Engl 1020 Critical Thinking Argument

ENGL 1020

Critical Thinking/Argument:

Civic Engagement

Course Packet

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Fall 2013

Dr. Roderick B. Overaa, Instructor
Table of Contents

COURSE MATERIALS

▪ ENGL 1020 Reading List 1
▪ Learning Outcomes for English 1020 3
▪ Process for Writing Papers 4
▪ Library Research 6
▪ MLA System: MS Format and Documentation 8
▪ Audience and Rhetoric
9
▪ Writing Effective Introductions and Conclusions 11
▪ Commonly Misused Words 14
▪ The “Snapshot Method” for Formulating/Revising Argumentative Essays 16
▪ Research Paper Checklist 17
▪ Key to Microsoft Word Instructor Comments 18
▪ MLA Style Guide for Creating Works Cited Lists 20
▪ Strategies for Revision 22
▪ Paper Grading Rubric 23

ENGL 1020 READING LIST

College-Level Academic Writing

“Reading and Responding to Texts in the 21st Century,” 2-6.
Adler, Mortimer J. “How to Mark a Book,” 16-20.
“Annotating, Note Taking, and Questioning the Text”; “Paraphrasing, Summarizing, Quoting, and Synthesizing,” “Reading and Responding to Online Texts,” “Reading and Analyzing Visual Texts” 25-41.
“Critical Writing: Process and Communication,” 66-88.
“Reading and Writing Effective Arguments,” 136-62.
“Writing a Research Project,” 750-74.
Murray, Donald M. “The Maker’s Eye: Revising Your Own Manuscript.” 109-12.

Essay Readings[1]
Schlesinger, Arthur M. “The Cult of Ethnicity.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 27-9.
Tannen, Deborah. “Sex, Lies, and Conversation: Why Is It So Hard for Men and Women to Talk to Each Other?” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 117-21.
Quindlen, Anna. “Sex Ed.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 198-9.
Jacoby, Susan. “When Bright Girls Decide that Math Is ‘a Waste of Time’.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 215-18.
Orwell, George. “Politics and the English Language.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 123-33.
Friedman, Thomas L. “Globalization: The Super-Story.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 391-4.
Krugman, Paul. “The Death of Horatio Alger.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 387-90.
---. “We Are the 99.9 Percent.” 44-6. McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014.
Reich, Robert. “Why the Rich Are Getting Richer and the Poor, Poorer.” McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines. 12th Edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. 404-15.
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR ENGLISH 1020

By the end of the semester, a student’s revised written work must exhibit a satisfactory level of proficiency in the following four areas of academic (or college) writing: 1) rhetorical strategies; 2) research/textual analysis; 3) academic argument; and 4) revision/proofreading. A research paper or other writing assignment that exhibits serious deficiencies in one or more of these outcomes will receive a failing grade.

1. The writing demonstrates an awareness of the strategies that writers use in academic writing contexts. • The writing employs style, tone, and conventions appropriate to the demands of academic writing. • The writing has a clear understanding of its audience, and various aspects of the writing (mode of inquiry, content, structure, appeals, tone, sentences, and word choice) address and are strategically pitched to that audience. • The writer articulates and assesses the effects of his or her writing choices as necessary.

2. The writing demonstrates student’s abilities to locate (through research), read, analyze, and synthesize complex texts and incorporate multiple kinds of evidence purposefully in order to generate and support writing. • The writing demonstrates an understanding of the course texts and research materials as necessary for the purpose at hand. • Assigned and/or research texts are used in strategic, focused ways (for example: summarized, paraphrased, cited, applied, challenged, re-contextualized) to support the goals of the writing. • The writing is intertextual, meaning that a “conversation” between texts and ideas is created in support of the writer’s goals. • The writer is able to use multiple kinds of evidence gathered from various sources in order to support writing goals. • The writing demonstrates responsible use of the MLA system of documenting sources.

3. The writing demonstrates student’s ability to produce complex, analytic, persuasive arguments that matter in academic contexts. • The argument is appropriately complex, based in a claim that emerges from and explores a line of inquiry. • The stakes of the argument, why what is being argued matters, are articulated and persuasive. • The argument involves analysis, which is the close scrutiny and examination of evidence and assumptions in support of a larger set of ideas. • The argument is persuasive, taking into consideration counterclaims and multiple points of view as it generates its own perspective and position. • The argument utilizes a clear organizational strategy and effective transitions that develop its line of inquiry.

4. The writing demonstrates student’s ability to effectively revise, edit, and proofread his/her writing. • The writing demonstrates substantial and successful revision. • The writing responds to substantive issues raised by the instructor and peers. • Errors of grammar, punctuation, and mechanics are proofread and edited so as not to interfere with reading and understanding the writing. • Written manuscripts conform to MLA style guidelines.
Process for Writing Papers

Students of ENGL 1020 must complete one Annotated Bibliography, Project Proposal, and two drafts of a Research Paper (revision required). Students may choose the topic of their research project (within the parameters of the Cultural Expression course designation), but must meet all deadlines associated with the paper development process (including first and final drafts).

