more dynamic and multi-dimensional uses of law and the legal process and seeks to provide representation to groups of social and economic protest. It does not regard litigation as playing an important or even significant role in the life of the poor and hence refuses to consider the court as a centre of all legal activity and is concerned with the problems of the poor as a class rather than with the

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individual problems of the poor which may be projected in litigation in court. The strategic legal service programme is thus directed towards group-oriented approach to the problem of poverty rather than individual-oriented treatment and basically it is calculated to make the poor as classconscious and powerful, self-reliant and capable of using law as a potent weapon for various purposes.....” A common man has started feeling that justice itself is on trial. It is, therefore, imperative to evolve effective and efficient strategies both preventive and protective:
(1) To manage: Unmanageable; (2) To break: Unbreakable; (3) To beat: Unbeatable; (4) To hit: Unhitable; (5) To defend: Indefensible.
Looking to the present situation in the country, we are obliged to create and constitute a NeoJurisprudence, a public-oriented participation performing, progressive, professional and pervasive programmes. Unfortunately, in the present system, the litigant, who is the heart of judicial anatomy, is the most neglected segment. He is the consumer of justice and he should be respected. The litigant-consumer of justice – and heart of our system – must receive equal, effective, inexpensive and speedy trial and justice.
In our country, amount spent or expenditure for administration of law and justice is reported
0.2 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) which is grossly inadequate and insufficient in a democratic set up. It is, therefore, necessary to constitute a regular mechanism, whereby, we can take and evaluate Judicial Cardiogram for necessary urgent and useful, effective and ebullient reforms to translate Constitutional mandate and obligation propounded right from Preamble
Promise in their fighting faith by its Founding Fathers, a reality.
Legal literacy: Legal literacy is a pre-condition to maintain the “rule of law”. As observed by
Justice Bhagwati, the strategic legal service consists of creating legal awareness or what may be described as promoting legal literacy, for knowledge of their rights and entitlement would give to the poor strength and confidence to fight and help them to avoid needless difficulties which arise from ignorance. Legal aid camps can also be arranged as part of the strategic legal service programme for carrying legal services to the doorsteps of the rural poor. (Quoted in “Equal
Justice and Forensic Process: Truth and Myth” by V.R. Krishna Iyer, at p.47). The model scheme for Legal Aid evolved by the “Committee for Implementing Legal Aid Scheme (CILAS)” also included programme for promotion of legal literacy and spread of legal awareness among the weaker sections of the community by way of organizing legal Aid camps, especially in rural areas, slums or labour colonies. Voluntary organizations, social action groups, journalists and even advocates have been rendering significant service to educate the people about the laws, their rights and benefits flowing out of the various schemes and measures. The assistance of voluntary agencies and social action groups must therefore be taken by the State for the purpose of operating the legal aid programme in its widest and most comprehensive sense, and this is an obligation which flows directly from Article 39 A of the Constitution.

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Public Interest Litigation
Public Interest Litigation has been devised as a tool to secure benefit to a class or group of persons, either victims of exploitation, or oppression or who are denied the constitutional rights but cannot come to court personally for relief by reason of ignorance, poverty, destitution, helplessness, disability or social or economic disadvantage. It is a form of litigation where jurisdiction of the Court is invoked on behalf of such persons or group of persons by a third person or a social action group or a social organization regardless of its personal injury. Cases of this kind involve the rights of thousands of people at a time, unlike traditional litigation, which are basically of adversary character and concerns disputes between individuals. Whenever such litigations have come to Court, the Courts in the country have done everything to help the poor and to break every procedural barrier to deliver justice to the poor. To quote Krishna Iyer,
“Moulding the remedies to suit the needs of the situation so that efficacious and comprehensive remedies may be granted, regardless of pickled precedents in remedial methodology, is part of judicial dynamics.”
Public interest litigation which is a strategic arm of the legal aid movement and which is intended to bring justice within the reach of the poor masses, who constitute the low visibility area of humanity, is a totally different kind of litigation from the ordinary traditional litigation which is essentially of an adversary character where there is a dispute between two litigating parties, one making claim or resisting such relief. Public interest litigation is brought before the court not for the purpose of enforcing the right of one individual against another as happens in the case of ordinary litigation, but it is intended to promote and vindicate public interest which demands that violation of constitutional or legal rights of large number of people who are poor, ignorant or in a socially or economically disadvantaged position should not go unnoticed and unredressed. That would be destructive of the Rule of Law, which forms one of the essential elements of public interest in any democratic form of government. The Rule of Law does not mean that the protection of the law must be available only to a fortunate few or that the law should be allowed to be prostituted by the vested interests for protecting and upholding the status quo under the guise of enforcement of their civil and political rights. The poor too have civil and political rights and the Rule of Law meant for them also, though today it exists only on paper and not in reality. [People’s Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 1473].
Public interest litigation is essentially a co-operative or collaborative effort on the part of the petitioner, the State or public authority and the court to secure observance of the constitutional or legal rights, benefits and privileges conferred upon the vulnerable sections of the community and to reach social justice to them.
So far the courts have been used only for the purpose of vindicating the rights of the wealthy and the affluent. It is only these privileged classes which have been able to approach the courts for protecting their vested interests. It is only the moneyed who have so far had the golden key to unlock the doors of justice. But, now for the first time the portals of the court are being thrown open to the poor and the downtrodden, the ignorant and the illiterate and their cases are coming

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before the Courts through public interest litigation which has been made possible by the recent judgment delivered by the Supreme Court in S.P. Gupta v. President of India, AIR 1982 SC 149
[Judges Appointment and Transfer case].
The Legal Aid movement and public interest litigation seek to bring justice to these forgotten specimens of humanity who constitute the bulk of the citizens of India and who are really and truly the “people of India” who gave to themselves this magnificent Constitution. It is true that there are large arrears pending in the Courts but that cannot be any reason for denying access to justice to the poor and weaker sections of the community. No State has a right to tell its citizens that because a large number of cases of the rich and the well to do are pending in our Courts, we will not help the poor to come to the Courts for seeking justice until the staggering load of cases of people who can afford, is disposed of. The time has now come when the Courts must become the courts for the poor and struggling masses of the country. They must shed their character as upholders of established order and the status quo. They must be sensitized to the need of doing justice to the large masses of people to whom justice has been denied by a cruel and heartless society for generations. The realization must come to them that social justice is the signature tune of our Constitution, and it is their solemn duty under the Constitution to enforce the basic human rights of the poor and vulnerable sections of the community and actively help in the realization of the constitutional goals. This new change has to come if the judicial system is to become an effective instrument of social justice, for without it, it cannot survive for long. Fortunately, this change is gradually taking place and public interest litigation is playing a large part in bringing about this change. It is through public interest litigation that the problems of the poor are now coming to the forefront and the entire theatre of the law is changing. It holds our great possibilities for the future. In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India [AIR 1987 SC 1086], a constitutional Bench of the Apex Court while considering the scope of public interest litigation to grant compensation to the victims of hazardous or dangerous activities when deaths or injuries were caused to them on account of the accident during the operation of such activities, has held that the law should keep pace with changing socio-economic norms; where a law of the past does not fit in the present context, the Court should evolve new law in a public interest litigation. The
Court has incidental and ancillary powers in exercise of which it can devise new methods and strategy in securing enforcement of fundamental rights particularly in public interest litigation or social action cases.
In Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India [AIR 1984 SC 802, 815], the Supreme Court held that when the poor come before the Court, particularly for enforcement of their fundamental rights, it is necessary to depart from the adversarial procedure and to evolve a new procedure which will make it possible for the poor and the weak to bring the necessary material before the
Court for the purpose of securing enforcement of their fundamental rights. The Supreme Court further observed:
“It must be remembered that the problems of the poor which are now coming before the Court are qualitatively different from those which have hitherto occupied the

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attention of the Court and they need a different kind of lawyering skill and different kind of judicial approach. If we blindly follow the adversarial procedure in their case, they would never be able to enforce their fundamental rights and the result would be nothing but a mockery of the Constitution. We therefore to abandon the laissez faire
[Let things be] approach in the judicial process particularly where it involves a question of enforcement of fundamental rights and forge new tools, devise new methods and adopt new strategies for the purpose of making fundamental rights meaningful for the large masses of the people. And this is clearly made permissible by the language of clause (2) of Article 32 because the Constitution-makers while enacting that clause have deliberately and advisedly not used any words restricting the power of the Court to adopt any procedure which it considers appropriate in the circumstances of a given case for enforcing the fundamental right. It is true that the adoption of this nontraditional approach is not likely to find easy acceptance from the generality of lawyers because their minds are conditioned by constant association with the existing system of administration of justice which has become ingrained in them as a result of long years of familiarity and experience and become part of their mental make-up and habit and they would therefore always have an unconscious predilection for the prevailing system of administration of justice. But if we want the fundamental rights to become a living reality and the Supreme Court to become a real sentinel on the qui vive, we must free ourselves from the shackles of outdated and outmoded assumptions and bring to bear on the subject fresh outlook and original unconventional thinking.”
The traditional rule of locus standi considerably relaxed by the Supreme Court
The traditional rule in regard to ‘locus standi’ that judicial redress is available only to a person who has suffered a legal injury by reason of violation of his legal rights- by some agency or individual has now been considerably relaxed by the Supreme Court. In S.P. Gupta v.
President of India [AIR 1982 SC 149, 188], the Supreme Court speaking through Bhagwati, J. has held:
“It may, therefore, now be taken as well established that where a legal wrong or legal injury is caused to a person or to a determinate class of persons by reason of violation of any constitutional or legal right or any burden is imposed in contravention of any constitutional or legal provision or without authority of law or any such legal wrong or legal injury or illegal burden is threatened and such person or determinate class of persons is by reason of poverty, helplessness, or disability or socially or economically disadvantaged position, unable to approach the Court for relief, any member of the public can maintain an application for an appropriate direction, order or writ in the High Court under Article 226 and in case of breach of any fundamental rights of such person or persons, in this Court [Supreme Court] under Article 32 seeking judicial redress for the legal wrong or injury caused to such person or determinate class of persons....”

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THE INSTITUTION OF LOK ADALAT
Lok Adalats or Niti Melas
Lok Adalat has emerged lately as a new system of dispensation of justice and received tremendous response and wide support from different sections of the society. The system visualized as an alternative dispute settlement mechanism, evolved as a part of the CILAS programme with the object of taking justice to the doorsteps of the poor and to give speedy and cheap justice to those who cannot afford to fight the costly legal battle. Lok Adalat has come to be seen as an institution or an agency, for handling disputes by conciliation and counseling, a species of peace making. Lok Adalats do not treat the issues before it as disputes under contest and decide cases, but treat them as differences and resolve them by conciliatory and persuasive efforts. The process involves discussing with the parties the pros and cons of their case and explaining to them advantages and disadvantage of resolving their dispute by conciliation and compromise, or in the alternative, of resorting to the traditional dilatory procedure of adversarial litigation in regular Courts. The process of participatory justice is a unique feature of this institution. Dispute in the Lok Adalats is resolved by discussion in an informal atmosphere, in which parties and panel members of the Lok Adalat participate, and settlement is reached with the mutual and free consent of the parties. Unlike in litigations concluded in our regular Courts, being in the nature of compromises, there is no winner and no loser in a mediated resolution of dispute by Lok Adalats. The intention being to help warring parties to work things out, shake hands, and become friends (or not enemies again), resolution of disputes in Lok Adalat, is more likely to bring or keep people together and, therefore, more conducive to harmonies. There has been in the last few years a growing interest in the institution and it has emerged as a forum for alternative dispute resolution, to supplement the existing justice delivery system. These forums based on the concept of dispute settlement mechanism by way of counseling persuasion and conciliation, function as peacemaker, and are intended to work informally with simplified procedure.
As part of CILAS programme, lok adalats (Peoples’ Court) were constituted and niti melas were organized at various places in the country, under the supervision of State Legal Aid and
Advice Boards, for the disposal, in a summary way and through the process of arbitration and settlement between the parties, of a large number of cases expeditiously and with lessor costs.
The organizers of the Lok Adalats, fixed the date and place of the holding of Lok Adalats about a month in advance. Information about the holding of Lok Adalat was widely publicized through press and other means of publicity. Presiding Officers of various Courts were requested to look into the cases pending in their respective Courts and to see whether there was possibility of conciliation in these cases. Such of those cases where there was reasonable possibility of conciliation were identified and listed. Cases were analyzed, classified under various heads according to the nature of dispute and substance recorded. Then, pre-Lok Adalat conferences were held and parties to the dispute were approached and motivated by the legal aid teams, which included, law students, social workers and volunteers to resolve their disputes through Lok

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Adalats. Before the case was taken up by the Lok Adalat, the mediation process or justice process through Lok Adalat was initiated by way of thorough discussion with the parties as to the details of the case and desirability of conciliation and compromise and the scope of a settlement mutually acceptable to the parties was assessed. The team involved in the mediation or Lok
Adalat justice process, consisted of the members of local Legal Aid Committee, advocates, spirited public men or elders of the locality or social activists and called conciliators. This process was continued and resumed at the campsite of the Lok Adalat. Once parties had made a compromise or arrived at a settlement, it was reduced into writing by members of the panel of the
Lok Adalat, signatures of the parties were obtained and countersigned by the members of the panel and passed on to the Court concerned for final decree or order. Multiple panels, according to the need of the Lok Adalat, were set up. These panels or members of Lok Adalat consisted of two or three persons, one of them could be a retired judge or a senior retired civil servant or an advocate, a law teacher, and others, social workers and eminent persons of the locality, carefully chosen by the Local Aid Committees on the basis of their record of public services, honesty and respectability among local population, supposed to be good conciliators, concerned with the cause of social justice and sympathetic to people’s problem. When the compromise so arrived at was presented before the Court concerned, the Court was expected to look into the question whether all the parties to the suit were entering into settlement or compromise, examine the fairness and legality of the settlement or compromise, and satisfy itself that compromise had been arrived at by free and mutual consent of the parties. After this process of due verification of the compromise made or settlement arrived at by the parties, decree or orders were passed in terms of the settlement or compromise.
Importance of the institution of Lok Adalat in the present context: The revolutionary evolution of resolution of dispute by one or other means, Alternate Dispute Redressal (A.D.R.) mechanism, has been, successfully, translated in various countries. While, in India, roughly, 91 percent of cases instituted in the Courts go for trial and only 9 percent of cases are settled without judicial agitation, in U.S. A., more than 90 percent of cases involving legal disputes are settled before they go for trial.
The institution of Lok Adalat has been acknowledged as an effective Alternate Dispute
Redressal agency and gaining wide acceptability. More and more people are choosing this forum to help settlement of dispute through negotiation, counseling, conciliation, settlement and compromise than to go for a verdict through court. It provides a quicker remedy, it is less expensive, less time consuming, does not permit dilatory tactics of parties to prolong litigation. It saves parties from intricacies of procedure and is concerned more with narrowing the differences and finding settlement in accordance with natural justice, rules of equity and other legal principles than with expatiating upon procedural complexities and their strict application. It is based on jurisprudence of peace and provides a rendezvous for social amity and affinity and social justice. It aims at promoting larger interest, harmony, comity and policy and jurisprudential

