Dynamics of Power and Politics
ASSIGNMENT
Course Code : MS - 21
Course Title : Social Processes and Behavioral Issues
Assignment Code : MS-21/TMA/SEM - I/2012
Coverage : All Blocks
Note : Answer all the questions and submit this assignment on or before April 30, 2012, to the coordinator of your study center.
1. Discuss the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. Briefly describe the factors of organizational relevance. UNIT 2 SOLUTION:
This essay is going to discuss the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. A brief description of the factors of organization relevance will also be given. This will be done by defining paradigm, and paradigm shift. Then discussing the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context including work organization; social structure; dependency syndrome; cultural dimension; managing diversity; gender issues and knowledge workers. Thereafter a brief description of factors of organization relevance will be given and these include employability; changeability; social tension; democratization of work process; empowerment; service orientation and changing expectations of stakeholders.
Paradigm is an intellectual perception or view, accepted by an individual or a society as a clear example, model or pattern of how things work in the world(www.businessdictionary.com/definition/paradigm.html). For example the earth being round. Paradigm represents internal mental and emotional structural thought forms that are used to construct reality (Thomas Kuhn, 1970).
Paradigm shift is a fundamental change in an individual’s or society’s view of how things work in the world. It is a change from one way of thinking to another. For EXAMPLE the shift from heart to brain as the seat of thinking and feeling. New paradigms arise when it becomes apparent, at least to some people, that old paradigms are not capable of solving important problems, or that old paradigms have begun to create more problems than they solve. There have been major paradigm shifts since the agricultural revolution which had the agrarian society’s mindset. Then in the seventeenth century, the agrarian paradigm was replaced with the industrial paradigm.
Then around mid sixties, there was a shift to post industrial paradigm.
The individual and collective paradigm of a vast majority of Indian public is even now based on the agrarian mind-set and future managers will have a big task of changing that to meet the challenges of emerging information based society, there will be need to align employees behaviour with the changing paradigm.( ( IGNOU MBA Study Material on SOCIAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIORAL ISSUES)
On work organizations, for example in India, the arrangement was that work was performed as a social obligation, and caste systems symbolized differences in occupations. Work organizations are now embedded in social system and cultural values.I today’s context;there is also another paradigm shift we call Smart Work which is now emerging and is being driven by extreme changes in approaches to work, work cultures, business architectures, premises, decision making, communications, and collaboration. Smart Work is an act of production performed independent of time and place. In its ultimate form, the “office” no longer exists and traditional work conventions such as work hours are irrelevant. Smart Work is results-oriented(Boorsman, 2011)
On social structure, the mind of Indians are on hierarchical structuring of persons and relationships and this goes up to organizations where superiors are expected to be caring, loving, protective in their relationship with the subordinates. For example people expect a Program Manager to love and protect employees under him.
On dependency syndrome, the Indian children from infancy have a feeling of depending on those superior or older to them and this goes to organizations too where subordinates look for continuous guidance and directing, there is no autonomy in performing work activities and the relationships between subordinates and superiors could either be loving or sour. For example it is a tendency of employees to depend on their superiors for direction and guidance on what to do at work. This is now changing, there is autonomy through empowerment. Organizations today are undergoing a substantial paradigm shift and replacing control techniques such as authorization, approval, and review with empowerment, trust, and accountability. The latest concept is liberation of employees by giving them enough autonomy and a share in the business.
On cultural dimensions, the Indian culture ranked very high on Power Distance, Collectivism, Masculinity, and Long term orientation and relatively weak in Uncertainty Avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people tolerate ambiguous situations and the degree to which they try to avoid these situations. On collectivism Indian culture places emphasis on high degree of in-group orientation, on power distance the culture accepts and consider the superiors power as legitimate. On masculinity Indian culture has little concern for others and interest in improving the quality of life at work. Indian culture is primarily characterized by long-term orientation in terms of centuries leading to permanency in relationships and continued association with organization.
On Managing Diversity , the Indian workforce is becoming more diverse with regards to gender, age, education, ethnicity, social cultural background, physical ability (disability) and family status such as dual career relationship, these days India represents a composite culture of diversity and plurality of ethnic groups, languages, religious faith and regions with distinct local traditions.
On Gender Issues there has been change in the values, rituals and assumptions prevalent in male dominated culture to allow access by female managers and employees with different interests. Females employees need to be treated equally as partners. The male dominated culture need to change accordingly.
Society today is witnessing an ongoing paradigm shift in gender relations,where it has gone beyond the male breadwinner/ female homemaker post-war family. Dramatic changes have taken place in the workforce and enormous progress has been made in policy. www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/gender-equality-in-modern-times/)
On Knowledge Workers there has been replacement of manual workers with knowledge workers and this is linked to advancement in information technology. For example most offices used to produce documents by hand or using type writers and now it is done using computers. There has been paradigm shift from IT for specialists to IT for masses; Government controlling infrustrature and technology to government facilitating infrustruture and technology.( www.emergence.nu/events/budapest/ahuja.pdf). Computers have made the task of search and scan much lighter and speedier. Positive knowledge is part of this paradigm shift
A good example of a paradigm shift in the business world would be the transfer of the influence and power of computer manufacturers that came with the invention of the personal computer or “PC.” Prior to the invention of the PC, larger, well established computer manufacturers produced bulky, expensive computers which had to be run via a mainframe to a computer terminal.( www.forerunner.com › The Forerunner Newspaper › Reconstruction)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
There are several factors of organizational relevance and they include Employability, changeability, social tension, of people , Democratisation of Work Process, Empowerment , Service Orientation, Changing Expectations of Stakeholders
Employability refers to a person 's capability for gaining and maintaining employment ,For individuals, employability depends on the knowledge, skills and abilities they possess, the way they present those assets to employers, and the context( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employability ). For organizations development of employability will become a primary area of concern. The emphasis will be on increasing the employability of people rather than providing them security of employment.
Changeability is a factor of organizational relevance. Changeability is the quality of being changeable; having a marked tendency to change (www.audioenglish.net › ... › C › Change-of-pace Ball ... ChapterhousYou +1 'd this publicly. Undo
)Changeability refers to the ability of systems to be changed in line with the pressures and challenges of global competition. There is need to shift the focus from change initiation and management to increasing changeability which may involve fundamental transformation in mindsets and mental models of various stakeholders, competency enhancement, capacity building and systematic orientation.( IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour Issues Unit 2)
Social Tension is another factor of organizational relevance. Employees operate in a environment of social tension and there is need for them to learn to work under that environment. This calls for continous self renewal to find creative resolutions of these social tensions.(IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour issues)
Democratisation of Work Process is another factor of organizational relevance . The work process need to be democratized whereby management through command and control would need to be replaced by consensus and commitment. The organisation endeavors to inculcate and encourage self regulation and adjustment at individual and group levels reinforced by group norms.
Empowerment is another factor of organizational relevance. As employees get empowered in organizations they would be in better positions to control the processes and the the organisation’s input. Generating commitment among the employees will be a necessary condition enabling them to become self directed and self-controlled. organizations today are undergoing a substantial paradigm shift and replacing control techniques such as authorization, approval, and review with empowerment, trust, and accountability. The latest concept is liberation of employees by giving them enough autonomy and
a share in the business.
Service Orientation is yet another factor of organization relevance. Nowadays, Customers have a lot of access to information on goods and services which gives them large freedom of choice, therefore for organizations to survive there is need to maintain relationships for sustained growth of customer base, and long term commitment as a strategic business partner. .
Changing Expectations of Stakeholders is also a factor of organizational relevance.Organisations exist due to support from various environmental components such as socio-cultural; politico-legal; economic; and ecological.The organization really needs support from both internal stakeholders and external stakeholders as such their expectations must be met.