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cohesion and environment. Looking to the present situation in the country the role of Lok Adalat assumes higher degree of importance.
It is reported that 34 percent of the total world’s poor populace is in India. More than majority persons live below poverty line. Most of the rural people in India who reside in more than 5,18,000 villages are either, illiterate, indigent or ignorant of their rights. Even in case of urban populace most of them are ignorant about their legal rights, who are otherwise, literate. The urbanized populace lack awareness about their legal rights. Our present traditional system of justice is suffering from maladies like huge and heavy expenses; unexpected and unpredictable delay in disposal and, cumbersome and complex process of Court. In view of the failure to provide easy, cheap and expeditious accessibility, mental barrier is developed amongst many persons to suffer injustice. As a result of which, a common man has started looking at it, as foe rather than a friend. The life span of a civil case or a lawsuit in civil side is ranging average, between 8 to 12 years. Who knows even after a successful decision or order in favour of a party, whether he would be able to see light at the end of tunnel after having passed through the long legal and procedural conduit pipes? Even after a decree awarded or order passed on judicial side in favour of a party, after number of years, successful party has to again undergo the second round of litigation at the stage of execution. It is not a Pity v. Duty? Pending workload of cases in
Indian Courts has rapidly crossed the 30 millions as per latest survey, and many more are under inquiry or investigation stage, etc. The ratio of Judges per million in India is almost 9, whereas, it is more than 115 in U.S.A. In case of ratio of Advocate available in India, is far less than developed countries. There are about only 4,50,000 and odd number of Advocates in India, which has populace of 1 billion. In view of these circumstances, the institution of Lok Adalat is being looked upon as an effective Alternate Dispute Redressal Forum, which has proved to be dialectical and speedy. By bringing justice at their doorstep, it gets the poor litigants justice without having to meet huge costs and help them to settle their disputes amicable. It creates not only peace but also a culture of compromise. It provides a rendezvous for social amity and affinity and social justice. [Cf. Dineshbhai Dhemenrai v. State of Gujarat, 2001 (1) GLR 603].
Legal status for Lok Adalat: The Lok Adalat, a specie of conciliatory agency, proved to be very popular in providing for a speedier system of administration of justice at lessor costs. The success of these Lok Adalats in taking justice to the doorsteps of poor and the needy and making justice quicker and less expensive raised a new ray of hope for those who could not otherwise afford to fight the protracted costly legal battle for assertion and protection of their rights under the law.
The institution received wide support from concerned citizens and spread to disputes of diverse and varied nature and resolved cases pertaining to compoundable criminal complaints, civil and revenue disputes, MACT cases, and even institutional cases (cases where one of the parties is an institution, such as, municipality or a corporation). The number of cases resolved by these Lok
Adalats also began to reflect on the workload of our regular Courts. The institution of Lok
Adalats was, however, functioning as a voluntary agency without any statutory backing for its decisions. In view of its growing popularity, there was demand for providing a statutory backing

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to this institution and the awards given by Lok Adalats. It was being felt that such a statutory support would not only reduce the burden of arrears of work in regular courts, but would also provide social justice and serve to achieve the constitutional mandate under Article 39 A. The
Government was convinced that this admirable alternate dispute settlement mechanism shall now only reduce the burden of arrears of work in regular courts, but would also take justice to the doorsteps of the poor and the needy and make justice quicker and less expensive and felt that if the Lok Adalats were given statutory status they could function more effectively. Therefore, the
Government in exercise of its duty under Article 39 A, drafted the Legal Services Authorities Bill
1987 and the same was enacted by the Parliament as Act No. 39 of 1987, acknowledging the institution of Lok Adalat and giving statutory status to Lok Adalats. However, the Act was brought into force with effect from 9-11-1995, almost eight years after its enactment.
Public Participation in Legal Aid Programme
Role of Voluntary Organizations and Social Action Groups: In Centre of Legal Research v.
State of Kerala, AIR 1986 SC 2195, the Supreme Court held that there could be no doubt that if the legal aid programme was to succeed it must involve public participation. The Court observed:“The State Government undoubtedly has an obligation under Article 39A of the
Constitution which embodies a directive principle of State Policy, to set up a comprehensive and effective legal aid programme in order to ensure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on the basis of equality. But we have no doubt that despite the sense of social commitment which animates many of our officers in the
Administration. It is absolutely essential that people should be involved in the legal aid programme because the legal aid programme is not charity or bounty but it is a social entitlement of the people and those in need of legal assistance cannot be looked upon as mere beneficiaries of the legal aid programme but they should be regarded as participants in it.”
Emphasizing the importance of role that could be played by voluntary organizations and social action groups in securing people’s participation and involvement in the legal aid programme, the
Supreme Court went on to observe :“If we want to secure people’s participation and involvement in the legal aid programme, we think the best way of securing it is to operate through voluntary organizations and social action groups. These organizations are working amongst the deprived and vulnerable sections of the community at the grass-root level and they know what are the problems and difficulties encountered by these neglected sections of the Indian humanity.
They have their finger on the pulse of the people and they know from their own experience as to what are the unmet legal needs of the people, what are the sources of exploitation and injustice to the underprivileged segments of society and what measures are necessary to be taken for the purpose of ending such exploitation and injustice and

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reaching social or distributive justice to them. We are therefore definitely of the view that voluntary organizations and social action groups must be encouraged and supported by the State in operating the legal aid programme. It is now acknowledged throughout the country that the legal aid programme which is needed for the purpose of reaching social justice to the people cannot afford to remain confined to the traditional or litigation oriented legal aid programme but it must, taking into account the socio-economic conditions prevailing in the country, adopt a more dynamic posture and take within its sweep what we may call strategic legal aid programme consisting of promotion of legal literacy, organization of legal aid camps, encouragement of public interest litigation and holding of Lok Adalats or niti melas for bringing about settlements of disputes whether pending in Courts or outside. The assistance of voluntary agencies and social action groups must therefore be taken by the State for the purpose of operating the legal aid programme in its widest and most comprehensive sense, and this is an obligation which flows directly from Article 39A of the Constitution.”
Role of the Bench and the Bar: In various countries, particularly, in United States and other
Western countries, the contribution of the Bar in rendering free and competent legal-aid is praiseworthy and it must be emulated. Legal Aid fraternity must respond with juristic sensitivity to the voice from the silence zone (a class of litigants) and mass voice of weak, meek, poor, suppressed and exploited women and destitute children so as to create evolving ebullient echo for the silent sector. The Bar must evolve scheme to ensure that unprotected is not priced out of
Market. The Bar is, really, a backbone of the legal services to compliment and complete the
Constitutional obligation and obtain statutory rights of millions of indigent, needy, handicapped and deserving people.
To save the Nation, a catalytic role has to be played by Legal Aid in the larger interest of weaker sections. N.A.L.S.A. has undertaken various important and effective and appreciable
Legal-Aid programmes and, therefore, members of Bench and Bar, N.G.Os. and Government
Agencies must render voluntary helping hand in such noble and novel projects. [See Dineshbhai
Dhemenrai v. State of Gujarat, 2001 (1) GLR 603].

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SETTLEMENT IN THE OPEN
N.R.M Menon.
Some people equate the lok adalat to conciliation or negotiation; yet others compare it with mediation and even arbitration. Those who find it different from all these call it “peoples’ court”.
Literally translated, it can be understood as a court (dispute or grievance settlement forum) involving the people who are directly or indirectly affected by the dispute or grievance. It is certainly different from adjudication. Participation, accommodation, fairness, speed, transparency, practically no cost, voluntariness, good neighbourliness, lack of rancour and ill will between parties and efficiency are all distinctive features of this unique Indian institution rooted in India’s history and culture.
The British occupation of India and the anglicization of the Indian legal system practically put this popular institution into disuse in many parts of India and substituted it with the adversarial litigation based on English common law principles. Nevertheless, in private disputes in many of India’s 500,000 villages, some variation of the “peoples’ court” continued to exist, imparting justice to millions of poor who had no access to the formal courts.
Of course, powerful groups in the community abused the institution, bringing it into disrepute in some places. It happened with the formal court system as well. Today, if the lok adalat has once again become popular among litigants, and the government considered it compelling to give it a statutory basis (the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987), it is because of its deep roots in
Indian legal history and its close affiliation to the culture and perception of justice in the Indian ethos. While giving statutory recognition to the institution of lok adalat in the Indian judicial administration, the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, has preserved its flexibility and adaptability to different situations in the complex structure of Indian society. It can be organized at any level - Central, state, district and taluka. Committees or authorities in charge of the
Supreme Court, state, district or taluka legal services may organize it at such intervals and places and for such areas as they think fit. The number, qualifications and experience of members of lok adalat, other than judicial officers, are to be prescribed by the state government according to rules. Lok adalats have been conferred jurisdiction to settle civil, criminal or revenue disputes in the courts and tribunals in the area for which the lok adalat is organized.
Ordinarily, lok adalats are to consist of three members - a sitting or retired judicial officer, a member of the legal profession (advocate, law officer, law teacher) and a social worker, preferably a woman. The act and the regulations generally require the secretary of the legal services authority or committee to associate students, social activists and voluntary organizations in the community for facilitating the successful conduct of lok adalats.

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Pending cases are referred to lok adalats either when both parties agree for such reference or when one of the parties desire it and the court also is satisfied with the prospects of its settlement or when the court itself desires its reference. Of course, in the second and third situations above, the court must give before such reference reasonable opportunity to the parties involved to present their points of view. Besides such pending matters, a lok adalat can take up issues referred to it in any matter if an application is received from any party to a dispute.
Lok adalats are intended to arrive at compromises and settlements. In doing so, it has powers of a civil court in summoning and examining witnesses, discovery of documents, reception of evidence on affidavits and requisitioning of public records. Further, it is open to lok adalats to specify its own procedure. It is considered judicial proceedings. It is to be guided only by the principles of justice, equity and fair play as understood in common law and constitutional law.
Whenever a settlement is reached, an award is made which is deemed to be a decree of a civil court. It is to be written down in simple and clear terms. No appeal is permissible against such awards which are deemed final. If no compromise is reached, it goes back to the same court for regular trial. If settled, the petitioner gets back the court fees paid for registering the plaint.
The methods employed by lok adalat members can be as varied and flexible as the members, and to some extent, the parties’ desire. The object being settlement, parties desire flexibility in procedures. Members ensure fairness and equality so that the weaker party is not compelled to enter into unjust compromises. Lawyers can represent their clients with the permission of lok adalats, though advocacy, as in court, is not encouraged.
The venue of lok adalats can vary between the courtroom (on holidays) and the offices of panchayats, schools and so on. The atmosphere resembles more of a village festival than that of an awe inspiring court room. It is in the nature of a mobile court where the active players are the parties themselves, assisted by the lok adalat members rather than the lawyers and judges. Unlike in litigation, there are no victors and vanquished in lok adalat proceedings; both parties are victors in some sense.
Traditionally, legal aid is conceived of as representation by counsel in court proceedings. The
Constitution guarantees the right to counsel of one’s choice [Article 22(I)] in case of arrest. Equal justice to all and free legal aid to those who are unable to secure equal justice because of economic or other disabilities are constitutional obligations of the state (Article 39A). The
Supreme Court, in a series of judgments, has read legal aid as part of the guaranteed right of personal liberty (Article 21: Sukh Das, AIR 1986 S.C. 991). Thus perceived, legal aid, as legal representation in judicial proceedings, is part of Indian human rights law and is an enforceable constitutional right.
However, the Indian concept of “legal aid” is much wider in scope and application. All types of legal services, including public legal education (legal awareness), legal advice and counselling, public interest litigation, legal clinics in law- teaching institutions, lok adalats and settlements through similar alternate dispute resolution systems in the community, legal mobilization for

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social justice, para-legal and preventive legal services, law reform initiatives intended to help the poor are all brought within the scope of legal aid.
Several expert committees on legal aid appointed by the Central government in the Seventies
(Justice Krishna Iyer Committee (1973) on processual justice to the people and the committee for implementing legal aid schemes) popularized this wider understanding to legal aid, taking into consideration the socioeconomic condition of the people of India and the inability of the formal legal system to penetrate the countryside where poor people live. They canvassed for a proactive, people-friendly scheme of legal aid for providing meaningful access to justice.
Many people saw the lok adalat as a measure to divert litigation from formal courts and tribunals and a convenient strategy to reduce the mounting arrears of cases in the formal court system. The insurance companies that found the compensation amounts settled through lok adalats in motor accident cases economically and administratively convenient started opting for the lok adalat route in preference to the tribunals.
Other cases seeking monetary compensation for land acquisition, administrative excesses and so on also found their way to lok adalats. A lok adalat-type mechanism is being invoked currently by government departments and public sector agencies to settle pension and provident fund claims, bank debts, consumer grievances and similar small claims of a civil or revenue nature. Of late, matrimonial disputes and minor criminal cases have entered the lok adalat forum in a big way, resulting in the establishment of what are called “continuous or permanent” lok adalats in many places.
Despite its popularity and success in the delivery of justice expeditiously and at nominal costs, there has not been any systematic study of the lok adalat in terms of its functioning and performance. What is available from official statistics is the total number of lok adalats held during a given period and the amount of compensation or other reliefs awarded. If the justice system is to be reformed, taking lessons from the rich and varied experiences of lok adalat, we need many studies to look at the mechanics and dynamics of the experiment in the context of due process and the right to equal justice under law.
There is some criticism against the wisdom of allowing the lok adalat procedure to be open and flexible. Some others condemn it as “second class” justice, good only for the poor and illiterate masses. A large section of the functionaries of the formal legal system seems to have either rejected the lok adalats or is not reconciled to having them as part of the system of administration of justice despite its statutory status. The lack of close monitoring and scientific evaluation of the institution has compounded the fears and the criticism, keeping the lok adalat as an ad hoc arrangement, extraneous to the justice delivery system of the state.