This essay has discussed the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. A brief description of the factors of organization relevance has also been given. This was done by defining paradigm, and paradigm shift. Then discussing the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context including work culture; social structure; dependency syndrome; cultural dimension; managing diversity; gender issues and knowledge workers. Thereafter a brief description of factors of organization relevance was given and these included employability; changeability; social tension; democratization of work process; empowerment; service orientation and changing expectations of stakeholders.
2. Why is it important to understand human behavior and the implications to the organization? Discuss. Briefly describe the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. UNIT4
SOLUTION:
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior)
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This essay is going to explain why understanding human behavior is important; explain the implications to the organizations and discuss briefly the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. The models will include Psychoanalytic Model ,Existential Model ; and coming from Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour; Personality vs the Environment and Cognition vs the Environment approaches we have Behaviouristic Model and Cognitive Model .
All organisations are composed of individuals, with different personality, attitudes, values, perception, motives, aspirations and abilities. It is essential for managers to understand behaviour as they are constantly with people, interacting with them in terms of communication and in terms of work. The main reason to understand behavior is that individuals are different. No two individuals are similar.
Understanding human behavior is important because it can assist managers to work perfectly with the people in the organization. Employees are very important in organizations. However there are individual differences and these necessitates proper understanding of behavior so that there can be cordial relationships which could enhance achievement of organization’s goals.
Apart from that human behavior is unpredictable as such it is important to understand it to avoid disappointment in work performance. Individual differences are many for example some employees are motivated to work and some are not.
By understanding human behavior, management can gain the knowledge it needs to better understand itself and other people. Management can learn why people act and react in certain ways and also how to identify the various types of behavior and needs of people and progress in work can be there
Understanding human behavior can also help managers learn how to influence the behavior of people so that they can see how meeting the needs of the command will satisfy their own needs. If managers understand the needs of their people and help them to satisfy those needs, they will succeed as leaders. Leadership and human behavior work hand in hand. To be a successful leader, you must understand your people and work with them to resolve their problems.(http/navyadvancement.tpub.com/14504/css/14504_ns.html)
Human Behavior has several implications for organization. Behaviour is unpredictable since it caused and follows a pattern as such for things to move well in organizations there is need for managers to study and understand behavior of people around him.Otherwise he can not work with them and organization;s objectives cannot be achieved well
Large areas of human behavior can be modified. Organisation design, training and development can play a great role on the behavior of organizational members.
Individual differences are there in organizations and this necessitates matching between jobs and individuals for effective performance. (IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour Issues Unit 4)
There are several models to understand human behavior. The first Model to understand Human Behaviour is Psychoanalytic Model .This was developed by Sigmund Freud and it emphasizes internal conflicts, mostly unconscious. He felt that the individual behavior depends on three factors namely Id, Ego and Super Ego. The Id is an important part of our personality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Id means pleasure and throughout life the `id ' becomes important source of thinking and behaving. Ego represents `conscious ' stage in one 's behaviour. Ego is the part of the personality which maintains a balance between our impulses (id) and our conscience (superego). The ego is based on the reality principle. Superego represents "conscience. Its development depends mostly on parent 's influence. The relevance of Psychoanalytic model is that Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. Apart from that the model helps in understanding why people behave as they do, it helps in understanding that each individual is unique, and that there are factors outside of a person 's awareness (unconscious thoughts, feelings and experiences) which influence his or her thoughts and actions; that the past shapes the present that human beings are always engaged in the process of development throughout their lives.
The second model of human behavior is Existential Model which is based on literature and philosophy and not science. Existentialists believe that all of us have total freedom either to face up to our existence and give meaning to it or to shrink from that responsibility. Abnormal behavior is seen as the result of hiding from life 's responsibilities. Existential therapists encourage clients to accept their responsibility to recognize their freedom to choose a different course, and to choose to live an authentic life.
The existentialists believe that the depersonalizing effects of this environment forces individuals to make their own destiny. So the individuals shape their own identity and make their "existence" meaningful and worthwhile to themselves. This model is relevant in the way that it is more true and happening in today 's urbanization; Because people have become so materialistic and busy, they do not have time for traditional values and norms and it becomes impractical sometimes to follow them. Though not scientific , the model can be used to understand human behavior.
The third model to understand human behaviour is Behaviouristic Model.
According to this model the behaviour is dependent on two factors i.e., stimulus and
response .Pavlov and Watson with their research felt that behaviour can be best
understood by stimulus and response.Theorists who follow the behavioral model
concentrate on a person 's behaviors, which they believe develop in accordance with the
principles of learning. Behaviourist model is represented as: S - R (Stimulus-Response).
This model is relevant because Learning occurs with this model and behavior is
understood easily and well.
The fourth model is the cognitive model, which emphasizes the positive and free-will
factors of human beings and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand and incentive.
The cognitive model is represented as: S - O - R (Stimulus-Organism-Response model)
Cognitive therapists try to help people recognize and change their faulty ideas and thinking processes. This model is relevant because it helps in understanding human behavior based on the content and process of human thought. When people display abnormal patterns of functioning, cognitive theorists point to cognitive problems, including maladaptive assumptions, specific upsetting thoughts, and illogical thinking processes.
This essay has explain why understanding human behavior is important; explained the implications to the organizations and discuss briefly the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. The discussed models include Psychoanalytic Model ,Existential Model ; Behaviouristic Model and Cognitive Model
3. Briefly describe the salient features of counseling and possible outcomes. Discuss the ethical issues in counseling in organizations. Counseling is a process that focuses on enhancing the psychological well-being of the client, such that the client is then able to reach their full potential. This is achieved by the counselor facilitating your personal growth, development, and self-understanding, which in turn empowers you to adopt more constructive life practices.( www.usq.edu.au › Student Services › Counseling Support)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
There are several salient features and possible outcomes of counseling and this essay is going to describe them; apart from that the essay is going to discuss ethical issues in counseling. The salient features of counseling to be discussed include Understanding, change in the client, the quality of the relationship, Self-Disclosure and self-confrontation, an intense working experience and ethical conduct.
The first salient feature in counseling is understanding and this involves understanding human behavior thoroughly by looking at both social and cultural context. It also implies being able to apply the understanding to set of problems and situations of each and every client. For example a person who comes for HIV/AIDS counseling must be understood in terms of his/her background behavior.
The second salient feature in counseling is Change in the Client. Counseling is done with the aim of achieving satisfying change. The client hopes to have that change after undergoing the counseling and as such the counseling should be ensuring this. For example if the counseling is meant to change someone’s smoking behavior, it must achieve that at the end of it.
The third salient feature of counseling is The Quality of the Relationship. The quality of the relationship provides a safe and comforting context from which interventions that may help the client are introduced and it can also be therapeutic in itself. The experience of a genuine and immediate relationship can itself sometimes be transforming even if there is no other counseling intervention. For example for marriage counseling to succeed the counselor and those being counseled must be in good terms relationship wise.
The fourth salient feature of counseling is Self-Disclosure and Self-Confrontation. There is need for the client to disclose personal information to the counselor for more understanding of the client’s world. There is need for the client to verbally disclose personal information to the counselor, who will try to understand the client 's world in a context of what s/he knows about how people respond to life situations. The more the totally self-disclosure, the more effectively the counselor can help the client discover new ways of coping.
The fifth salient feature of counseling is An Intense Working Experience
Counseling is an intense working experience for the participants as such sustained energy is required for the counselor for the related activities of attentive listening; information absorption, message clarification, hypothesis generation, and treatment planning. Growth through counseling is always demanding on the client and is often painful, though at the same time fulfilling and rewarding.
Counseling, is characterised by much higher level of intensity.
The sixth salient feature of counseling is Ethical Conduct .
Practicing of codes of Ethics need to be followed when providing professional people helping services. Counseling that is incompetent or insensitive or that serves the interests of the counselors not only cause harm to the clients who receive it but also damages the reputation of the counselor 's employer and the profession as a whole. Ethical practice means valuing each client as a person with rights to fair dignified and compassionate service.