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THE LEGAL SERVICES AUTHORITIES ACT, 1987
CHAPTER VI
LOK ADALATS
19. Organisation of Lok Adalats (1) Every State Authority or District Authority or the Supreme Court Legal Services
Committee or every High Court Legal Services Committee or, as the case may be, Taluk
Legal Services Committee may organise Lok Adalats at such intervals and places and for exercising such jurisdiction and for such areas as it thinks fit.
(2) Every Lok Adalat organised for an area shall consist of such number of(a) Serving or retired judicial officers; and
(b) Other persons, of the area as may be specified by the State Authority or the
District Authority or the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee or the High Court
Legal Services Committee, or as the case may be, the Taluk Legal Services
Committee, organising such Lok Adalat.
(3) The experience and qualifications of other persons referred to in clause (b) of subsection (2) for Lok Adalats organised by the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee shall be such as may be prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India.
(4) The experience and qualifications of other persons referred to in clause (b) of subsection (2) for Lok Adalats other than referred to in subsection (3) shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court.
(5) A Lok Adalat shall have jurisdiction to determine and to arrive at a compromise or settlement between the parties to a dispute in respect of(i) Any case pending before; or
(ii) Any matter, which is falling within the jurisdiction of, and is not brought before, any court for which the Lok Adalat is organised:
Provided that the Lok Adalat shall have no jurisdiction in respect of any case or matter relating to an offence not compoundable under any law.
20. Cognisance of cases by Lok Adalats (1) Where in any case referred to in clause (i) of sub-section (5) of section 19; (i)(a) The parties thereof agree; or

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(b) One of the parties thereof makes an application to the court, for referring the case to the Lok Adalat for settlement and if such court is prima facie satisfied that there are chances of such settlement; or
(ii) The court is satisfied that the matter is an appropriate one to be taken cognisance of by the Lok Adalat, the court shall refer the case to the Lok Adalat:
Provided that no case shall be referred to the Lok Adalat under sub-clause (b) of clause (i) or clause (ii) by such court except after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard to the parties.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, the
Authority or Committee organising the Lok Adalat under sub-section (1) of section 19 may, on receipt of an application from any one of the parties to any matter referred to in clause (ii) of sub-section (5) of section 19 that such matter needs to be determined by a Lok Adalat, refer such matter to the Lok Adalat, for determination:
Provided that no matter shall be referred to the Lok Adalat except after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard to the other party.
(3) Where any case is referred to a Lok Adalat under sub-section (1) or where a reference has been made to it under sub-section (2), the Lok Adalat shall proceed to dispose of the case or matter and arrive at a compromise or settlement between the parties.
(4) Every Lok Adalat shall, while determining any reference before it under this Act, act with utmost expedition to arrive at a compromise or settlement between the parties and shall be guided by the principles of justice, equity, fair play and other legal principles.
(5) Where no award is made by the Lok Adalat on the ground that no compromise or settlement could be arrived at between the parties, the record of the case shall be returned by it to the court, from which the reference has been received under sub-section (1) for disposal in accordance with law.
(6) Where no award is made by the Lok Adalat on the ground that no compromise or settlement could be arrived at between the parties, in a matter referred to in sub-section (2), that Lok Adalat shall advice the parties to seek remedy in a court.
(7) Where the record of the case is returned under sub-section (5) to the Court, such court shall proceed to deal with such case from the stage, which was reached before such reference under sub-section (l).
21. Award of Lok Adalat. –
(1) Every award of the Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be a decree of a civil court or, as the case may be, an order of any other court and where a compromise or settlement has been arrived at, by a Lok Adalat in a case referred to it under sub-section (I) of section 20, the

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court-fee paid in such case shall be refunded in the manner provided under the Court Fees
Act, (7 of 1870).]
(2) Every award made by a Lok Adalat shall be final and binding on all the parties to the dispute, and no appeal shall lie to any court against the award.
22. Powers of Lok Adalats or Permanent Lok Adalats (1) The Lok Adalat or Permanent Lok Adalat shall, for the purposes of holding any determination under this Act, have the same powers as are vested in a civil court under the
Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908) while trying a suit in respect of the following matters, namely: (a) The summoning and enforcing the attendance of any witness and examining him on oath;
(b) The discovery and production of any document;
(c) The reception of evidence on affidavits;
(d) The requisitioning of any public record or document or copy of such record or document from any court or office; and
(e) Such other matters as may be prescribed.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the powers contained in subsection (1), every
Lok Adalat or Permanent Lok Adalat shall have the requisite powers to specify its own procedure for the determination of any dispute coming before it.
(3) All proceedings before a Lok Adalat or Permanent Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be judicial proceedings within the meaning of sections 193, 219 and 228 of the Indian Penal
Code (45 of 1860) and every Lok Adalat or Permanent Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be a civil court for the purpose of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal
Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
CHAPTER VI A
PRE-LITIGATION CONCILATION AND SETTLEMENT
22A. Definitions
In this Chapter and for the purposes of sections 22 and 23, unless the context otherwise requires:(a) “Permanent Lok Adalat” means a Permanent Lok Adalat established under subsection (1) of section 22B;
(b) “public utility service” means any –

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(i) transport service for the carriage of passengers or goods by air, road or water; or
(ii) postal, telegraph or telephone service; or
(iii) supply of power, light or water to the public by any esablishment;or
(iv) system of public conservancy or sanitation; or
(v) service in hospital or dispensary; or
(vi) insurance service, and includes any service which the Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, may, in the public interest, by notification, declare to be a public utility service for the purposes of this Chapter.
22B. Establishment of Permanent Lok Adalats (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 19, the Central Authority or, as the case may be, every State Authority shall, by notification, establish Permanent Lok Adalats at such places and for exercising such jurisdiction in respect of one or more public utility services and for such areas as may be specified in the notification.
(2) Every Permanent Lok Adalat established for an area notified under subsection (1) shall consist of –
(a) a person who is, or has been, a district judge or additional district judge or has held judicial officer higher in rank than that of a district judge, shall be the Chairman of the Permanent Lok Adalat; and
(b) two other persons having adequate experience in public utility service to be nominated by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government on the recommendation of the Central Authority or, as the case may be, the State Authority, appointed by the Central Authority or, as the case may be, the State Authority, establishing such Permanent Lok Adalat and the other terms and conditions of the appointment of the Chairman and other persons referred to in clause (b) shall be such as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
22C. Cognisance of cases by Permanent Lok Adalat (1) Any party to a dispute may, before the dispute is brought before any court, make an application to the Permanent Lok Adalat for the settlement of dispute:
Provided that the Permanent Lok Adalat shall not have jurisdiction in respect of any matter relating to an offence not compoundable under any law:
Provided further that the Permanent Lok Adalat shall also not have jurisdiction in the matter where the value of the property in dispute exceeds ten lakh rupees:
Provided also that the Central Government, may, by notification, increase the limit of ten lakh rupees specified in the second proviso in consultation with the Central Authority.

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(2) After an application in made under sub-section (1) to the Permanent Lok Adalat, no party to that application shall invoke jurisdiction of any court in the same dispute.
(3) Where an application is made to a Permanent Lok Adalat under subsection (1), it –
(a) shall direct each party to the application to file before it a written statement, stating therein the facts and nature of dispute under the application, points or issues in such dispute and grounds relied in support of, or in opposition to, such points or issues, as the case may be, and such party may supplement such statement with any document and other evidence which such party deems appropriate in proof of such facts and grounds and shall send a copy of such statement together with a copy of such document and other evidence, if any, to each of the parties to the application;
(b) may require any party to the application to file additional statement before it at any stage of the conciliation proceedings;
(c) shall communicate any document or statement received by it from any party to the application to the other party, to enable such other party to present reply thereto.
(4) When statement, additional statement and reply, if any, have been filed under subsection(3), to the satisfaction of the Permanent Lok Adalat, it shall conduct conciliation proceedings between the parties to the application in such manner as it thinks appropriate taking into account the circumstances of the dispute.
(5) The Permanent Lok Adalat shall, during conduct of conciliation proceedings under sub-section (4), assist the parties in their attempt to reach an amicable settlement of the dispute in an independent and impartial manner.
(6) It shall be the duty of every party to the application to cooperate in good faith with the
Permanent Lok Adalat in conciliation of the dispute relating to the application and to comply with the direction of the Permanent Lok Adalat to produce evidence and other related documents before it.
(7) When a Permanent Lok Adalat, in the aforesaid conciliation proceedings, is of opinion that there exists elements of settlement in such proceedings which may be acceptable to the parties, it may formulate the terms of a possible settlement of the dispute and give to the parties concerned for their observations and in case the parties reach at an agreement on the settlement of the dispute, they shall sign the settlement agreement and the Permanent Lok
Adalat shall pass an award in terms thereof and furnish a copy of the same to each of the parties concerned.
(8) Where the parties fail to reach at an agreement under sub-section (7), the Permanent
Lok Adalat shall, if the dispute does not relate to any offence, decide the dispute.

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22D Procedure of Permanent Lok Adalat The Permanent Lok Adalat shall, while conducting conciliation proceedings or deciding a dispute on merit under this Act, be guided by the principles of natural justice, objectivity, fair play, equity and other principles of justice, and shall not be bound by the Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908 and the Indian Evidence Act, 1892.
22E Award of Permanent Lok Adalat to be final
(1) Every award of the Permanent Lok Adalat under this Act made either on merit or in terms of a settlement agreement shall be final and binding on all the parties thereto and on persons claiming under them.
(2) Every award of the Permanent Lok Adalat under this Act shall be deemed to be a decree of a civil court.
(3) The award made by the Permanent Lok Adalat under this Act shall be by a majority of the persons constituting the Permanent Lok Adalat.
(4) Every award made by the Permanent Lok Adalat under this Act shall be final and shall not be called in question in any original suit, application or execution proceeding.
(5) The Permanent Lok Adalat may transmit any award made by it to a civil court having local jurisdiction and such civil court shall execute the order as if it were a decree made by that court.

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LEGAL AID MOVEMENT IN INDIA –
ITS DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATUS
R.C. Chopra
Article 39A of the Constitution of India provides that State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity, and shall in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disability.
Articles 14 and 22(1) also make it obligatory for the State to ensure equality before law and a legal system which promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity to all. Legal aid strives to ensure that constitutional pledge is fulfilled in its letter and spirit and equal justice is made available to the poor, downtrodden and weaker sections of the society. The earliest Legal Aid movement appears to be of the year 1851 when some enactment was introduced in France for providing legal assistance to the indigent. In Britain, the history of the organised efforts on the part of the State to provide legal services to the poor and needy dates back to 1944, when Lord
Chancellor, Viscount Simon appointed Rushcliffe Committee to enquire about the facilities existing in England and Wales for giving legal advice to the poor and to make recommendations as appear to be desirable for ensuring that persons in need of legal advice are provided the same by the State. Since 1952, the Govt. of India also started addressing to the question of legal aid for the poor in various conferences of Law Ministers and Law Commissions. In 1960, some guidelines were drawn by the Govt. for legal aid schemes. In different states legal aid schemes were floated through Legal Aid Boards, Societies and Law Departments. In 1980, a Committee at the national level was constituted to oversee and supervise legal aid programmes throughout the country under the Chairmanship of Hon. Mr. Justice P.N. Bhagwati, then a Judge of the Supreme
Court of India. This Committee came to be known as CILAS (Committee for Implementing Legal
Aid Schemes) and started monitoring legal aid activities throughout the country. The introduction of Lok Adalats added a new chapter to the justice dispensation system of this country and succeeded in providing a supplementary forum to the litigants for conciliatory settlement of their disputes. In 1987 Legal Services Authorities Act was enacted to give a statutory base to legal aid programmes throughout the country on a uniform pattern. This Act was finally enforced on 9th of
November, 1995 after certain amendments were introduced therein by the Amendment Act of
1994. Hon. Mr. Justice R.N. Mishra, the then Chief Justice of India, played a key role in the enforcement of the Act.
National Legal Services Authority was constituted on 5th December, 1995. His Lordship
Hon. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand, Judge, Supreme Court of India took over as the Executive
Chairman of National Legal Services Authority on 17th July, 1997. Soon after assuming the office, His Lordship initiated steps for making the National Legal Services Authority functional.
The first Member Secretary of the authority joined in December, 1997 and by January, 1998 the other officers and staff were also appointed. By February, 1998 the office of National Legal

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Services Authority became properly functional for the first time. In October, 1998, His Lordship
Hon. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand assumed the Office of the Chief Justice of India and thus became the
Patron-in-Chief of National Legal Services Authority. His Lordship Hon. Mr. Justice S.P.
Bharucha, the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court of India assumed the office of the
Executive Chairman, National Legal Services Authority. Section 12 of the Legal Services
Authorities Act, 1987 prescribes the criteria for giving legal services to the eligible persons.
Section 12 of the Act reads as under:- "12.Every person who has to file or defend a case shall be entitled to legal services under this Act if that person is –
(a) a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe;
(b) a victim of trafficking in human beings or begar as referred to in Article 23 of the
Constitution;
(c) a woman or a child;
(d) a mentally ill or otherwise disabled person;
(e) a person under circumstances of undeserved want such as being a victim of a mass disaster, ethnic violence, caste atrocity, flood, drought, earthquake or industrial disaster; or
(f) an industrial workman; or
(g) in custody, including custody in a protective home within the meaning of clause(g) of section 2 of the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (104 of 1956); or in a juvenile home within the meaning of clause
(j) of section 2 of the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 (53 of 1986) or in a psychiatric hospital or psychiatric nursing home within the meaning of clause (g) of section 2 of the Mental
Health Act, 1987 (14 of 1987); or
(h) in receipt of annual income less than rupees nine thousand or such other higher amount as may be prescribed by the State Govt., if the case is before a court other than the
Supreme Court, and less than rupees twelve thousand or such other higher amount as may be prescribed by the Central Govt., if the case is before the Supreme Court." (Rules have already been amended to enhance this income ceiling).
According to section 2(1) (a) of the Act, legal aid can be provided to a person for a 'case' which includes a suit or any proceeding before a court. Section 2(1) (aaa) defines the 'court' as a civil, criminal or revenue court and includes any tribunal or any other authority constituted under any law for the time being in force, to exercise judicial or quasi-judicial functions. As per section
2(1)(c) ‘legal service’ includes the rendering of any service in the conduct of any case or other legal proceeding before any court or other authority or tribunal and the giving of advice on any legal matter. Legal Services Authorities after examining the eligibility criteria of an applicant and the existence of a prima facie case in his favour provide him counsel at State expense, pay the required Court Fee in the matter and bear all incidental expenses in connection with the case. The person to whom legal aid is provided is not called upon to spend anything on the litigation once it

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is supported by a Legal Services Authority. A nationwide network has been envisaged under the
Act for providing legal aid and assistance. National Legal Services Authority is the apex body constituted to lay down policies and principles for making legal services available under the provisions of the Act and to frame most effective and economical schemes for legal services. It also disburses funds and grants to State Legal Services Authorities and NGOs for implementing legal aid schemes and programmes. In every State a State Legal Services Authority is constituted to give effect to the policies and directions of the Central Authority (NALSA) and to give legal services to the people and conduct Lok Adalats in the State. State Legal Services Authority is headed by the Chief Justice of the State High Court who is its Patron-in-Chief. A serving or retired Judge of the High Court is nominated as its Executive Chairman. District Legal Services
Authority is constituted in every District to implement Legal Aid Programmes and Schemes in the District. The District Judge of the District is its ex-officio Chairman. Taluk Legal Services
Committees are also constituted for each of the Taluk or Mandal or for group of Taluk or
Mandals to coordinate the activities of legal services in the Taluk and to organise Lok Adalats.
Every Taluk Legal Services Committee is headed by a senior Civil Judge operating within the jurisdiction of the Committee who is its ex-officio Chairman. After the constitution of the Central
Authority and the establishment of NALSA office towards the beginning of 1998, following schemes and measures have been envisaged and implemented by the Central Authority:(a) Establishing Permanent and Continuous Lok Adalats in all the Districts in the country for disposal of pending matters as well as disputes at pre-litigative stage;
(b) Establishing separate Permanent & Continuous Lok Adalats for Govt. Departments,
Statutory Authorities and Public Sector Undertakings for disposal of pending cases as well as disputes at pre-litigative stage;
(c) Accreditation of NGOs for Legal Literacy and Legal Awareness campaign;
(d) Appointment of “Legal Aid Counsel” in all the Courts of Magistrates in the country;
(e) Disposal of cases through Lok Adalats on old pattern;
(f) Publicity to Legal Aid Schemes and programmes to make people aware about legal aid facilities; (g) Emphasis on competent and quality legal services to the aided persons;
(h) Legal aid facilities in jails;
(i) Setting up of Counseling and Conciliation Centers in all the Districts in the country;
(j) Sensitisation of Judicial Officers in regard to Legal Services Schemes and programmes;
(k) Publication of “Nyaya Deep”, the official newsletter of NALSA;
(l) Enhancement of Income Ceiling to Rs.50,000/- p.a. for legal aid before Supreme Court of
India and to Rs.25,000/- p.a. for legal aid upto High Courts; and

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(m) Steps for framing rules for refund of court fees and execution of Awards passed by Lok
Adalats.
The First Annual Meet of the State Legal Services Authorities was held on 12th of
September, 1998 at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi which was presided over by His Lordship Hon.
Dr. Justice A.S. Anand, the then Executive Chairman, NALSA. His Lordship Hon. Mr. Justice
S.B. Majmudar, Judge, Supreme Court of India and Chairman, Supreme Court Legal Services
Committee, the Members of the Central Authority and the Executive Chairmen and Member
Secretaries of the State Legal Services Authorities attended this Meet. In this Meet, the progress of on-going schemes which had been initiated by NALSA was examined and decisions of far reaching implications were taken with a view to strengthen and streamline legal aid programmes in the country. The Second Annual Meet of the State Legal Services Authorities was held at
Jubilee Hall, Hyderabad on 9th of October, 1999. This Meet was inaugurated by His Lordship
Hon. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand, the Chief Justice of India and Patron-in-Chief, NALSA. Hon. Mr.
Justice S.P. Bharucha, Executive Chairman, NALSA delivered the keynote address. Other dignitaries present at the inaugural function included Hon. Mr. Justice S.B. Majmudar, Judge,
Supreme Court of India and Chairman, Supreme Court Legal Services Committee, Hon. Mr.
Justice M.S. Liberhan, Chief Justice of Andhra Pradesh High Court and Members of Central
Authority. In pursuance of the call given by His Lordship Hon. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand, the Chief
Justice of India in the First Annual Meet, 9th of November is being celebrated every year by all
Legal Services Authorities as “Legal Services Day”. NALSA issues Press Releases in almost all the leading newspapers in the country in English, Hindi and regional languages to convey to the public salient provisions of the Legal Services Authorities Act, the important schemes introduced by NALSA for providing legal aid and the utility of Lok Adalats, so that people should know about the facilities being provided by Legal Services Authorities throughout the country. State
Legal Services Authorities all over the country organise Lok Adalats, legal literacy camps and undertake legal awareness campaign to make people aware of their legal rights. Permanent and
Continuous Lok Adalats are being established in all the Districts in the country. NALSA has been providing and shall continue to provide funds to State Legal Services Authorities for the implementation of the Legal Aid Schemes and Programmes but the infrastructure has to be provided by the State Governments. Separate Permanent and Continuous Lok Adalats in Govt.
Departments are aimed at amicably settling pending cases as well as the matters at pre-litigative stage between Govt. Departments and general public so that the inflow of litigation to regular
Courts is reduced. In so many Govt. bodies these Lok Adalats have become functional. In Delhi
Permanent Lok Adalats have been established in Delhi Vidyut Board, Delhi Development
Authority, Municipal Corpn. Of Delhi, MTNL and General Insurance Corpn. These Lok Adalats are becoming popular day-by-day and it is expected that very soon a large number of disputes between public and statutory authorities would start getting settled at pre-litigative stage itself saving the parties from unnecessary expense and litigation inconvenience. In other States also
State Legal Services Authorities have initiated steps to persuade the State Govts. and statutory bodies, etc. to set up separate Permanent Lok Adalats for amicable settlement of their legal

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disputes. “Legal Aid Counsel” Scheme which was conceived and introduced by His Lordship
Hon. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand when His Lordship was the Executive Chairman, NALSA has been well received all over country. Legal Aid Counsel have been provided in most of the courts of the
Magistrates in the country to provide immediate legal assistance to those prisoners who are not in a position to engage their own counsel. Hon. Mr. Justice S.P. Bharucha, Executive Chairman,
NALSA in the course of working session of the Second Annual Meet of the State Legal Services
Authorities held at Hyderabad, had emphasised that Counselling and Conciliation Centers should be established in all the Districts in the country to bring about negotiated settlement of disputes between the parties. All the State Legal Services Authorities are taking steps to establish these
Centers which would prove immensely useful for settling legal disputes at pre-litigative stage and would also help legal services functionaries to find out as to whether a person approaching them for legal aid has or not a prima facie case in his favour which is a pre-requisite for grant of legal aid. Hon. Executive Chairman has repeatedly emphasised that legal aid must not be given as a matter of routine and frivolous cases should not be supported by legal aid authorities. Hon. Mr.
Justice S.P. Bharucha, Executive Chairman, NALSA while writing in 'Nyaya Deep' and in the course of his keynote address in the meeting of the Member Secretaries held in NALSA office on
19.2.2000 emphasised the need for improving the quality of legal aid that is being given by legal aid advocates. His Lordship observed that teeming millions of this country who live below poverty line in tribal, backward and far flung areas looks towards Legal Services Authorities for help and support in resolving their legal problems. When involved in litigation they very often feel that they are fighting an unequal battle in which the party that has better financial resources can secure more able legal assistance. His Lordship is of the view that these poor and weaker sections must not remain under the impression that they are getting comparatively inferior legal assistance. His Lordship has called upon legal services authorities to revise the payment schedule for legal aid panel advocates and also compress the panels so that panel advocates get more work and better remuneration from legal services authorities and thus get encouraged to render effective legal assistance to aided persons. His Lordship Hon. Mr. Justice B.N.Kirpal, Judge,
Supreme Court of India and Chairman, Supreme Court Legal Services Committee has a very long association with legal aid movement. Under the guidance and control of His Lordship, Supreme
Court Legal Services Committee is providing legal aid to eligible persons in a very effective and meaningful way. Up to 31.12.99 Supreme Court Legal Services Committee has provided legal aid and assistance to 10,125 applicants.
‘Nyaya Deep’, the official newsletter of NALSA is promoting a healthy working relationship between legal services functionaries throughout the country and is proving immensely useful for exchange of views and sharing of ideas. Statistical information in regard to legal aid schemes and programmes is also included in this newsletter which is printed on quarterly basis. The editorials written by Hon. Mr. Justice R.C. Lahoti reflect the soul of 'Nyaya Deep' and measure the depth of the material included therein. These provide a window to the reader who in one glance through it can appreciate the content and purpose of the articles.

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NALSA is laying great deal of emphasis on legal literacy and legal awareness campaign.
Almost all the State Legal Services Authorities are identifying suitable and trustworthy NGOs through whom legal literacy campaign may be taken to tribal, backward and far-flung areas in the country. The effort is to publicise legal aid schemes so that the target group, for whom Legal
Services Authorities Act has provided for free legal aid, may come to know about the same and approach the concerned legal services functionaries. NALSA has also called upon State Legal
Services Authorities to set up legal aid cells in jails so that the prisoners lodged therein are provided prompt and efficient legal aid to which they are entitled by virtue of section 12 of Legal
Services Authorities Act, 1987. Hon. The Chief Justice of India His Lordship Hon. Dr. Justice
A.S. Anand, while delivering the inaugural address at the Second Annual meet of the State Legal
Services Authorities at Hyderabad, had pointed out that a very large number of under trial prisoners lodged in jails are involved in petty criminal offences. His Lordship expressed his deep anguish and stated that these poor and under privileged prisoners are languishing in jails for fairly long period in spite of the fact that they are willing to plead guilty and the ultimate sentences which are likely to be passed against them will be far less than the period they are incarcerated as under trial prisoners. His Lordship suggested that the CJMs/CMMs of the areas in which the
District Jails are situated should hold their courts in jails once or twice in a month for disposing of the cases of such undertrial prisoners. In many States, the suggestion has already been implemented and the prisoners involved in petty and minor offences are getting substantial relief.
A copy of news item reported in the Hindu daily is attached. Sensitization of Judicial Officers in regard to legal aid schemes and programmes is also high on our agenda. His Lordship Hon. Mr.
Justice S.P. Bharucha, Executive Chairman, NALSA while writing from the Desk of the
Executive Chairman in Jan.,99 Issue of ‘Nyaya Deep’ had observed that not all judicial officers in the country are duly sensitized to Legal Services Schemes and programmes and as such are unable to guide poor litigants in this regard. His Lordship observed that Legal Services
Authorities must ensure that judicial officers are duly sensitized about the work NALSA is doing and its importance for the poor and illiterate. In the last Chief Justices' Conference held at New
Delhi, a resolution was passed to say that in the service records of the Judicial officers, their interest in legal aid programmes should be reflected and all the High Courts should take steps for sensitizing the Judicial officers in regard to legal aid programmes and schemes. Once all the judicial officers in the country get properly sensitized in regard to the relevance and importance of legal aid schemes they shall themselves start caring for the poor, backward and weaker sections of the society who are not in a position to engage their own counsel and look after their legal causes. In pursuance of the resolutions passed in the First Annual Meet of the State Legal
Services Authorities, the income ceiling for eligibility for legal aid and assistance has been already enhanced to Rs.50,000/- p.a. for legal aid before the Supreme Court of India. Many States have already framed rules enhancing this income ceiling to Rs.25,000/- p.a. for legal aid up to
High Courts. Other States are also taking steps for the amendment of rules in this regard. Rules are also being framed in all the States for the refund of court fees in the suits compromised in Lok
Adalats in terms of section 21 of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987. Rules regarding

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execution of Awards passed by Lok Adalats have been framed in some of the States. As per information available with NALSA office, 72,038 Lok Adalats have been organised throughout the country up to 30.6.2000 in which about 1.2 crore cases have been amicably settled. Out of these over 5 Lac cases pertain to Motor Accident Compensation Claims in which compensation amounting to over Rs.2,469 crores has been awarded. In the year 1999 itself 15,198 Lok Adalats were organised throughout the country in which over 9,67,000 cases were amicably settled.
His Lordship Hon. Mr. Justice S.P. Bharucha, Executive Chairman, NALSA has repeatedly called upon State Legal Services Authorities to continue to hold Lok Adalats on old pattern so that the pace of the disposal of cases through Lok Adalats is not inhibited. Permanent and
Continuous Lok Adalats are primarily aimed at settling disputes at pre-litigative stage and more contentious pending matters in District courts in which the parties can be motivated only by repeated sitting to arrive at settlement. Counselling and Conciliation Centers at Districts and
Permanent Lok Adalats in Districts can be under same roof and can effectively function in unison. Most significant contribution by Legal Services Authorities to the administration of justice would be to settle legal disputes through Lok Adalats at pre-litigative stage so that the inflow of cases in our already over-burdened courts is reduced to the extent possible. Up to
30.6.2000 about 31.47 Lac persons have taken benefit of legal aid through Legal Services
Authorities out of whom about 5 Lac belong to Scheduled Castes, over 2 Lac to Scheduled
Tribes, about 2.75 Lac are women and about 9,000 are children. Most of the offices of the State
Legal Services Authorities are now equipped with FAX machines, computers and E-mail facilities. These modern gadgets shall surely help legal services functionaries to act swiftly to provide legal aid and assistance to the eligible persons in a meaningful manner.
NALSA is very sure that under the kind patronage and guidance of Hon. the Chief Justice of
India and Hon. Executive Chairman, a vibrant nationwide network of Legal Services Authorities shall be made available to the people to provide free and competent legal services to the eligible persons. NALSA is keen to develop and promote a culture of conciliation instead of litigation in the country so that the citizens of this country prefer to resolve their disputes and differences across the table in a spirit of goodwill and brotherhood. NALSA also wishes to ensure that even the weakest amongst the weak in the country does not suffer injustice arising out of any abrasive action on the part of State or private person.
*****

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LOK ADALAT: A MECHANISM OF ALTERNATE
DISPUTE RESOLUTION
J.S. Bisht*
The quest for justice is visible in all civilizations - ancient, medieval and modern. Equal and exact justice has been the passionate demand of the human soul since man has wronged his fellow man. It has been the dream of the philosophers, the aim of the law giver, the endeavour of a judge and the ultimate test of every government and every civilisation. Whichever form of government a society opts for, the noble ideas of justice, liberty and equality should incense its entire constitutional edifice. The prevailing system of administration of justice based on the common law jurisprudence being archaic and sudden with obscurantism is not suitable to the socioeconomic conditions of this rural land and the formalism in law alienates the illiterate, destitute and deprived from the judicial process. Moreover, our justice delivery system is terribly expensive, dilatory and cumulatively disastrous. And counsel's fee, court fee and other fringe expenses and the maze and mystique of the legal procedure has put justice beyond the reach of the poor. Consequently, the Constitutional promise of justice-social, economic and political, made on the high pitch has proved a farce for the teeming millions, who have been marginalised from the mainstream of the national life by reason of illiteracy, poverty and ignorance. Hence, the rights and liberties bestowed to them by the legal regime are meaningless, since they do not have a golden key to unlock the doors of justice and only the rich has the privilege to enjoy the luxury of law. The notion of equal justice has not even the semantic value to the architects and beneficiaries of new social order-"We, The people" who by and large live below the poverty line and are complacent in their roofless huts without food. The result is that the legal system has lost its credibility for the weaker sections of the society. Whereas, rendering of justice to the people, rich or poor, is not a minor problem but a question of fundamental character .
Justice has ever been the highest ideal of mankind and had been an urge behind all social upheavals and revolutions. Social justice the right of the weak, aged, destitute, poor, women, children and other under-privileged persons to the protection of the State against the ruthless competition of life; proper balancing of competing claims and concerns the distribution of benefits and burdens throughout a society. Justice may demand preferential treatment to the weaker sections to correct the imbalances existing in the society. It is a social virtue and can be guaranteed by a social order. To achieve the object the Indian Constitution guaranteed a social order built on the foundation of equality and equal access to justice is a corollary of the equality principle, therefore, equal access to justice visualizes a social order in which justice will be brought within the reach of every person irrespective of his station in life conditioned by social
*

Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Kumaun University, S.S.J. Campus, Almora, Uttaranchal

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existings and economic constraints. Equal access to justice is the condition precedent for the claim and realisation of the constitutional guarantee of justice-social, economic and political.
Thus, “access to justice” is “a function of government in a civilised society to provide and maintain an adequate and effective machinery, both within and outside the formal judicial process, to which all citizens, acting individually or as a group, can have access on an equal basis for the impartial resolution of their disputes”.
In the search for alternatives to the inherited model of adjudication through courts, litigants have come to adopt a bewildering variety of dispute settlement mechanisms, informal in approach, simple in techniques, speedy in process and cheap in administration. Among various
ADR techniques negotiation, conciliation, mediation, arbitration and an array of hybrid procedures including mediation and last offer arbitration, med-arb and mini- trial et al are commonly resorted to the world over for resolution of disputes. Lok Adalat, being cheap, expeditious and indigenous, has acquired a pride of place in the hierarchy of various alternate dispute settlement mechanisms and is deeply ingrained in the justice delivery system of India.
Lok Adalat has been vital and vibrant dispute management mechanism evolving from our historical past and proved its utility and significance beyond question in dispute resolution in the modern age of science and technology. “Lok Adalat concept and philosophy is an innovative
Indian contribution to the world jurisprudence. It has proved very effective alternative to litigation and has received laurels from the parties in particular and public in general. It also helps in emergence of jurisprudence of peace in the larger interest of justice and wider sections of society.” In fact, amicable resolution of disputes is a sine qua non for social peace and harmony.
Justice Khanna correctly observed that “Judicial system is primarily intended to serve the needs of the community for providing justice with accountability, without which the people would move to the extra-judicial methods to settle the scores. If the people loose faith in the Bench and the Bar, they will easily take to remedies in the streets. This will inevitably lead to the downfall of democracy and the impotency of the court. The sense of injustice leads to frustration, which may in turn compels the oppressed to rise against the system corroding the foundation of democracy and rule of law. History has numerous examples that even the mighty empires were vanished when they perpetrated injustice to their people. Justice Brennon of the U. S. Supreme Court rightly observed that:
“Nothing rankles more in the human heart than a brooding sense of injustice. Illness we can put with. But injustice makes us pull the things down. When only the rich can enjoy the law, as a doubtful luxury, and the poor, who need it most, cannot have it because its expense puts it beyond their reach, the threat to the continued existence of free democracy is not imaginary but very real, because democracy's very life depends upon making the machinery of justice so effective that every citizen shall believe in and benefit by its impartiality and fairness.”