(management4you.blogspot.com/.../counseling-and-counselor-qualitie)
Possible outcomes of counseling include behaviour change, Coping ability, relief of emotional distress.
On behavior change counseling changes in the way the counselee acts, copes, makes decisions or relates. For example there was one collegue who used to come to work drunk, after counseling by the Organisation.s counselor on dangers of drinking, he stopped and he improved in his decition making and he acts maturely.
Another very important domain in terms of outcome is understanding and managing negative feelings and attitudes.
Counseling can bring an outcome of coping ability. For example during pre and post
HIV testing counseling individuals are given coping abilities by being advised how they
can leave with the Virus.change in beliefs (also called personal constructs) may occur in
counseling and can be assessed from the client 's verbal output.
Counseling can also bring relief of emotional distress.Change that occurs in counseling can influence feelings, values, attitudes, thoughts, and actions. For example when couples come for marriage counseling after quarreling they go out relieved of their emotional distress.
There are a number of ethical issues arising from counseling in organizations such as confidentiality; the incompatibility between the organization 's aims and the aims of counseling loyalty of the counselor and managing different roles with the same client. Counselors do their job without clear and helpful frameworks for ethical decision-making in work contexts.
Confidentiality is one of the most crucial factors that can determine the credibility of counseling within organizations. Failure in confidentiality will destroy the reputation of a counseling service and yet it is not easy to maintain confidentiality when there are a host of factors within organization
4. Describe the importance of teams in organizations. Briefly discuss the factors in building effective teams and how team sustenance is a critical issue. UNIT 15
SOLUTION: A team is a group of people made up of individuals who each contribute their individual knowledge and skills. (http://derekstockley.com.au/index.html) Teams are formed when individuals with a common taste, preference, liking, and attitude come and work together for a common goal. Teams play a very important role in organizations as well as our personal lives.
|Importance of teams in organizations include applying a mix of skills that go beyond the scope of any one individual; solving |[pic][pic|
|complex problems that take more than one mind; generating of new ideas; coordinating individual activities towards a common bigger|] |
|goal; providing support and help to team members; giving people a sense of belonging; enhancing communication; help people to | |
|learn from each other and develop; generating commitment. | |
|Firstly teams are important because they help in applying a mix of skills that go beyond the scope of any one individual . Tasks| |
|are accomplished at a faster pace when they are done by a team rather than an individual. An individual will definitely take more | |
|time to perform if he is single handedly responsible for everything. When employees work together, they start helping each other | |
|and responsibilities are shared and thus it reduces the work load and work pressure. Talents available with the organizations in | |
|more efficient ways. | |
|Secondly teams are important in organizations because they help in solving complex problems that take more than one mind . A | |
|single brain cannot always come with solutions or take decisions alone. In a team, every team member has an equal contribution | |
|and each team member comes out with a solution best suited to the problem. All the alternatives can be explored to come out with | |
|the best possible solution. | |
|Thirdly teams are important in organizations because they generate new ideas. Each member of a team can bring in his own ideas | |
|which together can help the organization to grow. | |
|Fourthly, teams in organizations help in coordinating individual activities towards a common bigger goal. Work never suffers or| |
|takes a backseat in a team. For example if one individual s takes care of an important client and is the only one coordinating | |
|with him and decides to take a long leave, then things cannot work well for the organization. In a team mostly work is shared, the| |
|other team members can perform and manage the work in the absence of any member and hence work is not affected much. | |
|Providing support | |
|Fifthly, teams are important in organizations because they bring a healthy competition among the team members. Competition is | |
|always good for the employee as well as the organization as every individual feels motivated to perform better than his other team| |
|member and in a way contributing to his team and the organization. | |
|Sixthly, teams are important in organizations because they improve the relations among the employees. Individuals work in close | |
|coordination with each other and thus come to know each other better. Teams also reduces the chances of unnecessary conflicts | |
|among the employees and every individual tries his level best to support his team member. The level of bonding increases as a | |
|result of team work. Organizations also use teams to motivate their staff as staff gets enough opportunity to influence | |
|operational decisions | |
|Seventhly Teams are important in organizations because team members can also gain from each other. Every individual is different | |
|and has some qualities. One can always benefit something or the other from his team members which would help him in the long run. | |
|Everyone is hungry for recognitions and praises. One feels motivated to work hard in a team and to live up to the expectations of | |
|the other members. Each member is a critic of the other and can correct him whenever the other person is wrong. One always has | |
|someone to fall back on at the time of crisis. | |
( www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-team.htm)
Lastly teams are important because they are used to democratize the workplace where there is hierarchical relationship between the members of the workforce. There are several factors in Building effective teams and they include Task management, Process management, Inter-group communication., Team style, Informality as well as Participation, Listening, and contribution mamagement. There is also need to take care of three aspects for development in team building process which are Preparing the team members, Clarifying the team 's objectives, Settting measurable goals and Clear goals
Task management is the process of managing a task through its life cycle, including goal setting planning, organizing testing, time management, problem solving and review tracking and reporting. Task management can help teams to collaborate and share knowledge for the accomplishment of collective goals and this promote building of effective teams.( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_management)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
Process management is the ensemble of activities of planning and monitoring the performance
of a process. It is the application of knowledge, skills and competencies like questioning,
listening, summarising, encouraging, initiative, expressing opinion, synthesizing, expressing and responding to feelings,
gatekeeping , tools, techniques and systems to define, visualize, measure, control, report and improve processes with the goal to meet customer requirements profitably. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_management) .
Team members need to be taught and they need to practice the same and this is a factor of building effective teamsYou +1 'd this publicly. Undo.
Inter-group communication is a channel for communication between group or teams. Teams need to develop communication, negotiation skills and understanding of political climate in the organization. If intergroup communication is good effective teams can be built’
Team style. There is need for team leaders, members to adopt appropriate influencing style- matching with the needs of team members and the situation. If the team style is in order then effective teams can be built.
Contribution management is another factor of building effective teams.. Team leaders, in particular, have to take additional responsibility to understand each member 's strengths and weaknesses, and manage the team such a way that each member is able to contribute to the team endeavor to the maximum.(IGNOU UNIT 15)
Informality as well as Participation is also a factor of building effective team. In order to build an effective team, the climate has to be informal, comfortable, as well as relaxed. There should be no tension or any signs of boredom. Teams enjoy getting together, they interact easily. There should be lots of good-natured kidding and laughter. Have seating arrangements in order to facilitate this. A circle is the best seating arrangement usually, while a typical classroom arrangement is the worst.
Listening is yet another factor of building effective team. A highly efficient team has team members who use effective listening techniques. These include questioning, paraphrasing, as well as summarizing in order to get out ideas. Listening is the most effective factor that distinguishes effective teams from ineffective teams.
The ability to really listen is a highly important skill. Each team member has to have it. Listening lets you understand what the other person is saying. Besides, it shows the other person that you’re interested in what he/she has to say. But all of us experience common listening problems.( www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-team.htm
Preparing the team members is a necessary aspect of development in team building process,
Employees may need to learn new skills such as budgeting, computing, public relations and marketing, as well as skills which allow them to work together effectively, such as effective communication, confliction resolution and problem solving. Training and development are enabling factors that allow team members and leaders to take on new responsibilities. Where team members possess inadequate work skills and knowledge, teams are less likely to succeed.Rewarding team performance is also needed.
Clarifying the team 's objectives is an aspect which should also be considered in team building process, There is need to Clarify the team 's objective and course of action in advance to avoid A large amount of friction and conflict which gets generated during forming and storming stage.
Setting clear and measurable goals is yet another aspect in development in team building process
Goals should be specific enough to give the team direction. For example, to raise market share by ten percent in six months provides more guidance than simply to raise market share. A goal should also state the ends, rather than the means. This gives teams the freedom to work out how best to achieve the goal (Carr 1992). Associated with providing clear goals is the development of meaningful and acceptable performance measures so that the team members can feel confident in their own achievements. After effectiveness, team sustenance becomes critical issue by giving panic to managers who now think of how they can keep a good team in its existing state of efficiency and effectiveness that is , how does one continue to make it function? Mature teams are found to develop apathy and are also susceptible to group think and resistant to accept and implement change. With time teams also tend to be satisfied and relax. All this makes team sustenance a critical issue. Here, a manager 's task is to maintain the standards of the team and raise them, and According to Robbins, sustainance of the motivation of maturing teams can be achieved by Preparing members to deal with the problem of maturity, Offering refresher training , Offering Advanced training and Learning Experience
Prepare members to deal with the problem of maturity: Teams are given feedback that they need to face maturity issue. They are not unique. Every team goes through this phase. They should not lose heart when initial excitement dries away and conflicts start surfacing. They need to face the situation and need not lose faith in team concept.
Offer refresher training: When team is stuck they may be given refresher training in communication, team building process, conflict management and leadership. Such intervention may build confidence and mutual trust among each other.
Offer Advanced training: Members may have exhausted their skill set while working on initial problems. Now they are confronted with more complicated and difficult problems. They will benefit with advanced courses on conceptual, interpersonal and technical skills.
Learning Experience: Teams may be encouraged to own their development and search opportunities for continuous improvement. Teams should try to evolve ways to learn through dealing with members fears, conflicts and frustrations.
REFERENCES:
Carr, C. 1992, ‘Planning Priorities for Empowered Teams’, Journal of Business
Strategy, vol. 13, no. 5, p. 43-47.
5.Briefly discuss the dynamics of power and politics in organizations. Describe the ethical issues involved in politics and power in organizations. UNIT 17
SOLUTION:
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
Power and politics are inextricably interwoven with the fabric of an organization 's life. In any organization, at any given moment, a number of people are seeking to gain and use power to achieve their own ends. This pursuit of power is political behavior. Organizational politics refers to the activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance and use power and other resources to obtain their preferred outcomes in a situation where there is uncertainly or disagreement. One great organizational scholar, Tushman defined politics, ‘as the structure and process of the use of authority and power to affect definition of goals, directions and the other major parameters of the organization. Decisions are not made in rational or formal way but rather through compromise accommodation and bargaining.
The nature and dynamics of power in organizations will be discussed in line with Informal Power, Resistance in Organisations: In theory an employee is allotted sufficient power to enable him to do his job, no more and no less. In practice people in organisations can acquire power beyond what their formal role might suggest. Power without authority is sometimes known as illegitimate or informal power. Informal power arises because organisations cannot legislate for every contingency.
Organisational rules specify what employees can or cannot do in particular circumstances. For example, financial regulations may stipulate which office holders have authority to sign cheques or enter into contracts. Yet in every organisation there is inevitably room to exercise discretion. Discretion means that a person has the option of acting differently. Indeed without it the organisation would run into difficulties.
Power relations are inherently dynamic and apt to change over time. For instance, if rewards are administered regularly they may be regarded as coercion because of the threat of withdrawal. Informal power is usually legitimated in time. Any source or person who is regularly consulted becomes an authority.
Resistance in Organisations: The impetus to resistance in organisations stems from the potential for tension between organisational and individual interest. What is good for the organisation may be detrimental to its employees and vice versa. One form of resistance is where employees try to escape managerial domination by `distancing ' themselves physically or symbolically from those in control, Another form of resistance involves demand for greater involvement in participative decision-making and implementation in the organisation.
The dynamics of power can be studied from several angles, viz., distribution, dependency, uncertainty, compliance, indicators, power determinants, power consequences, and symbols and reputation.
On Distribution In organizations, there is no balance in the way power is distributed among members.Some may give in more power than others. Those in power try to grab more of it. They strongly resist any attempt to weaken the power they exercise.
On Dependency in an organization, if the organization depends much on some few individuals, those individuals enjoy great power.
On uncertainty in organisation, People who can absorb uncertainty exercise more power,
On Compliance in an organization People generally comply with legitimate power. Other than other types like reward power
On Power Indicators in organizations are difficult to trace. There is a tendency of hiding use of power by those responsible and as such it is difficult to tell when power is being used.
Determinants of Power
• One method of assessing power focuses on the potential to exert influence and consists of measuring how many determinants of power are available to each member.
These are five bases of personal power. One of the bases of power is expertise. Individuals who possess better knowledge and expertise can exert higher influence in situations where their knowledge is important.
Consequences of Power
Since power is used to influence decision, those with the greatest power should be the ones who obtain the most favourable outcomes.
The relationship between power and consequences needs to be interpreted carefully, It is also important to distinguish between the ability to influence a situation and the ability to force at what would have occurred at any event.
Symbols
The power of different individuals can be assessed by examining how many symbols of power they possess.
Symbols include such things as titles, office size and location, special parking privileges, special eating facilities, automobiles, airplanes, and office furnishings.
• The location of offices on different floors often reflect the relative power of the office-holders.
Reputation
• One way of assessing power in an organisation is to ask its members to possess greater power or exert the greatest influence . However, potential activities of the most powerful and influential individuals may be understated or overlooked both by themselves and others. 11 Power Dynamics
• Another way of assessing power is to determine which individuals and groups are the most heavily represented on committees and other significant administrative positions.
To be considered ethical, power-related behaviour must meet three criteria:
Does the behaviour produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organisation? If the power-related behaviour serves only the individual 's self-interest and fails to help the organisation reach its goals, it is considered unethical.
Does the behaviour respect the rights of all parties? The question emphasises the criterion of individual rights. Free speech, privacy, and the process are individual rights that are to be respected, and power-related behaviours that violate these rights are considered unethical.
Does the behaviour treat all parties equitable and fairly? This question represents the criterion of distributive justice. Power-related behaviour that treats one party arbitrarily or benefits one party at the expense of another is unethical.
1. 2. 3.
Solution: To help us understand organizations, we might consider them as political systems. The political metaphor helps us understand power relationships in day-to-day organizational relationships. If we accept that power relations exist in organizations, then politics and politicking are an essential part of organizational life. Politics is a means of recognizing and, ultimately, reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a noncoercive, or a democratic work environment. Organizations need mechanisms whereby they reconcile conflicting interests. Systems of rule... each represent a political orientation with respect to how power is... distributed throughout the organization.
by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a no coercive, or a democratic work environment. As mentioned, organizations need mechanisms whereby they reconcile conflicting interests. Hence, organizations, like governments, tend to "rule" by some sort of "system". This "system" is employed to create and maintain "order" among the organization 's members. Systems of rule within organizations range from autocratic to democratic at the extremes. Between these extremes we find bureaucratic and technocratic systems. Whatever the system, each represents a political orientation with respect to how power is applied and distributed throughout the organization. Each type of organizational "rule" simply draws on different principles of legitimacy.
...politics stems from a diversity of interests... Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own... needs; driven by self-interest... According to Aristotle, politics stems from a diversity of interests. To fully understand the
Politics of the organization, it is necessary to explore the processes by which people engage in politics. Consistent with Aristotle 's conceptualization, it is a given that, within the organization, all employees bring their own interests, wants, desires, and needs to the workplace.
Organizational decision-making and problem- solving, while seemingly a rational process, is also a political process. Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own wants and needs; driven by self-interest.
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MS-21
Management Programme
ASSIGNMENT
FIRST SEMESTER
2012
MS-21: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIORAL ISSUES
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School of Management Studies
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI – 110 068
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School of Management Studies
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI – 110 068
References: Carr, C. 1992, ‘Planning Priorities for Empowered Teams’, Journal of Business Strategy, vol
Course Code : MS - 21
Course Title : Social Processes and Behavioral Issues
Assignment Code : MS-21/TMA/SEM - I/2012
Coverage : All Blocks
Note : Answer all the questions and submit this assignment on or before April 30, 2012, to the coordinator of your study center.