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The national Conference on legal Aid expressed serious concern as to the popular dissatisfaction with the administration of justice in India, which operated unequally and to the disadvantage of the poor. Addressing the conference Dr. L. M. Singhvi observed that the evocative words of the
Preamble to the Constitution can never cease to ring in our ears, speaking as they do of the perennial quest of mankind for justice and equality. We lack in our judicial system the sinews of strength and vitality committed to the cause of equal justice. He further observed that we made specific commitments to protect and promote human rights in the comity of nations and legal aid is a part of our international commitment to human rights.
WHY LOK ADALATS?
The repeated maxim “Justice delayed is justice denied” comes true in view of the alarming backlog of pending cases before courts of different hierarchy resulting into dilatory justicing in
India. Failure in the speedy amelioration of the grievances amounts to denial of justice. Mounting arrears of cases has brought the judiciary and the judicial process at the verge of near collapse.
The reasons for the unmanageable arrears of cases may be attributed to the “rightsconsciousness” of people leading to growth of litigation, cumbersome procedure, increase in population, defective legislation, ambiguity in statutes, inadequate strength of judges stagnant number of courts slow strangulation of Gram Panchayats, improper trial, delay in appellate stage, lawyers' strike etc. Increased urbanisation, broadening government involvement in every day life of people, waning away of non-judicial institutions traditionally engaged in dispute resolution have combined to provide an unprecedented explosion of formal litigation resulting in congestion and delay reducing the effectiveness of the judicial system and the justice has become distant reality and remote dream. The position of arrears is quite alarming in the High Courts. Allahabad
High Court tops the list with 5,00,000 pending cases as on 31st June, 1991 with a total number of
19,76,776 cases pending in various High Courts in India. All this shows that health of our judicial edifice has been steadily deteriorating and it has become almost impossible to grapple with and render justice to the people at large. The arrears of pendency in various High Courts crossed the staggering figure of 25,00,000 after nine years, while the number of cases pending in District
Courts was 69,00,000 on civil side and 1,35,00,000 on the criminal side, totaling 2,04,00,000 cases as on the first quarter of 2000, involve the frustration and exasperation of people waiting for justice. This dismal picture compels the legislature and the judiciary to have an in-depth introspection about the deficiencies in our legal system and strongly advocates to invoke the indigenous and traditional ADRs.
The problem of back log of cases is not only peculiar to India but is a universal phenomenon.
The startling statistics of arrears depict the denial of justice to the litigating public. Sometimes the parties are not able to get justice in their life time and the new generation has to pursue the case in the quest of justice rendering the constitutional notion of equality and justice a teasing illusion to them. Though to reduce the arrears in the subordinate judiciary fast track courts were constituted and were put under obligation to decide a certain number of sessions cases in a month irrespective of the quality of judgment but a new problem has emerged from the fast disposal of cases in the

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form of criminal appeals in various High Courts and the problem is as it is where it was. In this given state of affairs the mechanism of Lok Adalats is the only option left with the people to resort to for availing cheap and speedy justice. Lok Adalats can effectively deal with the magnitude of arrears and salvage the judicial system from the processual inertia.
CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATE OF LOK ADALATS
A government founded on anything except liberty and justice cannot stand. All the nations that have passed away furnish a note of warning that no nation founded upon injustice can stand.
Perhaps that is why our Constitution is committed to make justice available even to the poorest of the poor through decentralised process and inexpensive access. The Preamble makes it abundantly clear that justice -social, economic and political are the cherished object of our
Constitution. The philosophy of justice enshrined in the Preamble of our constitution is based on the spirit contained in Clause (5) of the Objective Resolution of Pt. Nehru. Moreover, the
Constitution mandates that the State shall endeavour to bring about a social order in which justice, social, economic and political shall inform all the institutions of national life. The aim of our Constitution makers has been to wipe every tear from every eye and it is expected that the law must go to eye and not compel the weaker to reach the urban based lawyer and judge.
The philosophy of equality before law has been deeply engrained in the scheme of our
Constitution. Article 14 unequivocally states that, "The State shall not deny to any person equality before law or the equal protection of laws within the territory of India." Therefore, our
Constitution is committed to realise the cherished goal of equality of status and opportunity for all including those who are socially, economically and educationally backward. The term equal justice connotes equal access to justice by brushing aside the social and economic disparities and eliminating centuries-old exploitative and discriminatory traditions resulting into injustices and inequalities. Thus, the goal of Article 14 is to weed out these socio-economic injustices dominating the Indian scene. The philosophy of equality can only be achieved when equal access to justice is ensured to the poor litigants by extending legal aid or through the mechanism of Lok
Adalats. Article 14 does not speak explicitly of Lok Adalats but it is implicit in its spirit that the
State shall remove economic and social imbalances to ensure equal and easy access to justice, where the people living in abject poverty can either be given State leverage to face his rich adversary in the court or by wheeling justice at his doorsteps through Lok Adalats .
Article 38 of he Constitution advances the goal of social, economic and political justice, which mandates the State to secure a social order in which justice social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of the national life and to minimise inequalities in income and opportunities. Therefore, social justice can be secured by removing social inequality based on caste, colour, creed, race etc. and economic justice by eradicating the economic constraints that hamper a person to secure equal opportunity in socio-economic pursuits. In fact, this Article gives content to that part of the Preamble of our Constitution which refers to social, economic and political justice. And social justice can only be secured to the lost lot by affording them equal and easy access to the judicial process. Therefore, the conception of Lok Adalat is implicit in the

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spirit of Article 38 too, which ordains that the democratic institutions should read social justice in their functional diction.
To achieve the trilogy of justice as ordained in the Preamble of the Constitution, Article 39-A has been incorporated in the Constitution with an avowed intention that the State shall endeavour to secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on the basis of equal opportunities so that it is ensured that the opportunities for securing justices are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities. The Constitution has made the first pledge to
“We, the People” of the Republic that the State power shall execute the Constitutional pledge of justice in favour of the teeming millions so that they can enjoy the benefits of the new social and economic order. The Constitution has not specifically devised the ways and means to achieve the goal of social justice to the people. Therefore, it is the clarion call of the juncture that the changing legal culture should redesign the suitable apparatus of justice delivery so that the militant cause of social justice envisioned in Articles 38 and 39-A of the Constitution may percolate to the grass root level by combing away the socio-economic constraints, “the history of law is a history of efforts to mould legal institutions and doctrines to meet the felt necessities of each period in the nation's development.” And Lok Adalat is the institution revived and attuned to advance the “Common cause” of Articles 38 and 39-A of the Constitution. Being socially sensitive judicial process, it has the potential to permeate social justice to the beneficiaries of new social order by mobilising the mechanism of justice delivery within their reach.
Judiciary was to be an arm of the social revolution, upholding the equality that Indians had longed for. And the higher judiciary being the sentinel of the Constitution is entrusted with the obligation to realise the constitutional goal of social justice. Though directives are not fundamental but they are fundamental in the governance of the country. The courts, therefore, have a responsibility in so interpreting the Constitution as to ensure the implementation of the directives and to harmonize the social objective underlying the directives with the individual rights. Primarily, the mandate of Article 39-A is addressed to the legislature and the executive but the courts too are bound by this mandate, therefore, it becomes imperative for the judiciary to realise social justice to the lost lot within the constitutional framework through suitable mechanism. Moreover, the right of equal and effective access has emerged as a distinct right along with the fundamental rights, which presupposes an efficient mechanism for their protection through a workable remedy in view of the appalling poverty of our countryside. Therefore, in view of the directives addressed to the State, it becomes the bounden duty of the courts in India to ensure that social justice should reach to the poorest of the poor in all its manifestations through an appropriate apparatus of justice delivery. Otherwise, “modern judiciary could not obtain social legitimacy unit it interpreted law for socio-economic justice.[S.N. Patil v. Mahesh Yadav, AIR
1987 SC 294].”

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CILAS AND LOK ADALATS
The Constitutional mandate of Article 39-A sensitized the Indian legal system by making it a vibrant instrument of social revolution. Echoing the repercussions of the failure of the judicial system in dispensing cheap and speedy justice, Justice Bhagwati warned that "we must constantly remind ourselves that if we do not bring about revolution through law, then there may be revolution against law ," Therefore, to realise the pledge of social justice in consonance with the spirit of Article 38 and 39-A of the Constitution legal aid schemes were formulated by constituting Legal Aid Boards at State level with the Committee for Implementation of Legal Aid
Schemes at the apex under the Chairmanship of Justice P. N. Bhagwati to monitor and implement legal aid programmes on uniform basis in all the States and Union Territories of India. “The setting up of CILAS gave a further impetus to the legal aid movement in general and the concept of Legal Aid Camps and Lok Adalats in particular.” Lok Adalats, visualised as an alternate dispute settlement mechanism, evolve as a part of CILAS programme with the object of taking cheap and speedy justice to the poor through the process of participatory justice. The efforts of
CILAS and the popularity of Lok Adalats culminated in the enactment of the Legal Services
Authorities Act, 1987, which conferred the statutory status of the Lok Adalats as an effective
ADR for the resolution of pending and pre-trial litigation.
The credit for the revival and revolutionary evolution of Lok Adalats with their modern version goes to the concern expressed by the Report of the Gujarat Legal Aid Committee (1971),
Report on Processual Justice to People (1972), The Juridicare: Equal Justice-Social Justice
Report (1977) and the concerted efforts of CILAS. These Reports persistently advocated for reviving and strengthening this indigenous institution of dispute resolution. The Report on
National Juridicare: Equal Justice-Social Justice (1977) specifically recommended particularly emphasising on the establishment of Nyaya Panchayats and Lok Nyayalayas at the grass-root level for administering justice in the rural areas and on conciliations. The role of Justice Bhagwati as the Chairman of CILAS had been very laudable in initiating the transformation in the modus operandi of this institution. The personal presence of Justice Bhagwati in the Legal Aid Camps and Lok Adalats, in the distant and otherwise inaccessible places for the judges of the Supreme
Court, led the involvement of local judges and lawyers in settling the disputes in Lok Adalats, brought much needed judicial reforms and relief from the oppressjve and disastrous litigation.
Though CILAS had not organised the litigation oriented legal aid programmes leaving the work for the State Legal Aid and Advice Boards, however, it organised Legal Aid camps and Lok
Adalats as preventive legal aid programmes. The vigorous and resolute efforts of CILAS not only heralded the way for the legitimacy and popular acceptance of Lok Adalats but also constitutionalised and legalised the institution in the form of the Legal Services Authorities Act,
1987, though the Act came into force much later on 9th November, 1995. And this statutory mechanism of justice delivery has eventually revolutionised the judicial process by making it accessible to the common man for the redressal of their grievances.

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STATUTORY FOUNDATION OF LOK ADALATS
In pursuance of Article 39-A of the Constitution of India the Parliament has enacted the Legal
Services Authorities Act, 1987 with the legislative intent to constitute various legal services authorities to provide free and competent legal services to the weaker section of the society to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities and to organise Lok Adalats to secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on the basis of equal opportunity. The Act was passed to advance the
Constitutional mission of social justice by creating legal services authorities and to organise Lok
Adalats to dispense cheap and quick justice to the deprived and the destitute. The Act has conferred statutory status to Lok Adalats for the first time through the parliamentary legislation, although the institution had the glorious socio-cultural heritage in India.
This Act, inter alia, makes detailed provisions for the organisation of Lok Adalats and their functioning. The significant feature of the Act is the incorporation of Chapter VI on Lok Adalats for the first time in any Parliamentary law and making it the major statutory function of the various legal services authorities to organise them periodically within their jurisdiction.
ORGANISATION OF LOK ADALATS
Section 19 of the Act provides for the organisation of Lok Adalats. The Section provides that the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee, the Legal Services Committee of the High Court, the State Services Authority, the District Legal Services Authority and the Taluk legal Services
Authority shall constitute the Lok Adalats and enjoins them to organise Lok Adalats at such intervals and places and areas under their jurisdiction as they think fit. Every Lok Adalat shall consist of serving or retired judicial officers and one or two persons of eminence from the locality. Experience and qualifications of 'other persons' for Lok Adalats organised by the
Supreme Court Legal Services Committee and for Lok Adalats other than referred to in Subsection (3) may be prescribed by the Central Government and State Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Chief Justice of the High Court respectively.
JURISDICTION OF LOK ADALATS
Sub-section (1) of Section 19 empowers the Lok Adalats to exercise such jurisdiction as it thinks fit. If this provision alone is taken into account for determining the extent of jurisdiction of
Lok Adalats, it appears that it is vested with unlimited jurisdiction and all conceivable disputes may fall within the adjudicatory ambit of the Lok Adalats leading to absurd situation but Subsection (5) abrogates this absurdity by providing that “a Lok Adalat shall have jurisdiction to determine and arrive at a compromise or settlement between the parties to a disputes in respect of
'any case pending before' or 'any matter which is falling within the jurisdiction of, and is not brought before' any court for which the Lok Adalat is organised.” Further the proviso to the Subsection creates an embargo on the exercise of this jurisdiction in respect of non-compoundable offences. Thus, the jurisdiction of the Lok Adalats has been explicitly delineated by excluding the cognizance of non-compoundable offences.