1. Discuss the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. Briefly describe the factors of organizational relevance. UNIT 2 SOLUTION:
This essay is going to discuss the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. A brief description of the factors of organization relevance will also be given. This will be done by defining paradigm, and paradigm shift. Then discussing the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context including work organization; social structure; dependency syndrome; cultural dimension; managing diversity; gender issues and knowledge workers. Thereafter a brief description of factors of organization relevance will be given and these include employability; changeability; social tension; democratization of work process; empowerment; service orientation and changing expectations of stakeholders.
Paradigm is an intellectual perception or view, accepted by an individual or a society as a clear example, model or pattern of how things work in the world(www.businessdictionary.com/definition/paradigm.html). For example the earth being round. Paradigm represents internal mental and emotional structural thought forms that are used to construct reality (Thomas Kuhn, 1970).
Paradigm shift is a fundamental change in an individual’s or society’s view of how things work in the world. It is a change from one way of thinking to another. For EXAMPLE the shift from heart to brain as the seat of thinking and feeling. New paradigms arise when it becomes apparent, at least to some people, that old paradigms are not capable of solving important problems, or that old paradigms have begun to create more problems than they solve. There have been major paradigm shifts since the agricultural revolution which had the agrarian society’s mindset. Then in the seventeenth century, the agrarian paradigm was replaced with the industrial paradigm.
Then around mid sixties, there was a shift to post industrial paradigm.
The individual and collective paradigm of a vast majority of Indian public is even now based on the agrarian mind-set and future managers will have a big task of changing that to meet the challenges of emerging information based society, there will be need to align employees behaviour with the changing paradigm.( ( IGNOU MBA Study Material on SOCIAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIORAL ISSUES)
On work organizations, for example in India, the arrangement was that work was performed as a social obligation, and caste systems symbolized differences in occupations. Work organizations are now embedded in social system and cultural values.I today’s context;there is also another paradigm shift we call Smart Work which is now emerging and is being driven by extreme changes in approaches to work, work cultures, business architectures, premises, decision making, communications, and collaboration. Smart Work is an act of production performed independent of time and place. In its ultimate form, the “office” no longer exists and traditional work conventions such as work hours are irrelevant. Smart Work is results-oriented(Boorsman, 2011)
On social structure, the mind of Indians are on hierarchical structuring of persons and relationships and this goes up to organizations where superiors are expected to be caring, loving, protective in their relationship with the subordinates. For example people expect a Program Manager to love and protect employees under him.
On dependency syndrome, the Indian children from infancy have a feeling of depending on those superior or older to them and this goes to organizations too where subordinates look for continuous guidance and directing, there is no autonomy in performing work activities and the relationships between subordinates and superiors could either be loving or sour. For example it is a tendency of employees to depend on their superiors for direction and guidance on what to do at work. This is now changing, there is autonomy through empowerment. Organizations today are undergoing a substantial paradigm shift and replacing control techniques such as authorization, approval, and review with empowerment, trust, and accountability. The latest concept is liberation of employees by giving them enough autonomy and a share in the business.
On cultural dimensions, the Indian culture ranked very high on Power Distance, Collectivism, Masculinity, and Long term orientation and relatively weak in Uncertainty Avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people tolerate ambiguous situations and the degree to which they try to avoid these situations. On collectivism Indian culture places emphasis on high degree of in-group orientation, on power distance the culture accepts and consider the superiors power as legitimate. On masculinity Indian culture has little concern for others and interest in improving the quality of life at work. Indian culture is primarily characterized by long-term orientation in terms of centuries leading to permanency in relationships and continued association with organization.
On Managing Diversity , the Indian workforce is becoming more diverse with regards to gender, age, education, ethnicity, social cultural background, physical ability (disability) and family status such as dual career relationship, these days India represents a composite culture of diversity and plurality of ethnic groups, languages, religious faith and regions with distinct local traditions.
On Gender Issues there has been change in the values, rituals and assumptions prevalent in male dominated culture to allow access by female managers and employees with different interests. Females employees need to be treated equally as partners. The male dominated culture need to change accordingly.
Society today is witnessing an ongoing paradigm shift in gender relations,where it has gone beyond the male breadwinner/ female homemaker post-war family. Dramatic changes have taken place in the workforce and enormous progress has been made in policy. www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/gender-equality-in-modern-times/)
On Knowledge Workers there has been replacement of manual workers with knowledge workers and this is linked to advancement in information technology. For example most offices used to produce documents by hand or using type writers and now it is done using computers. There has been paradigm shift from IT for specialists to IT for masses; Government controlling infrustrature and technology to government facilitating infrustruture and technology.( www.emergence.nu/events/budapest/ahuja.pdf). Computers have made the task of search and scan much lighter and speedier. Positive knowledge is part of this paradigm shift
A good example of a paradigm shift in the business world would be the transfer of the influence and power of computer manufacturers that came with the invention of the personal computer or “PC.” Prior to the invention of the PC, larger, well established computer manufacturers produced bulky, expensive computers which had to be run via a mainframe to a computer terminal.( www.forerunner.com › The Forerunner Newspaper › Reconstruction)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
There are several factors of organizational relevance and they include Employability, changeability, social tension, of people , Democratisation of Work Process, Empowerment , Service Orientation, Changing Expectations of Stakeholders
Employability refers to a person 's capability for gaining and maintaining employment ,For individuals, employability depends on the knowledge, skills and abilities they possess, the way they present those assets to employers, and the context( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employability ). For organizations development of employability will become a primary area of concern. The emphasis will be on increasing the employability of people rather than providing them security of employment.
Changeability is a factor of organizational relevance. Changeability is the quality of being changeable; having a marked tendency to change (www.audioenglish.net › ... › C › Change-of-pace Ball ... ChapterhousYou +1 'd this publicly. Undo
)Changeability refers to the ability of systems to be changed in line with the pressures and challenges of global competition. There is need to shift the focus from change initiation and management to increasing changeability which may involve fundamental transformation in mindsets and mental models of various stakeholders, competency enhancement, capacity building and systematic orientation.( IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour Issues Unit 2)
Social Tension is another factor of organizational relevance. Employees operate in a environment of social tension and there is need for them to learn to work under that environment. This calls for continous self renewal to find creative resolutions of these social tensions.(IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour issues)
Democratisation of Work Process is another factor of organizational relevance . The work process need to be democratized whereby management through command and control would need to be replaced by consensus and commitment. The organisation endeavors to inculcate and encourage self regulation and adjustment at individual and group levels reinforced by group norms.
Empowerment is another factor of organizational relevance. As employees get empowered in organizations they would be in better positions to control the processes and the the organisation’s input. Generating commitment among the employees will be a necessary condition enabling them to become self directed and self-controlled. organizations today are undergoing a substantial paradigm shift and replacing control techniques such as authorization, approval, and review with empowerment, trust, and accountability. The latest concept is liberation of employees by giving them enough autonomy and
a share in the business.
Service Orientation is yet another factor of organization relevance. Nowadays, Customers have a lot of access to information on goods and services which gives them large freedom of choice, therefore for organizations to survive there is need to maintain relationships for sustained growth of customer base, and long term commitment as a strategic business partner. .
Changing Expectations of Stakeholders is also a factor of organizational relevance.Organisations exist due to support from various environmental components such as socio-cultural; politico-legal; economic; and ecological.The organization really needs support from both internal stakeholders and external stakeholders as such their expectations must be met.
This essay has discussed the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context. A brief description of the factors of organization relevance has also been given. This was done by defining paradigm, and paradigm shift. Then discussing the paradigm shift of work culture and the related issues in the present day context including work culture; social structure; dependency syndrome; cultural dimension; managing diversity; gender issues and knowledge workers. Thereafter a brief description of factors of organization relevance was given and these included employability; changeability; social tension; democratization of work process; empowerment; service orientation and changing expectations of stakeholders.
2. Why is it important to understand human behavior and the implications to the organization? Discuss. Briefly describe the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. UNIT4
SOLUTION:
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior)
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This essay is going to explain why understanding human behavior is important; explain the implications to the organizations and discuss briefly the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. The models will include Psychoanalytic Model ,Existential Model ; and coming from Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour; Personality vs the Environment and Cognition vs the Environment approaches we have Behaviouristic Model and Cognitive Model .
All organisations are composed of individuals, with different personality, attitudes, values, perception, motives, aspirations and abilities. It is essential for managers to understand behaviour as they are constantly with people, interacting with them in terms of communication and in terms of work. The main reason to understand behavior is that individuals are different. No two individuals are similar.
Understanding human behavior is important because it can assist managers to work perfectly with the people in the organization. Employees are very important in organizations. However there are individual differences and these necessitates proper understanding of behavior so that there can be cordial relationships which could enhance achievement of organization’s goals.
Apart from that human behavior is unpredictable as such it is important to understand it to avoid disappointment in work performance. Individual differences are many for example some employees are motivated to work and some are not.
By understanding human behavior, management can gain the knowledge it needs to better understand itself and other people. Management can learn why people act and react in certain ways and also how to identify the various types of behavior and needs of people and progress in work can be there
Understanding human behavior can also help managers learn how to influence the behavior of people so that they can see how meeting the needs of the command will satisfy their own needs. If managers understand the needs of their people and help them to satisfy those needs, they will succeed as leaders. Leadership and human behavior work hand in hand. To be a successful leader, you must understand your people and work with them to resolve their problems.(http/navyadvancement.tpub.com/14504/css/14504_ns.html)
Human Behavior has several implications for organization. Behaviour is unpredictable since it caused and follows a pattern as such for things to move well in organizations there is need for managers to study and understand behavior of people around him.Otherwise he can not work with them and organization;s objectives cannot be achieved well
Large areas of human behavior can be modified. Organisation design, training and development can play a great role on the behavior of organizational members.
Individual differences are there in organizations and this necessitates matching between jobs and individuals for effective performance. (IGNOU MBA Study Material on Social Processes and Behaviour Issues Unit 4)
There are several models to understand human behavior. The first Model to understand Human Behaviour is Psychoanalytic Model .This was developed by Sigmund Freud and it emphasizes internal conflicts, mostly unconscious. He felt that the individual behavior depends on three factors namely Id, Ego and Super Ego. The Id is an important part of our personality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Id means pleasure and throughout life the `id ' becomes important source of thinking and behaving. Ego represents `conscious ' stage in one 's behaviour. Ego is the part of the personality which maintains a balance between our impulses (id) and our conscience (superego). The ego is based on the reality principle. Superego represents "conscience. Its development depends mostly on parent 's influence. The relevance of Psychoanalytic model is that Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. Apart from that the model helps in understanding why people behave as they do, it helps in understanding that each individual is unique, and that there are factors outside of a person 's awareness (unconscious thoughts, feelings and experiences) which influence his or her thoughts and actions; that the past shapes the present that human beings are always engaged in the process of development throughout their lives.
The second model of human behavior is Existential Model which is based on literature and philosophy and not science. Existentialists believe that all of us have total freedom either to face up to our existence and give meaning to it or to shrink from that responsibility. Abnormal behavior is seen as the result of hiding from life 's responsibilities. Existential therapists encourage clients to accept their responsibility to recognize their freedom to choose a different course, and to choose to live an authentic life.
The existentialists believe that the depersonalizing effects of this environment forces individuals to make their own destiny. So the individuals shape their own identity and make their "existence" meaningful and worthwhile to themselves. This model is relevant in the way that it is more true and happening in today 's urbanization; Because people have become so materialistic and busy, they do not have time for traditional values and norms and it becomes impractical sometimes to follow them. Though not scientific , the model can be used to understand human behavior.
The third model to understand human behaviour is Behaviouristic Model.
According to this model the behaviour is dependent on two factors i.e., stimulus and
response .Pavlov and Watson with their research felt that behaviour can be best
understood by stimulus and response.Theorists who follow the behavioral model
concentrate on a person 's behaviors, which they believe develop in accordance with the
principles of learning. Behaviourist model is represented as: S - R (Stimulus-Response).
This model is relevant because Learning occurs with this model and behavior is
understood easily and well.
The fourth model is the cognitive model, which emphasizes the positive and free-will
factors of human beings and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand and incentive.
The cognitive model is represented as: S - O - R (Stimulus-Organism-Response model)
Cognitive therapists try to help people recognize and change their faulty ideas and thinking processes. This model is relevant because it helps in understanding human behavior based on the content and process of human thought. When people display abnormal patterns of functioning, cognitive theorists point to cognitive problems, including maladaptive assumptions, specific upsetting thoughts, and illogical thinking processes.
This essay has explain why understanding human behavior is important; explained the implications to the organizations and discuss briefly the models to understand human behavior and their relevance. The discussed models include Psychoanalytic Model ,Existential Model ; Behaviouristic Model and Cognitive Model
3. Briefly describe the salient features of counseling and possible outcomes. Discuss the ethical issues in counseling in organizations. Counseling is a process that focuses on enhancing the psychological well-being of the client, such that the client is then able to reach their full potential. This is achieved by the counselor facilitating your personal growth, development, and self-understanding, which in turn empowers you to adopt more constructive life practices.( www.usq.edu.au › Student Services › Counseling Support)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
There are several salient features and possible outcomes of counseling and this essay is going to describe them; apart from that the essay is going to discuss ethical issues in counseling. The salient features of counseling to be discussed include Understanding, change in the client, the quality of the relationship, Self-Disclosure and self-confrontation, an intense working experience and ethical conduct.
The first salient feature in counseling is understanding and this involves understanding human behavior thoroughly by looking at both social and cultural context. It also implies being able to apply the understanding to set of problems and situations of each and every client. For example a person who comes for HIV/AIDS counseling must be understood in terms of his/her background behavior.
The second salient feature in counseling is Change in the Client. Counseling is done with the aim of achieving satisfying change. The client hopes to have that change after undergoing the counseling and as such the counseling should be ensuring this. For example if the counseling is meant to change someone’s smoking behavior, it must achieve that at the end of it.
The third salient feature of counseling is The Quality of the Relationship. The quality of the relationship provides a safe and comforting context from which interventions that may help the client are introduced and it can also be therapeutic in itself. The experience of a genuine and immediate relationship can itself sometimes be transforming even if there is no other counseling intervention. For example for marriage counseling to succeed the counselor and those being counseled must be in good terms relationship wise.
The fourth salient feature of counseling is Self-Disclosure and Self-Confrontation. There is need for the client to disclose personal information to the counselor for more understanding of the client’s world. There is need for the client to verbally disclose personal information to the counselor, who will try to understand the client 's world in a context of what s/he knows about how people respond to life situations. The more the totally self-disclosure, the more effectively the counselor can help the client discover new ways of coping.
The fifth salient feature of counseling is An Intense Working Experience
Counseling is an intense working experience for the participants as such sustained energy is required for the counselor for the related activities of attentive listening; information absorption, message clarification, hypothesis generation, and treatment planning. Growth through counseling is always demanding on the client and is often painful, though at the same time fulfilling and rewarding.
Counseling, is characterised by much higher level of intensity.
The sixth salient feature of counseling is Ethical Conduct .
Practicing of codes of Ethics need to be followed when providing professional people helping services. Counseling that is incompetent or insensitive or that serves the interests of the counselors not only cause harm to the clients who receive it but also damages the reputation of the counselor 's employer and the profession as a whole. Ethical practice means valuing each client as a person with rights to fair dignified and compassionate service.