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The jurisdiction of the Lok Adalats is circumscribed to making an effort at bringing about a settlement between the parties to the dispute with the object of disposing of the case finally, thereby obviating the necessity of appeal or revision, which becomes essential if the case were to be decided on merits. Thus, Section 19(5) clearly demarcates the adjudicatory parameters beyond which the Lok Adalats cannot travel and any transgression would render the entire proceedings a nullity. Therefore, the jurisdiction of Lok Adalats is hedged by the expression "to determine and arrive at a compromise or settlement", which connotes that the jurisdiction cannot extend to deciding a dispute where one of the parties is not willing to a compromise or settlement. The moment one of the parties expresses his unwillingness to arrive at a settlement, the Lok Adalat stands stripped of its jurisdiction to deal with the matter in any manner.
COGNIZANCE OF CASES BY LOK ADALATS
Section 20 prescribes the manner of reference of dispute to Lok Adalats and enumerates the circumstances in which their cognizance can be taken for compromise or settlement. Reference of a pending case can be made if the parties thereof agree or on an application by one of the parties for reference, if the court is prima facie satisfied that the reference would result into settlement. A suo motu reference by the court is not barred even without the application of the parties, if the court is satisfied that the matter is appropriate one to be taken cognizance by the Lok Adalat.
Moreover, the Lok Adalat can receive references from the parties routed through the Committee or Authority organising the Lok Adalat. But in all cases except where there is a consensus between the parties, the court before making a reference, shall give a reasonable opportunity of being heard to the parties. After the reference, the Lok Adalat has to proceed to dispose of the case and arrive at a compromise or settlement between the parties in an expeditious manner, guiding itself and its procedure according to the principles of justice, objectivity, equity and fair play. Therefore, consensus between the parties is the sine qua non for a valid reference. The moment one of the parties to the dispute expresses unwillingness to arrive at a compromise, the
Lok Adalat stands stripped of its jurisdiction to deal with the rest in any manner. Where no award is made by the Lok Adalat or no compromise or settlement was arrived at between the parties, then the only option left with the Lok Adalat is to revert the record of the case back to the court from which it received the reference and the court shall proceed with the case from the stage at which it was referred. But in case of failure to make an award in respect of non-litigated dispute, the Lok Adalat is to advise the parties to seek remedy in a court of law. This causes unnecessary delay in the dispensation of justice defeating the legislative intent and spirit of the Act.
AWARDS OF LOK ADALATS
An award of Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be a decree of a civil court and shall be final and binding on all parties and shall be non- appealable just as a decree passed on compromise by a

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civil court. And the court fee paid in such case shall be refunded to the plaintiff in the manner provided by the Court Fees Act, 1870.
POWERS OF LOK ADALATS
Lok Adalats are clothed with the same powers as are vested in civil court under the Code of
Civil Procedure while trying a suit, in respect of summoning a witness and enforcing the attendance of witness and examining him on oath; discovery or production of document; reception of evidence on affidavits; requisitioning of any document from any court or office and such other matters as may be prescribed. Further the Lok Adalat is empowered to specify its own procedure for the determination of any dispute. All proceedings before the Lok Adalats are deemed to be judicial proceedings within the meaning of Sections 193, 219 and 228 of the Indian
Penal Code and every Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be a civil court within the meaning of
Section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
DRAWBACKS OF LOK ADALATS
The system of Lok Adalats envisaged under Chapter VI of the Act is based on compromise or settlement between the parties, therefore, jurisdiction exercised by the Lok Adalats is limited to making an effort by bringing about a settlement between the parties. The expression "to determine and arrive at a compromise or settlement" in sub-section (5) of Section 19 connotes that the Adalat can exercise the jurisdiction only when both the parties agree to arrive at a compromise or settlement. The moment one of the parties to the dispute expresses his unwillingness to arrive at a compromise or settlement, the Lok Adalat is denuded of its jurisdiction to deal with the matter in any manner. Therefore, the very raison d'etre of the mechanism becomes futile and infructuous in the absence of the consensus.
Thus, the consensus between the parties is indispensable for the functioning of the Adalats.
And the failure on the part of the parties to arrive at a consensus, constraints the Adalats either to revert the matter back to the referring court or to advise the parties to seek remedy in a court of law, causing unnecessary delay in the dispensation of justice defeating the object of simple, cheap and speedy justice by relegating the parties back to the pre-reference stage.
PERMANENT LOK ADALATS
To overcome this major drawback in the existing scheme of Lok Adalats organised under
Chapter VI of the Act that the new Chapter VI-A has been inserted in the Act by the Legal
Services Authorities(Amendment} Act, 2002 to provide for the establishment of Permanent Lok
Adalats for pre-litigation conciliation and settlement of disputes concerning Public Utility
Services and to decide them on merits if no settlement is forthcoming. The Central and the State
Authorities are authorised to establish such PLAs at any place to exercise such jurisdiction in respect of one or more Public Utility Services as notified.
The jurisdiction of PLA shall extend to Public Utility Services as enumerated in section 22A
(b) of the LSA Act to matters where value of the property does not exceed ten lakh rupees and to

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compoundable offences. The PLA undertakes pretrial settlement on the application of any party to the dispute and subsequently other party is not allowed to invoke the jurisdiction of any court in the same dispute. On getting seized of the matter the PLA assists the parties to arrive at a settlement, where the parties does not reach the settlement, the PLA can decide the dispute on merits. However, while deciding the case on merits the PLAs shall be guided by the principles of justice, objectivity, fair play, equity and other principles of justice.
ANOMALOUS JURISDICTION OF PLAs
The system of Lok Adalat is based on compromise and settlement. if no settlement is arrived at, the case is either returned to the court or the parties are advised to seek the remedy in a court of law. But the object sought to be achieved by the amended Act 37 of 2002 is contrary to the concept of Lok Adalat, for the failure of the parties to arrive at a compromise leads to compulsory adjudication by creating a bar on seeking other remedies available under law by locking the parties within the indomitable adjudicatory precincts of the PLAs. The amendment excludes the jurisdiction of the civil courts over the subjects specified under Section 22A(b) as Public Utility
Services. Conferring such arbitrary powers on a quasi-judicial authority can not stand to any judicial scrutiny. Summary power of revision or appeal should have been vested on a higher authority so as to bring the procedure in conformity with the rule of law.
Moreover, the jurisdiction of PLAs and Consumer Forums constituted under the Consumer
Protection Act, 1986 are identical in respect of the Public Utility Services and the amendment has considerably whittled down the jurisdiction of the Consumer Forums to the barest minimum.
Once a party has invoked the jurisdiction of the PLAs for the Pre-trial settlement of a dispute concerning any service, the statutory remedy available before the Consumer Forums can not be invoked subsequently for the adjudication of the matter on merits and has no option but to accept the award resulting from a judicial process not ignited by the party to get the matter adjudicated on merits but for possible settlement only.
Section 22E (1) of the Act makes the award of the PLA final and binding, whether made as a result of settlement or on merits. The provision by taking away the power or judicial review of the courts, subverts the basic structure of the Constitution of India. Whereas, in consonance with the theory of basic structure the apex court has held categorically that judicial review of the courts can not be taken away by any law , therefore, violates the basic premise of the Constitution.
FUNCTIONING OF LOK ADALATS
Lok Adalats resolve compoundable offences, motor vehicle claims, labour disputes, matrimonial and family disputes, bank loans, insurance claims and such other matters. In dispute resolution, the State of Uttar Pradesh stands at the top, where by organising 4,184 Lok Adalats
36,08,531 cases were resolved; 3,485 L.As. settled 15,13,757 cases in Orissa; 3327 L.As. resolved 10,57,139 cases in Madhya Pradesh; 4300 L.As. disposed 10,36,618 cases in
Rajasthan;10,165 L.As. settled 6,90,687 cases in Gujarat up to 31st December, 1999, while this mechanism of ADR has yet to be activated in the State of Nagaland. The State of Gujrat stands at

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the summit of the statistics of Lok Adalats organised so far . The national statistics of Lok
Adalats is very heartening, where 49,415 Lok Adalats disposing 97,20,289 cases were organised up to 31st December, 1999. In the year 1999 alone 15,198 Lok Adalats were organised throughout the country where 9,67,000 cases were amicably settled. The disposal statistics speaks volumes of the success and popularity of the institution and “it is expected that very soon a large number of disputes between public and statutory authorities would start getting settled at prelitigation stage itself saving the parties from unnecessary expense and litigational inconvenience”.
With the first Lok Adalat held in March, 1982 in Una village of Junagarh district of Gujrat, the organisation figures has increased in gigantic proportions which speak in unequivocal terms the broad- based legitimacy and popular acceptance of the forum as an effective ADR in India.
This mechanism has contributed significantly in reducing the backlog of cases pending in subordinate judiciary and can equally relieve the higher judiciary from incoming litigation in the form of appeal, revision etc. by settling the dispute finally once for all.
Irrespective of the spectacular success statistics, it is realised that Lok Adalats lack judicial approach in dispute resolution and are interested in magnifying the success figures of disputes resolved, whether amicably or otherwise. Studies conducted in some States revealed that some cases in which decisions have already been reached are referred to popularise the institution.
Moreover, “court sponsored negotiatory process are said to be potentially problematic as it is doubted whether uncoerced negotiations are possible at all under the supervision of court personnel.” Pointing out the discrepancies in the Lok Adalats, the Supreme Court pointed out that
“Lok Adalats should not forget its obligation under law to protect the interest of parties... litigants under pressure of time and money spent in court easily succumb to pressure and agrees to small amounts which may not be adequate to compensate the loss suffered. The courts (LAs) should keep a watch that no such pressure prevails on the litigants”. The courts too seem to have admitted that a single appearance before a Lok Adalat which is organised for a day or two may not be adequate for arriving at a compromise or settlement. It is also realised that they prevent relevant arguments being obsessed with quick disposals resulting into the quality of work to suffer. Stressing on the importance of the participation of lawyers in the working of the institution, the Law Commission of India observed that “Lawyers can be a potential wing of the
Lok Adalat justice delivery system but the present legislative scheme has made it to breathe at a distance from the legal profession, hijacking their traditional role in isolation of lawyers but in a manner enjoying their active confidence. (The Law Commission of India, 129th Report on Urban
Litigation-Mediation as Alternative to Adjudication, 1988, paras 3 & 4)” Sometimes even the community members do not participate in decision making process with judicial officers in Lok
Adalats.
The plight of poor litigants approaching Lok Adalats through the bastion of legal aid is quite deplorable. Lamenting on the poor quality of legal service extended under the rubric of legal aid the Supreme Court held that “right to defend includes right to effective and meaningful defence”.
To ensure quality legal assistance the Court directed the State to fix better remuneration for

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lawyers. Low remuneration cannot hire or attract the best available talents of the profession. The apex court has cautioned that legal aid must not be reduced to “patronizing gestures to raw entrants to the Bar”, but the practice of extending legal assistance through such inexperienced lawyers is continuing resulting into unequal and ineffective presentation or defence. Whereas "to have the assistance of a counsel” is to be construed as the “effective” assistance of counsel performing within a minimum standard of competency. Therefore, legal aid through a raw talent amounts to denial of legal aid and hits the equality clause of Article 14 of our Constitution.
CONCLUSION
Conciliatory justice is said to be able to produce qualitative better results than contentious litigation which often results in final break of the relationship among the litigants. The adopted procedure is more accessible, more rapid, informal, less expensive and the adjudicators are more capable and eager to understand the parties' plight and the environment in which it has arisen.
Reciprocity, which is the hall- mark of conciliatory process, is the cultural heritage of India and forms a part of the psyche of Indian people. The institution of Lok Adalat has been embraced by the people as a mechanism of ADR, which has the potential to support the judicial process in the resolution of the disputes amicably. As an institution of dispute resolution it has immense potential to realise the constitutional commitment of securing simple, cheap, expeditious and impartial- justice by ignoring socio-economic disabilities. In this process of dispute resolution the parties participate in the entire proceedings to arrive at a consensual settlement where judges, unlike performing their traditional role of hearing the arguments and then passing the mandatory decisions, act as mediators.
Lok Adalat has in view the social goals of ending feuds rather than pending disputes restoring peace in the family, community and locality. Mutually agreed settlements arrived at by the disputants in Lok Adalats, therefore, contribute to the greater social solidarity and better cohesion among litigants. But for the realisation of this societal goal of amity and cohesion to endure perennially, the legislation creating the Lok Adalats must ensure procedural fairness and eliminate the chances of pressure, coercion and threat upon the parties and guarantee that justice is done to the parties.
At the reference stage the court should give patient hearing to the parties to explore the possibilities of settlement on fair terms and to remove the apprehension from their minds. If the court finds that the chances of settlement are bleak or if there are at all but unfair to the weaker party, then such cases should not be referred. The Lok Adalats must act objectively to effect resolution resulting in complete justice to the aggrieved party and not to pile the success figures of the institution.
Subsequent to the reference, the dispute and the socio-economic existing from where the dispute has arisen must be examined thoroughly, possible options must be evaluated and just terms of settlement must be drawn and placed before the parties for their evaluation and consideration. Procedural fairness, equity and objectivity should reflect from the functional ethos

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of the institution. When it is the claim against the statutory authorities for compensation, prior meetings with their officers at the back of the claimant in search of the resolution must be avoided and unfair terms of resolution suggested by them should not dominate the award. Equal treatment and parity between the parties must be the conditio sine qua non and sheet-anchor of the conciliatory process.
In majority of the cases government is a party, therefore, the availability of the administrative officers for participating in the conciliation process must be ensured. Moreover, powers of negotiation should be given to them to make the conciliatory process a success. Unless and until the government adopts a positive and pragmatic attitude towards Lok Adalats, there will be difficulties and constraints in the functional future of the institution. Social workers must participate actively with the judicial officers in the proceedings and they should be given orientation in the amicable dispute resolution techniques. Their qualifications and duties should be prescribed in the Act and they should be paid some honorarium. The expenditure incurred in organising Lok Adalats should not be catered from the members of Bar, social workers and the charitable institutions to uphold the independence of judiciary. Therefore, the organisational expenditure and honorarium of social workers should be allocated by the State exchequer.
The Amendment Act establishing Permanent Lok Adalats for pre- trial settlement of disputes concerning the Public Utility Services and to decide them on merits on failure of the parties to arrive at a settlement is not a welcome measure, since it is contrary to the concept and spirit of the
Lok Adalat. Instead of the establishment of PLAs the existing scheme of Lok Adalats should have been strengthened by increasing the frequency in their organisation and empowering them with pre-trial settlement of disputes pertaining to Public Utility Services and the jurisdiction of the
Consumer Redressal Forums should have been left intact to decide such disputes on merits which could not be resolved by the Lok Adalats. The legislative scheme of Chapter VI-A, being derogatory to the concept of Lok Adalats and the basic structure of the Constitution of India should be scrapped, since no law can take away the power of judicial review of courts.
The institution of Lok Adalats is a welcome measure since it eliminates the possibilities of long drawn litigation by way of appeal or revision and relieves the parties from getting the briefs prepared, procuring witnesses and attending the court and lawyer's chambers without certainty of adjudication. The institution of Lok Adalats has proved that it is a necessary component of judicial administration, for it is a mechanism capable of forging social amity, eliminating bitterness between the parties and bringing efficiency in the judicial administration by supplementing the courts in judicial process. However, to make this ADR a complete success intensive campaign should be frequented by the public,. viz., fares, exhibitions etc.
The functioning of the Lok Adalats should be free from the awe of the court room and a healthy message should go to the public that the conciliatory process is free from any pressure or threat and the award is the result of the consensus between the parties and not imposed by the
Adalat. The judges should adopt the humanitarian tools and techniques during mediation and educate the parties the advantages and implications of the terms of settlement suggested by the

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other party. The solution should be practicable and in consonance with the rights and duties of the parties. The popularity, functioning and acceptance of the institution holds a great promise in bringing down the backlog of arrears and promoting the cause of social justice.
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LEGAL PROFESSION AND THE ADVOCATES ACT, 1961
A.N. Veera Raghvan
(Abridged, edited by H S Bhalla)
(i) King’s Courts:
Law, as a profession, appears to have been in vogue in ancient Indian thought. Its concept was quite different from that it is today pursuant to the Regulating Act of 1773, authorised by the King’s Charter of Letters Patent, the Supreme Court, was established at
Fort William in Bengal through a Charter issued on the 26th of March, 1774, Clause 11 of the
Charter provided:
And we do hereby further authorise and empower the said Supreme Court of
Judicature, at Fort William in Bengal to approve, admit and enrol such and so many advocates and attorneys at law as to the said Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal, shall seem meet, who shall be attorneys of record and shall be and are hereby authorised to appear and plead, and act for the suitors of the said Supreme Court of
Judicature at Fort William in Bengal and the said advocates and attorneys, on reasonable cause, to remove; and not other person or persons whatsoever, but such advocates or attorneys, so admitted and enrolled shall be allowed to appear and plead, or act in the said
Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal, for or on behalf of such suitors, or any of them.
The Advocates’ entitled thus to appeal were only the English and Irish barristers and members of the Faculty of 5 Advocates in Scotland; the attorneys referred to were the Irish attorneys and solicitors. The Court was thus an exclusive preserve for member of the British legal profession. An Indian lawyer had no right of appearance in the Courts.
When the Supreme Courts with the same jurisdiction and power were established at
Bombay and Madras later, the same powers for the enrolment of advocates and attorneys-at-law were conferred on them. The Indian had no right to appear before the Courts.
(ii) Company's Courts
Prior to the rise of British power in India, in Northern India, Justice was administered by
Courts established by the Moghul Emperors called Vakils were available to litigants in these native Courts.
The Vakils practising before the Moghul Courts appeared in the Company's Courts also till
Bengal Regulation VII of 1793 created for the first time a regular legal profession for the
Company's Courts. The Bengal Regulation regulated the appointment of Vakils or native pleaders in the Courts of Civil judicature in the provinces of Bengal. Bihar and Orissa and gave power to the Sadar Dewani Adalat to enrol pleaders for all Company's Courts., to fix the retaining for pleaders and to fix a scale based on a percentage for the value of the property. Only Hindus and
Muslims could be pleaders.