(management4you.blogspot.com/.../counseling-and-counselor-qualitie)
Possible outcomes of counseling include behaviour change, Coping ability, relief of emotional distress.
On behavior change counseling changes in the way the counselee acts, copes, makes decisions or relates. For example there was one collegue who used to come to work drunk, after counseling by the Organisation.s counselor on dangers of drinking, he stopped and he improved in his decition making and he acts maturely.
Another very important domain in terms of outcome is understanding and managing negative feelings and attitudes.
Counseling can bring an outcome of coping ability. For example during pre and post
HIV testing counseling individuals are given coping abilities by being advised how they
can leave with the Virus.change in beliefs (also called personal constructs) may occur in
counseling and can be assessed from the client 's verbal output.
Counseling can also bring relief of emotional distress.Change that occurs in counseling can influence feelings, values, attitudes, thoughts, and actions. For example when couples come for marriage counseling after quarreling they go out relieved of their emotional distress.
There are a number of ethical issues arising from counseling in organizations such as confidentiality; the incompatibility between the organization 's aims and the aims of counseling loyalty of the counselor and managing different roles with the same client. Counselors do their job without clear and helpful frameworks for ethical decision-making in work contexts.
Confidentiality is one of the most crucial factors that can determine the credibility of counseling within organizations. Failure in confidentiality will destroy the reputation of a counseling service and yet it is not easy to maintain confidentiality when there are a host of factors within organization
4. Describe the importance of teams in organizations. Briefly discuss the factors in building effective teams and how team sustenance is a critical issue. UNIT 15
SOLUTION: A team is a group of people made up of individuals who each contribute their individual knowledge and skills. (http://derekstockley.com.au/index.html) Teams are formed when individuals with a common taste, preference, liking, and attitude come and work together for a common goal. Teams play a very important role in organizations as well as our personal lives.
|Importance of teams in organizations include applying a mix of skills that go beyond the scope of any one individual; solving |[pic][pic|
|complex problems that take more than one mind; generating of new ideas; coordinating individual activities towards a common bigger|] |
|goal; providing support and help to team members; giving people a sense of belonging; enhancing communication; help people to | |
|learn from each other and develop; generating commitment. | |
|Firstly teams are important because they help in applying a mix of skills that go beyond the scope of any one individual . Tasks| |
|are accomplished at a faster pace when they are done by a team rather than an individual. An individual will definitely take more | |
|time to perform if he is single handedly responsible for everything. When employees work together, they start helping each other | |
|and responsibilities are shared and thus it reduces the work load and work pressure. Talents available with the organizations in | |
|more efficient ways. | |
|Secondly teams are important in organizations because they help in solving complex problems that take more than one mind . A | |
|single brain cannot always come with solutions or take decisions alone. In a team, every team member has an equal contribution | |
|and each team member comes out with a solution best suited to the problem. All the alternatives can be explored to come out with | |
|the best possible solution. | |
|Thirdly teams are important in organizations because they generate new ideas. Each member of a team can bring in his own ideas | |
|which together can help the organization to grow. | |
|Fourthly, teams in organizations help in coordinating individual activities towards a common bigger goal. Work never suffers or| |
|takes a backseat in a team. For example if one individual s takes care of an important client and is the only one coordinating | |
|with him and decides to take a long leave, then things cannot work well for the organization. In a team mostly work is shared, the| |
|other team members can perform and manage the work in the absence of any member and hence work is not affected much. | |
|Providing support | |
|Fifthly, teams are important in organizations because they bring a healthy competition among the team members. Competition is | |
|always good for the employee as well as the organization as every individual feels motivated to perform better than his other team| |
|member and in a way contributing to his team and the organization. | |
|Sixthly, teams are important in organizations because they improve the relations among the employees. Individuals work in close | |
|coordination with each other and thus come to know each other better. Teams also reduces the chances of unnecessary conflicts | |
|among the employees and every individual tries his level best to support his team member. The level of bonding increases as a | |
|result of team work. Organizations also use teams to motivate their staff as staff gets enough opportunity to influence | |
|operational decisions | |
|Seventhly Teams are important in organizations because team members can also gain from each other. Every individual is different | |
|and has some qualities. One can always benefit something or the other from his team members which would help him in the long run. | |
|Everyone is hungry for recognitions and praises. One feels motivated to work hard in a team and to live up to the expectations of | |
|the other members. Each member is a critic of the other and can correct him whenever the other person is wrong. One always has | |
|someone to fall back on at the time of crisis. | |
( www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-team.htm)
Lastly teams are important because they are used to democratize the workplace where there is hierarchical relationship between the members of the workforce. There are several factors in Building effective teams and they include Task management, Process management, Inter-group communication., Team style, Informality as well as Participation, Listening, and contribution mamagement. There is also need to take care of three aspects for development in team building process which are Preparing the team members, Clarifying the team 's objectives, Settting measurable goals and Clear goals
Task management is the process of managing a task through its life cycle, including goal setting planning, organizing testing, time management, problem solving and review tracking and reporting. Task management can help teams to collaborate and share knowledge for the accomplishment of collective goals and this promote building of effective teams.( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_management)You +1 'd this publicly. Undo
Process management is the ensemble of activities of planning and monitoring the performance
of a process. It is the application of knowledge, skills and competencies like questioning,
listening, summarising, encouraging, initiative, expressing opinion, synthesizing, expressing and responding to feelings,
gatekeeping , tools, techniques and systems to define, visualize, measure, control, report and improve processes with the goal to meet customer requirements profitably. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_management) .
Team members need to be taught and they need to practice the same and this is a factor of building effective teamsYou +1 'd this publicly. Undo.
Inter-group communication is a channel for communication between group or teams. Teams need to develop communication, negotiation skills and understanding of political climate in the organization. If intergroup communication is good effective teams can be built’
Team style. There is need for team leaders, members to adopt appropriate influencing style- matching with the needs of team members and the situation. If the team style is in order then effective teams can be built.
Contribution management is another factor of building effective teams.. Team leaders, in particular, have to take additional responsibility to understand each member 's strengths and weaknesses, and manage the team such a way that each member is able to contribute to the team endeavor to the maximum.(IGNOU UNIT 15)
Informality as well as Participation is also a factor of building effective team. In order to build an effective team, the climate has to be informal, comfortable, as well as relaxed. There should be no tension or any signs of boredom. Teams enjoy getting together, they interact easily. There should be lots of good-natured kidding and laughter. Have seating arrangements in order to facilitate this. A circle is the best seating arrangement usually, while a typical classroom arrangement is the worst.
Listening is yet another factor of building effective team. A highly efficient team has team members who use effective listening techniques. These include questioning, paraphrasing, as well as summarizing in order to get out ideas. Listening is the most effective factor that distinguishes effective teams from ineffective teams.
The ability to really listen is a highly important skill. Each team member has to have it. Listening lets you understand what the other person is saying. Besides, it shows the other person that you’re interested in what he/she has to say. But all of us experience common listening problems.( www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-team.htm
Preparing the team members is a necessary aspect of development in team building process,
Employees may need to learn new skills such as budgeting, computing, public relations and marketing, as well as skills which allow them to work together effectively, such as effective communication, confliction resolution and problem solving. Training and development are enabling factors that allow team members and leaders to take on new responsibilities. Where team members possess inadequate work skills and knowledge, teams are less likely to succeed.Rewarding team performance is also needed.
Clarifying the team 's objectives is an aspect which should also be considered in team building process, There is need to Clarify the team 's objective and course of action in advance to avoid A large amount of friction and conflict which gets generated during forming and storming stage.