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Under the Bengal Regulation XXVII of 1814, pleaders were empowered to act as arbitrators and give legal opinions on payment of fees. The next important legislation was the Bengal
Regulation XII of 1833 which introduced a change. In that only persons duly qualified, to whatever nationality or religion they might belong would be enrolled as pleaders of the Sadar
Dewani Adalat.
The Bengal Practitioners Act, 1846, made three important changes namely:
(1) the office of pleaders was thrown open to all persons of whatever nationality by the Sadar
Courts to be of good character and duly qualified for the office:
(2) attorneys and barristers of any of Her Majesty’s Courts in India were eligible to plead in any of the Sadar Courts subjects to the rules of those Courts as regards language or otherwise (3) the pleaders were permitted to enter into agreements with their clients for their fees for professional services. The Act did not affect certain Vakils entitled to appear before the
Village munsif and other authorities specified under the Madras Code.
The Legal Practitioners Act, 1855, permitted also barristers and attorneys of the Supreme
Court not entitled till then to be admitted as pleaders in the Courts of the East India Company, subject to all the rules in force in the Court relating to language and other matters: connected with pleadings. It was also provided that a pleader was not bound to attend the Court except at the hearing of a case in which he was employed, thus barristers and attorneys were "empowered to practise in the Company's Courts while the Indian Legal practitioners could not appear before
Courts.
The position clearly under went a change after the British Crown took over the administration of the country from the Company and the Government of India Act, 1858, was passed. The Indian
High Courts Act, 1862 was enacted by the British Parliament authorising the setting up by Letters
Patent of High Courts in the several presidencies in place of the respective Supreme Courts and the Sadar Dewani Adalats & Sadar Nizamat Adalats. Clause 9 of the Letters Patent of 1865 which replaced the earlier Letter Patent creating a High Court in Calcutta authorised it to approve, admit and enrol advocates, Vakils and attorneys. The persons so admitted were entitled to appear for the suitors of the High Court in the Letters Patent issued for the High Courts of Bombay and Madras.
Several other High Courts came to be established later.
(iii) The Legal Practitioners Act, 1879:
The Legal Practitioners Act, 1879, which is in force today to a limited extent and is applicable now only to a limited class of persons as stated later in the article while dealing with the Advocate Act, 1961, was enacted to consolidate and amend the Law relating to legal practitioners of the High Court except the revenue agents were under the disciplinary jurisdiction of the High Courts under this Act. The Attorneys were under the disciplinary jurisdiction of the

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High Courts under the Letters Patent. The revenue agents were subject to the disciplinary authority of the Chief Controlling Revenue authority.
Section 4 of the Act empowered an advocate or Vakil on the roll of any High Court, or a
Pleader of the Chief Court of the Punjab to practise in all the Courts subordinate the Court on the roll of which he was entered and in all revenue offices situated within the local limits of the appellate jurisdiction of such court subject to the rules relating to the language of the Court and also practice in any Court in British India other than a High Court on whose roll he was not entered and in any revenue office. There was proviso, however, to the effect that this power would not extend to the original jurisdiction of the High Court in a Presidency Town. The High
Court could dismiss any advocate so enrolled from practice but not without application and opportunity of defending himself.
In the Chartered High Courts rules had been framed. The persons who could be enrolled as advocates were barristers of England or Ireland or members of the Faculty of the Advocates of
Scotland. An additional qualification by way of reading in chambers was also required. The High
Court other than the Calcutta High Court allowed also persons who were not called to the Bar to enrol as advocates. Rules had been made by the Chartered High Courts. The Rules of the High
Courts varied. In Madras a person who had taken a degree was qualified and underwent training with a practising advocate, vakil or attorney for a year. In Calcutta the requirement for admission of the vakil was that he should have been a graduate in Arts or Science, taken a degree in law and served as an articled Clerk with a vakil of five years' standing. Similarly rules had been made by the other High Courts also.
The High Courts were given the power, under section 6 to make rules as to the qualifications, admissions, and certificates of proper persons to be:
(a) Pleaders of the subordinate Courts and of the revenue offices and
(b) To be mukhtars of subordinate courts, and the fees to be paid for the examination and admission of such persons. The rules made by different High Courts regarding the qualifications of pleaders varied. In this connection it may be pointed out that in Regina
Ghua' and in the matter of application by Miss Sudarshan Sabala Hazara' the Calcutta and Patna High Courts held that under the Rules made by the High Court under Section
6, women could not be admitted and enrolled as pleaders.
To remove doubts entertained as to the eligibility of women to be enrolled, the Legal
Practitioners (women) Act, 1923, was passed .to provide that not with standing anything contained in the previous enactments or other provisions in this regard, "no Women shall, by reason only of her sex, be disqualified from being admitted or enrolled as a legal practitioner” and the number has been increasing every year. Reference may be made to the rules in Madras under which law graduates and graduates and who passed the pleadership examination if not enrolled in the High Court, could practice in all the civil and criminal Courts in the three contiguous districts

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by getting enrolled as Ist grade pleaders. Persons could get enrolled as 2nd grade pleaders if they were graduates in Arts only and had passed the pleadership examination.
Section 27 empowered the High Court to fix and regulate from time to time the fees payable by any party in respect of his adversary's advocate, pleader, vakil, mukhtar or attorney. Section 36 of the Act dealing with touts, which will continue to be in force even after all the Provisions of the Advocates Act are brought into force, empowers district judges, sessions Judges, district magistrates and presidency magistrates, every revenue officer not being below the rank of a
Collector of a district and Chief Judge of a Presidency Small Causes Court to frame publish lists of persons proved to their satisfaction by evidence or general reports or otherwise to be touts. No persons' name is to be included in any such list without giving him a opportunity or showing cause against such inclusion. The Court or Judge may exclude from the precincts of the Court any person included in such list. A person so named is punishable with imprisonment or fine.
(iv) The Chamber Committee and the Indian Bar Councils Act, 1926
Dissatisfaction was expressed about the distinction that existed- between barristers and vakil, and the special privileges enjoyed by the British barristers and solicitors. Consequently, the
Government of India had to constitute in November, 1923, the Indian Bar Committee known as the Chamber Committee to report on:
(i) The proposals made from time to time for constitution of Indian Bar, whether on all India or provincial basis, with particular reference to the constitution, statutory recognition, functions and authority of a Bar Council or Bar Councils, and their positions, vis-à-vis High Courts.
(ii) The extent to which it might be possible to remove the distinction enforced by statute of practice between barristers and vakils.
On the question of the continuance of the dual system in Calcutta and Bombay, the Chamber
Committee was sharply divided and hence did not make any recommendation. The significant recommendation of the Committee was regarding the establishment of Bar Councils for the High
Courts.
The Bar Councils Act, 1926 passed with a view mainly to implementing some of the recommendations of the Chamber Committee and to consolidate and amend the law, relating to the legal practitioners. The Indian Bar Councils, Act, 1926 received the assent of the GovernorGeneral on 9th September, 1926. Bar Councils were constituted in the different provinces on different dates in and after 1928.
The Act introduced, inter alia, two main changes. Firstly, it made separate provision for advocates while the Legal Petitioners Act of 1879 continued to be applicable to other legal practitioners. Every Bar Council was to comprise of fifteen members, with the Advocate Genera1 as an exofficio member, and four members nominated by the High Court, and ten members elected by and from amongst advocates of the High Court. With reference to the High Court of Fort William

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in Bengal and Bombay, a certain proportion of the members had to be advocates entitled to practise on the original side, and out of them a number fixed by the High Court has to be the barristers of England and Scotland. The Advocate-General in the Bar Councils of Madras,
Bombay and Calcutta, was to be ex officio Chairman. The term of the Bar Council was for a period of three years.
The High Court had to prepare and maintain a roll of advocates, vakils and pleaders entitled as of right to practise immediately before the date when sanction of the Act was brought into force and of all and others admitted thereafter as advocates. While with reference to advocates the date of admission as advocates was the date of call to the bar if it was earlier.
While the roll was maintained by the High Courts, Section 9 authorised the Bar Council, with the sanction of the High Court to make rules to regulate the admission of persons to be advocates, to prescribe the qualifications of persons applying for admission as advocates, to regulate the admission as advocates, by rules as their qualifications and the hearing of objections by the High
Court preferred on behalf of the Bar Council
The qualifications for admission as laid down under the rules permitted inter alia those who had taken a degree in law and barristers and attorneys to be enrolled. The rules in some Bar
Councils provided for a period of training as a pupil for a year by way of compulsory attendance in the chambers of the master (as advocate of a certain years' standing), maintenance of diaries, by the Bar Council. The rules in this regard varied in the different Bar Councils.
An applicant for enrolment had to pay a stamp duty for the entry in the rolls as provided for under the Indian Stamp Act. While the papers of the applicant for enrolment had to be presented to the Bar Councils, the enrolment was actually moved before the High Courts after the certificates were issued by the Bar Councils
Section 14 of the Act empowered an advocate to practise: (i) in the High Court where he was enrolled, subject to the rules of conditions to be made by the High Courts of Fort William in Bengal and at Bombay regarding persons practising in the High Courts, and in the exercise of their original jurisdiction.
{ii) in all subordinate Courts and tribunals (whether in the High Court where he was enrolled or not).
It may be pointed out that under the Act, the power of enrolment of advocates virtually remained in the High Court. The function of the Bar Council was advisory in nature. The Act did not affect the original side of the Calcutta and Bombay High Courts. Further the attorneys of
Calcutta and Bombay High Courts were not affected by the Act and the enrolment of the disciplinary jurisdiction over the attorneys continued to be in the hands of the High Courts under their respective Letters Patent. The right of the advocates of one High Court to practise in another
High Court was made subject to the rules made by the, High Court.

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The rules made by the Bar Councils had stipulated that advocates of other High Courts would be permitted to appear and plead in the respective High Courts only with the permission of the Chief Justice provided all advocate enrolled in that High Court appeared with him. The provisions in the Bar Councils Act were regarded as unsatisfactory.
The recommendations of an India Bar Committee and the Law Commission:
The Bar was not satisfied with passing of the Bar Councils Act, 1926. The Act had not covered the pleaders, mukhtars and Revenue agents practising in the mofussi1 courts and
Revenue offices and consequently did not set up a unified Indian Bar. Further the powers conferred on the Bar Councils constituted under the Act were limited and the Bar Councils were neither autonomous nor had any substantial authority. Therefore, several non- official members' bills had been introduced to amend the law relating to the legal profession and had lapsed and nothing concrete emerged. With the coming into force of the Constitution in 1950 and the establishment of a Supreme Court for India the need for an all-India bar was stressed by the legal fraternity. In this situation, the Union Government set up a Committee known as the All India Bar
Committee under the Chairmanship of Justice S.R. Das of the Supreme Court.
Subsequently in 1955 the Law Commission, presided over by Mr. M.C. Stelvad, then
Attorney-General of India, in its fourteenth report on the Reform of Judicial Administration endorsed the recommendations of the All India Bar Committee, as regard the creation of a unified
All India Bar as well as the establishment, composition and functions of the State and all India
Bar Councils.
To implement the recommendations of the All India Bar Committee and of the Law
Commission in it fourteenth report, the Legal Practitioners Bill, 1959, was introduced in the Lok
Sabha on 19th November, 1959. The Bill was to amend and consolidate the law relating to legal practitioners and to provide for the constitution of State Bar Councils and an All India Bar
Council.
When the Bill came to be passed, the name legal Practitioners Bill was changed into the
Advocate Act.
The Advocates Act, 1961, which received the assent of the President of India on the 18th
May, 1961, extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Under Section
1, the Act is to come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the official gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this
Act.
Broadly speaking, the main features of the Act are:
(i) to have, in course of time only one class of legal practitioners viz. advocates,
(ii) to take away the powers till then vested in the Courts, in the matter of admission of advocates and the maintenance of the rolls, and their disciplinary conduct (subject to an ultimate appeal to the Supreme Court), and

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(iii) the constitution of a Central Bar Council with powers, inter alia, to recognise the degree in law for admission as advocates. Every Bar Council constituted under the Act is a body corporate having a common seal, and may, by the name of which it is known sue and be sued.
(i) Every State Bar Council consists of(i) the Advocate-General as the ex-officio member (for the Bar Council of Delhi, since there is no Advocate-General for the Union Territory of Delhi, the Additional Solicitor General was made the ex-officio member, and when the office was made the ex-officio member, and when the office was abolished, the Solicitor-General of India was made ex- officio members, and
(ii) in the case of the Bar Councils of Assam and Nagaland, Orissa, Delhi and Himachal
Pradesh fifteen other members and in the case of all the other State Bar Councils twenty other members elected in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote from amongst the advocates on the electorate of the State Bar Council concerned. The Act as originally passed prescribed a term of six years for an elected member of a State
Bar Council subject to the principle of rotation but this provision has since been amended and the term as now fixed is four years from the date of the publication of the result of the election.
Even State Bar Council has
(i) one or more disciplinary Committee,
(ii) an executive Committee, consisting of five members,
(iii) an enrolment Committee, consisting of those members and
(iv) each other Committees as may be deemed necessary.
Every disciplinary Committee consists of two persons elected by the Council from amongst its members and one other person co-opted by the council who have practised for at least ten years, Each Bar Council has a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman elected in such manner as may be prescribed and has to appoint Secretary, and an accountant, if necessary
The functions of a State Bar Council are to admit persons as advocates on its roll, to prepare and maintain such roll, to entertain and determine cases of misconduct against advocates on its roll; to safeguard the rights privileges and interests of advocates on its roll, to promote and support law reform; to provide for the Election of its members; to perform all other functions assigned to it by or under the Act and to do all other things necessary for discharging the aforesaid functions.
(ii) The Bar Council of India: Membership and Function:
The Act provides that there shall be for the territories to which the Act extends a Bar
Council known as the Bar Council of India, which consists of the Attorney General of India, and

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the Solicitor-General of India as ex-officio members, and one member elected by each State Bar
Council from amongst its members. There shall be a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman of the Bar
Council of India elected as prescribed by rules and a Secretary, and an Accountant, if any, under
Section 7.
The functions of the Bar Council of India are to prepare and maintain a common roll of advocates, to lay down standards of professional conduct and etiquette for advocates, to lay down the procedure to be followed by its disciplinary committee of each State Bar Council; to safeguard the rights; privileges and interests, of advocates; to promote and support law reform; to deal with and dispose of any matter arising under Act, which may be referred to it by a State Bar
Council to exercise general supervision and control over State Bar Councils, to promote legal education and to lay down standards of such education, the consultation with the Universities whose degree in law shall be a qualification for enrolment of an advocate and for the purpose visit and inspect Universities; to manage and invest the funds of the Bar Council, to provide for the election of its members; to perform all other functions conferred on it by or under the Act and to all other thing necessary for discharging the aforesaid functions.
The Bar Council of India is to have one or more disciplinary Committee, a Legal Education
Committee, an executive Committee, and such other Committees as may be deemed necessary.
Every disciplinary committee is to consist of three members, two persons elected by it from amongst advocates as have practised for at least ten years. The senior most advocates from amongst its members is to be chairman of the committee. The legal education committee consists of ten members of whom five are persons elected by the Council from amongst its members and the other five are those who are not members of the Council. The executive committee consists or the members elected by the Council from amongst its members.
The main source of income of the Bar Council of India is the contribution of 40 per cent out of the fee of Rs. 250 paid by each applicant for enrolment to the State Bar Council.
(iii) Senior Advocates:
Persons who were "senior advocates immediately before the appointed day, i.e. 1-12-1961 have been deemed to be senior advocates for the purpose of the Act. Besides, power has been conferred under Section 16 of the Act to the Supreme Court and the High Courts to designate any advocate as senior advocate if in its opinion by virtue of his ability, experience and standing at the
Bar, he is deserving of such distinction. Senior advocates are governed by the rules of the
Supreme Court applicable to them, and are also subject to the restrictions laid down by the Bar
Council of India in the interest of the legal profession.
(iv) Qualifications, for admission as an advocate:
Section 24 of the Act lays down the qualification for admission as an advocate. Broadly speaking, the following are entitled to be admitted as advocates, if they fulfil also certain other requirements laid down under the Section:

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(i) A person who has obtained a degree in law from any University in India or from any
University outside the territory of India, recognised by the Bar Council of India for the purposes of the Act,
(ii) A barrister;
(iii) A vakil or a pleader who is a law graduate if his application for enrolment was made within two years from the appointed day viz. 1-12-1961;
(iv). A person who has for at least three years been a vakil or a pleader or a mukhtar or was at any time entitled to be enrolled under any law for the time being in force as an advocate of a High
Court or of a Court of a Judicial Commissioner or in any Union Territory.
An applicant for admission has to be a citizen of India and should have completed the age of 21 years. He should pay a fee of Rs. 250/- to the State Bar Council and should fulfil the other requirement as laid down by the rules of the State Bar Councils, which generally include an application for admission on the production of the certificate granted by the University in respect of the degree in law granted by the University, and character. However, a national of any other country may be admitted as an advocate in a State roll, if he is a citizen of India duly qualified and permitted to practise law in the country.
If the application is on the basis of the degree in law obtained from a University in India or outside the territory of India, Section 24 (1) (d) requires that the applicant should have undergone a course of training in law and passed an examination both of which prescribed by the State Bar
Council. Under the rules of the State Bar Councils, the Course of training which was originally for a period of one year, has subsequently been reduced for an advocate to a period of six months.
It has to complete apprenticeship under an advocate of certain years standing, attendance at
Courts and at Chambers, maintenance of diaries, attendance at lectures, and the passing of an examination on some subjects.
With regard to a barrister also, the Bar Council of India has specified, the same requirement as to a degree in law. A provision to this sub-section as amended provides that the clauses as to training and examination shall not apply to:
(1) Any person who have obtained a degree in law from any University in India on the results of an examination held before the 31st day of March, 1964, or such other later date as may be prescribed, or a barrister who, was the Bar before such date, or a barrister who, having qualified later that date, has received such practical training in law as may be recognised in this behalf by the Bar Council of India.
(2) Any person who has for at least two years held a judicial office in any area which was comprised before the 15th day of August, 1947 within India as specified in the Government of
India Act, 1935, or has been an advocate of any High Court in any such area:

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(3) Any person who has practised before any High Court and who had discontinued practice by reason of his taking up employment under the government, or local authority or any other person: and
(4) Any other class of persons by reason of their legal training or experience are declared by the Bar Council of India to be exempted from the provision of this clause.
The last date mentioned in the proviso had owing to agitations and representations, frequently been extended and sub-section was amended as above in 1964. Even the amendment of 1964 could not be final on the subject. The Government of India's latest notification relevant on the matter has narrowed down the scope of the requirement as to training and examination practically making it a nullity. Training and examination will not be necessary according to the notifications if the applicant has taken the degree of law (after undergoing a course of instruction the three years (laid down by the rules of the Bar Council of India) or has been called to the Bar on or before 31.12.1968, or if he had taken the master's degree in law.
(v) Legal Qualifications:
The degree in law mentioned as one of the qualifications for admission, may be degree in law: (i) of a university in India, or
(ii) of a university contains the territory of India.
(iii) A degree in law of University in India;
The standards laid down by the Bar Council of India on legal education and recognition of degree of law of the University prescribes inter alia the following conditions:
A person to be eligible to join the course of study in law should be a graduate of University or hold such academic qualification which is considered by the Bar Council of India equivalent to a graduate degree of a University. The duration of the course of instruction shall be three years.
This is with reference to those who join the course of instruction in or after the first term of the academic year 1967-68. In the case of fourteen universities, however, for reasons considered sufficient by the Bar Council of India, it was the first term or the academic years 1968-69 instead of 1967-68. The course of instruction comprises ten compulsory subject and six others as optional as mentioned in the rules.
During the last year of the course, the instruction and practical training should also be imparted for a period of six months in the rules of courts and in drafting and pleadings and documents. According to the resolution of the Bar Council of India, practical training would include pleading and conveyancing, moot courts and conducting civil and criminal proceedings, attending courts; maintaining a record of the above three requirements and arrangements of at least six lectures of professional ethics, attendance at four of which shall be compulsory. The scope and

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nature of training as set out in this resolution is not to be deemed as exhaustive. It should thus be open to the Universities and law colleges to add to the same and work with Bar Council of India at the earliest. Practical training should be made a part of the examination system for which marks should be assigned and awarded.
The rules on standards of legal education were made, as required under the Act, in consultation with the Universities imparting legal education and the State Bar Councils. In accordance with the above rules, the Bar Council of India in exercise of the powers conferred under section 24 (i) (c) (iii) of the Advocates Act, has recognised degrees in law obtained from any of the Universities which fulfills the requirements of rule II of its rules and obtained by those who had commenced the three-year -course of instruction as provided for, in the first terms or the academic year 1967-68 by actual attendances at colleges. Under the powers vested in it, it has predicted the postponement of the three-year course to the academic year 1968-69 in the case of the Universities of Kanpur, Madras, Meerut, Bangalore, Aligarh, Mysore, Bhagalpur, Patna,
Agra, Ranchi, Behrampur and Jiwaji, Sardar Patel and Vikram Universities, one of the functions of the Bar Council of India is as mentioned earlier, to visit and inspect Universities, imparting legal education.
(i) Conditions for admissions to roll:
Section 28 of the Act empowers the State Bar Councils to make rules, subject to the approval of the Bar Council of India. The rules can be made, inter alia, on the conditions subject to which a person may be admitted as an advocate on the roll of Bar Council. The rules accordingly made by
State Bar Councils generally prohibit the enrolment of a person who though he may be otherwise qualified,, is in full or part time service or employment or is engaged in any trade or profession.
The prohibition against enrolment does not apply to certain categories of persons specifically referred to in the proviso to the rule such as 'law officers' fulfilling certain conditions, articled clerk or an attorney, a person in part-time service as a professor or Lecturer, teacher in law of a person who by virtue of his being a member of a Hindu Joint Family has an interest in a Joint management thereof or other classes of persons specifically exempted after approval by the Bar
Council of India.
The compulsory subjects are: Indian Legal and Constitutional History, Contracts, Torts,
Family Law including Hindu and Mohammedan Law; Evidence, Legal Theory (Jurisprudence and Comparative Law): Civil Procedure, Limitation and Arbitration.
(ii) Application for admission to roll:
An application for admission as an advocate has to be made in the prescribed form to the State
Bar Council within whose jurisdiction the applicant proposes to practice. Applications for enrolment have to be referred to and disposed of by the enrolment committee of the State Bar
Council. But if the enrolment committee proposed to refuse such applications, it has to refer the application with the statement of the grounds in support of the refusal to the Bar Council of India, and has to dispose of the application finally in conformity with such opinion.

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(iii) Right to practise
Chapter IV of the Advocates Act regulates the right of Advocate to practice. One of the objects of the Act is to have in course of time only one class of legal practitioners. Section 29 provides that subject to the provisions of the Act as from the appointed day 1.6.1969, there shall be only one class of persons entitled to practice throughout the territories through which the Act extends in all courts including the Supreme Court, before any tribunal or person legally authorised to take evidence of before any other authority or person before whom such advocate is entitled to practise. Further under Section 33 advocates alone are entitled to practise in any Court.
(iv) Practice by persons not entitled to practice:
Persons illegally practising in Courts or before other authorities when they are not entitled to practise under the provisions of the Act are liable for punishment with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months.
(v) Some important powers of the Bar Council or India:
Apart from the other powers already enumerated the Bar Council of India has been specifically conferred certain special powers.
1. Power to remove name from the rolls.
The Bar Council of India is empowered, either on a reference made to it or otherwise, if it is satisfied that any person has got his name entered in the roll of the Advocates by misrepresentation, to remove such person from the roll of advocates after giving him an opportunity of being heard. The Bar Council of India or any State Bar Council may also remove from the common roll or the State roll as the case may be, the name of any advocate, who is dead or from whom a request has been received to that effect. Besides, the name of advocate may be removed from the roll as punishment for misconduct in disciplinary proceedings.
2. Revision
Apart from the power vested in it to remove the name of an advocate in certain cases, and the power vested in its disciplinary committees to hear and dispose of the disciplinary matters whether by way of original hearing or on appeal, the Bar Council of India has the power at any time to call for the record of any proceedings under the Act, which has been disposed of by a State Bar Council or a Committee thereof, and from which no appeal lies, for satisfying itself as to the legality or propriety of such a disposal and may pass such orders thereon as it deemed fit. No order which prejudicially affects any person can be passed without giving him a reasonable opportunity of being heard.
3. Directives:
Section 48 B empowers the Bar Council India for the proper and efficient discharge of the functions of a State Bar Council or any committee thereof, to give such directions to

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the State Bar Council or its committees as may appear it to be necessary, and the State Bar
Council or the Committee has to comply with the directions. Where a State Bar Council is able to perform its functions for any reason whatsoever, the Bar Council of India may give such directions to the ex-officio member thereof as may appear to it to be necessary, and such directions shall have effect, notwithstanding anything contained in the rules made by the State Bar Council.
4. Rules 'to make and approval'
Section 15 enumerates the powers of the State Bar Councils and the Bar Council of
India to make rules on the matters dealt with Chapter II of the Act relating to the Bar
Councils. Section 28 gives power to the State Bar Councils to make rules on some matters connected with the preparation of rolls, training and examinations for admission of advocates, form of application for enrolment and conditions for enrolment. Any rule made by State Bar Council, whether under Section 15 or 28 shall have effect only if it has been approved by the Bar Council of India. It may be noted in this connection that under the
Indian Bar Councils Act, 1926, the rules made by the Bar Councils required the previous sanction of the High Court.
Section 49 confers on the Bar Council of India a general power to make rules for discharging its functions under the Act. Besides the rules referred to earlier in this article they include rules on standards of professional conduct and etiquettes by Council advocates
, principles for guidance of the State Bar Councils and the manner in which directions issued or orders made by the Bar council of India may be enforced, and ‘any other matter which may be prescribed’. The Bar Council of India has made its rules on all these matters.
Supreme Court Rules to regulate the legal profession
Prior to the coming into force of the Constitution, the Federal Court was empowered under
Section 214 of the Government of India Act, 1935 to make rules, with the approval of the
Governor General, for regulating the practice and procedure of the Court including rules as to the persons practicing before it. The Federal Court rules, 1942 prescribed the qualifications of persons to be enrolled before it. The rules permitted the persons of ten year standing to be enrolled as senior advocates. No person could appear as an advocate before the Federal Court unless instructed by an agent.
Article 145(1) of the Constitution empowers the Supreme Court to make rules, with the approval of the President inter alia as to persons practicing before it. The Advocates Act, 1961 confers on all advocates whose names are on the rolls maintained under that Act to practice, inter alia, in the Court. The Supreme Court Rules, 1950 made in exercise of powers under Article
145(1) provides for the enrolment of persons as advocates who are entitled to practice before it.
The rules laid down that the role of Supreme Court shall be in two parts, seniors and others.
Persons who had more than ten years standing could be enrolled as senior advocates.

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Order IV of the Supreme Court Rules deals with the Advocates. Rule 2(b) places some restrictions on the senior advocates. Rule 3 provides that every advocate appearing before the court shall wear robes and costumes as may from time to time be directed by the Court. In pursuance of this rule the Chief Justice of India directed that the costume that be worn by the advocates appearing before the Supreme Court should be black coat, robe and band worn by the barristers appearing before the High Courts. The rules also provide for registration of advocates on record and advocate who is not a senior advocate. Rule 5 lays down that an advocate shall not be qualified to be registered as an advocate on record unless he has undergone training for one year with an advocate on record approved by the Court and has thereafter passed such tests as may be held by the Court for advocates who apply to be registered as advocates on record. The particulars of the test are to be notified in the official gazette from time to time. The rules however, exempt an attorney from such training and test. An advocate on record is required to have an office in Delhi within a radius of ten miles from the Court house and give an undertaking to employ within one month of his being registered as an advocate on record, a registered clerk.
He is also required to pay a registration fee of twenty five rupees.
The Supreme Court Advocate (Practice in High Court) Act, 1951, conferred the right on every advocate of the Supreme Court, to practice in any High Court whether or not he is an advocate of that High Court. In Aswani Kumar Ghosh v. Arabindha Ghosh, the Supreme
Court held by a majority that an advocate of the Supreme Court became entitled as of right to appear and plead as well as act in all the High Courts in India and that he is also entitled to appear on the original side of the West Bengal and the Bombay High Courts without being instructed by an attorney and free from the restrictions in this regard to the Rules of the High
Courts of West Bengal and Bombay.
In view of the provision of the Advocates Act, 1961, there has been no further admission of persons as advocates of the Supreme Court after 1.12.1961, when Chapter III of the Advocates
Act came into force.
Under Section 50 (3) (d) of the Advocates Act, 1961- the Supreme Court Advocates
(Practice in High Court) Act, 1951 shall stand repealed on the date when Chapter IV of the
Advocate Act comes into force and as noted earlier, Section 35 in Chapter IV of the Act has not yet been brought into force.
CONCLUSION
What has been enumerated above will show that the Advocates Act. 1961, has marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the legal profession by vesting largely in the Bar Councils the power and the jurisdiction which the Courts till then exercised, by fulfilling the aspirations of those who had been demanding an all Indian Bar and effecting a unification of the Bar in India, power to practise in all the Courts and bound by rules made and code of conduct laid down by their own bodies to which the members of Council resort to for the protection of their rights,

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interests or privileges. The Act has enabled representatives from the several States to come together to a common forum, and has brought about integration.
The conferment of the power in respect of legal education and the recognition of the degree in law and the power to visit and inspect universities imparting legal education, have resulted in a uniform pattern of legal education, while at the same time preserving intact the powers and responsibilities of the universities. A word of caution is necessary at this stage. The problem of language in so far at any rate as regards legal education might present difficulties and would seem to be of utmost magnitude. This would require defect less handling.
An attempt had been made to provide by legislation for the Attorney-General of India to be the ex-officio Chairman of the Bar Council of India and for the Advocate-General in the States to be the Chairman of the Bar Councils. But this had been stoutly resisted by the Bar Councils, on the ground that it would encroach upon the autonomy given to the Bar Councils. As a result the
Government had to drop the matter.
A few matters have to be set right by legislation. Of these may be mentioned the existing provisions under Section 49-A. Agitations have been there for putting an end to the dual system.

In the last ten years, the Bar Council has had an onerous task to perform. The foundation having been laid, the members of the legal profession and the public are entitled to look forward to the Bar Councils for the discharge of their functions and obligations. THE END