Setting clear and measurable goals is yet another aspect in development in team building process
Goals should be specific enough to give the team direction. For example, to raise market share by ten percent in six months provides more guidance than simply to raise market share. A goal should also state the ends, rather than the means. This gives teams the freedom to work out how best to achieve the goal (Carr 1992). Associated with providing clear goals is the development of meaningful and acceptable performance measures so that the team members can feel confident in their own achievements. After effectiveness, team sustenance becomes critical issue by giving panic to managers who now think of how they can keep a good team in its existing state of efficiency and effectiveness that is , how does one continue to make it function? Mature teams are found to develop apathy and are also susceptible to group think and resistant to accept and implement change. With time teams also tend to be satisfied and relax. All this makes team sustenance a critical issue. Here, a manager 's task is to maintain the standards of the team and raise them, and According to Robbins, sustainance of the motivation of maturing teams can be achieved by Preparing members to deal with the problem of maturity, Offering refresher training , Offering Advanced training and Learning Experience
Prepare members to deal with the problem of maturity: Teams are given feedback that they need to face maturity issue. They are not unique. Every team goes through this phase. They should not lose heart when initial excitement dries away and conflicts start surfacing. They need to face the situation and need not lose faith in team concept.
Offer refresher training: When team is stuck they may be given refresher training in communication, team building process, conflict management and leadership. Such intervention may build confidence and mutual trust among each other.
Offer Advanced training: Members may have exhausted their skill set while working on initial problems. Now they are confronted with more complicated and difficult problems. They will benefit with advanced courses on conceptual, interpersonal and technical skills.
Learning Experience: Teams may be encouraged to own their development and search opportunities for continuous improvement. Teams should try to evolve ways to learn through dealing with members fears, conflicts and frustrations.
REFERENCES:
Carr, C. 1992, ‘Planning Priorities for Empowered Teams’, Journal of Business
Strategy, vol. 13, no. 5, p. 43-47.
5.Briefly discuss the dynamics of power and politics in organizations. Describe the ethical issues involved in politics and power in organizations. UNIT 17
SOLUTION:
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
Power and politics are inextricably interwoven with the fabric of an organization 's life. In any organization, at any given moment, a number of people are seeking to gain and use power to achieve their own ends. This pursuit of power is political behavior. Organizational politics refers to the activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance and use power and other resources to obtain their preferred outcomes in a situation where there is uncertainly or disagreement. One great organizational scholar, Tushman defined politics, ‘as the structure and process of the use of authority and power to affect definition of goals, directions and the other major parameters of the organization. Decisions are not made in rational or formal way but rather through compromise accommodation and bargaining.
The nature and dynamics of power in organizations will be discussed in line with Informal Power, Resistance in Organisations: In theory an employee is allotted sufficient power to enable him to do his job, no more and no less. In practice people in organisations can acquire power beyond what their formal role might suggest. Power without authority is sometimes known as illegitimate or informal power. Informal power arises because organisations cannot legislate for every contingency.
Organisational rules specify what employees can or cannot do in particular circumstances. For example, financial regulations may stipulate which office holders have authority to sign cheques or enter into contracts. Yet in every organisation there is inevitably room to exercise discretion. Discretion means that a person has the option of acting differently. Indeed without it the organisation would run into difficulties.
Power relations are inherently dynamic and apt to change over time. For instance, if rewards are administered regularly they may be regarded as coercion because of the threat of withdrawal. Informal power is usually legitimated in time. Any source or person who is regularly consulted becomes an authority.
Resistance in Organisations: The impetus to resistance in organisations stems from the potential for tension between organisational and individual interest. What is good for the organisation may be detrimental to its employees and vice versa. One form of resistance is where employees try to escape managerial domination by `distancing ' themselves physically or symbolically from those in control, Another form of resistance involves demand for greater involvement in participative decision-making and implementation in the organisation.
The dynamics of power can be studied from several angles, viz., distribution, dependency, uncertainty, compliance, indicators, power determinants, power consequences, and symbols and reputation.
On Distribution In organizations, there is no balance in the way power is distributed among members.Some may give in more power than others. Those in power try to grab more of it. They strongly resist any attempt to weaken the power they exercise.
On Dependency in an organization, if the organization depends much on some few individuals, those individuals enjoy great power.
On uncertainty in organisation, People who can absorb uncertainty exercise more power,
On Compliance in an organization People generally comply with legitimate power. Other than other types like reward power
On Power Indicators in organizations are difficult to trace. There is a tendency of hiding use of power by those responsible and as such it is difficult to tell when power is being used.
Determinants of Power
• One method of assessing power focuses on the potential to exert influence and consists of measuring how many determinants of power are available to each member.
These are five bases of personal power. One of the bases of power is expertise. Individuals who possess better knowledge and expertise can exert higher influence in situations where their knowledge is important.
Consequences of Power
Since power is used to influence decision, those with the greatest power should be the ones who obtain the most favourable outcomes.
The relationship between power and consequences needs to be interpreted carefully, It is also important to distinguish between the ability to influence a situation and the ability to force at what would have occurred at any event.
Symbols
The power of different individuals can be assessed by examining how many symbols of power they possess.
Symbols include such things as titles, office size and location, special parking privileges, special eating facilities, automobiles, airplanes, and office furnishings.
• The location of offices on different floors often reflect the relative power of the office-holders.
Reputation
• One way of assessing power in an organisation is to ask its members to possess greater power or exert the greatest influence . However, potential activities of the most powerful and influential individuals may be understated or overlooked both by themselves and others. 11 Power Dynamics
• Another way of assessing power is to determine which individuals and groups are the most heavily represented on committees and other significant administrative positions.
To be considered ethical, power-related behaviour must meet three criteria:
Does the behaviour produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organisation? If the power-related behaviour serves only the individual 's self-interest and fails to help the organisation reach its goals, it is considered unethical.
Does the behaviour respect the rights of all parties? The question emphasises the criterion of individual rights. Free speech, privacy, and the process are individual rights that are to be respected, and power-related behaviours that violate these rights are considered unethical.
Does the behaviour treat all parties equitable and fairly? This question represents the criterion of distributive justice. Power-related behaviour that treats one party arbitrarily or benefits one party at the expense of another is unethical.
1. 2. 3.
Solution: To help us understand organizations, we might consider them as political systems. The political metaphor helps us understand power relationships in day-to-day organizational relationships. If we accept that power relations exist in organizations, then politics and politicking are an essential part of organizational life. Politics is a means of recognizing and, ultimately, reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a noncoercive, or a democratic work environment. Organizations need mechanisms whereby they reconcile conflicting interests. Systems of rule... each represent a political orientation with respect to how power is... distributed throughout the organization.
by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a no coercive, or a democratic work environment. As mentioned, organizations need mechanisms whereby they reconcile conflicting interests. Hence, organizations, like governments, tend to "rule" by some sort of "system". This "system" is employed to create and maintain "order" among the organization 's members. Systems of rule within organizations range from autocratic to democratic at the extremes. Between these extremes we find bureaucratic and technocratic systems. Whatever the system, each represents a political orientation with respect to how power is applied and distributed throughout the organization. Each type of organizational "rule" simply draws on different principles of legitimacy.
...politics stems from a diversity of interests... Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own... needs; driven by self-interest... According to Aristotle, politics stems from a diversity of interests. To fully understand the
Politics of the organization, it is necessary to explore the processes by which people engage in politics. Consistent with Aristotle 's conceptualization, it is a given that, within the organization, all employees bring their own interests, wants, desires, and needs to the workplace.
Organizational decision-making and problem- solving, while seemingly a rational process, is also a political process. Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own wants and needs; driven by self-interest.
-----------------------
MS-21
Management Programme
ASSIGNMENT
FIRST SEMESTER
2012
MS-21: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIORAL ISSUES
[pic]
School of Management Studies
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI – 110 068
[pic]
School of Management Studies
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI – 110 068
References: Carr, C. 1992, ‘Planning Priorities for Empowered Teams’, Journal of Business Strategy, vol
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