The paper-writing process for this course consists of 4 main stages: research, prewriting, writing, and revising. These stages may overlap somewhat in time; however, each stage will culminate in the production of a specific document:

Stage 1: Research
Once you have selected a topic for your research project, conduct some outside research on your topic. The goal here is to learn what other academic writers and specialists have said about your topic, so that you can write with a sense of authority and confidence. See the Annotated Bibliography Assignment Sheet for a list of acceptable types of secondary source material. Do not rely on internet search engines like Google to find source material (such as websites, blogs, wikis, etc). Use the Sherrod Library online catalog and / or journal article databases to find secondary sources with the appropriate academic weight.

Once you have conducted some outside reading and research, type up your Annotated Bibliography. The goals here are to demonstrate: 1) that you can find authoritative academic source material using library resources; and 2) that you have conducted an appropriate amount of outside reading related to your paper topic—so be very specific! Your completed bibliography should demonstrate to the instructor that you have read your secondary material and that you have a clear understanding of how this material will inform your own ideas and arguments.

Stage 2: Prewriting
Once you have completed your initial research, it should be much easier to organize your own ideas on the paper topic—because you know more about it. You may find it useful to do some simple brainstorming activities like clustering, creating lists, or an outline. When brainstorming, don’t censor anything—just get all your ideas onto paper or a computer screen. Also, establishing a solid claim statement (an articulation of the central argument of your paper) before starting to write the paper will give you a clear direction and should help you to make some decisions about the overall structure of the paper. Knowing where you are headed from the beginning can help you avoid getting bogged down or lost halfway through the paper draft.

Now it’s time to type up the Project Proposal. Follow the instructions on the Project Proposal Assignment Sheet and be sure that your completed proposal outlines a very specific project and a basic research question that you intend to pursue.

Stage 3: Writing
Based on the instructor feedback you received on your project proposal, start writing your first draft. What are the main points you will need to establish or “prove” in order to support your claim statement? You might try “blocking out” the paragraphs of your essay before actually writing it—that is, typing out some “placeholders” that you will fill in later. For example:

P1: Establish point A. Use the quote from Freud’s book.
P2: Transition to point B. Draw parallel between points A and B using the Smith source.
P3: Draw a conclusion here—why is this distinction important to recognize?

Another tip for the first draft: For most writers, it is actually easier to write the introduction and conclusion last, after you have finished writing the body (or analysis) section. Just like a scientist conducts the experiment and analyzes the data before drawing a conclusion, you can do your textual analysis and close reading paragraphs first. Once you’ve actually done the critical and interpretive work, it’s much easier to draw solid conclusions from your study and craft an introduction that adequately describes the work you’ve done. Why start with the introduction when you don’t even know what the paper will end up looking like? It’s easier to describe something that already exists than some nebulous set of ideas bouncing around in your head.

Stage 4: Revision
Based on the instructor feedback you received on your first draft, revise your research paper for a better grade. Be aware of the weak points in your writing—such as MLA format, transitions, topic sentences, typos, grammar, use of quotations or secondary material, or proofreading. Your ultimate goal here is to produce a professional-looking manuscript that showcases your academic ability in the areas of research, writing, and critical thinking.

Reminders: • For each assignment, follow the instructions on the assignment sheet (especially minimum word count, manuscript and documentation format [MLA style], and quality of source material). • First drafts of project proposals and research papers may be revised for a better grade. Unless otherwise noted, the deadline is two weeks from the original deadline. Revision of the research paper is required; second drafts that do not show evidence of substantive revision will receive a penalty of one full grade from the first draft. • Sources that do not meet the requirements listed on the Annotated Bibliography Assignment Sheet will not fulfill the research component—this will negatively affect the paper grade.

Library Research

ENGL 1020 is a course designed to teach academic writing skills—and this includes research. Academic research involves more than simply using Google to run searches on your topic and settling for the first website that pops up. In this course, students will be expected to use the online resources available through Sherrod Library to conduct research and find source material for their research papers.

The research paper you will write for this class requires a minimum of eight (8) high-quality academic sources that you find on your own using the library resources. Remember, however, that this is the absolute minimum number of acceptable sources. Papers that use more than eight good sources will typically receive higher grades, while papers that do not meet the minimum requirements for research will generally earn grades of C- or D.

Video Tutorials
Sherrod Library has a number of resources to help you get started using the library system. Please go to the webpage below and watch the following tutorials:

http://sherrod.etsu.edu/how/libvid.html • Scholarly versus Popular Journals (also available at): http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/tutorials.php/scholarlyfree/ • Searching a Database • Find a Book

Library Resources

Charles C. Sherrod Library Main Page: http://sherrod.etsu.edu/ From the library main page you can link to One Search on the right side of the screen. One Search is a search engine that searches multiple databases all at once. On the top left you can also find links to search for journal articles and books in the ETSU library system.

Ask a Librarian: http://libanswers.etsu.edu/ Type your question and get answers fast. There is also a live chat option.

Purdue OWL: MLA Formatting and Style Guide: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/ This is a good online resource for basic manuscript format, in-text citation, and source documentation format in the MLA style. You can link to this resource through the library, but this URL will save you some mouse-clicking.

General Tips: • Do not use popular search engines like Google, Google Scholar, or Bing to conduct research. Most of the material generated by these sites will not meet the standards for acceptable research material. • Do not use un-refereed websites as sources. See the assignment sheets for lists of acceptable source material. • Use the “Find articles, search databases” and “Find books & media at ETSU” search engines on the Sherrod Library website to find sources. These resources will generate a much higher percentage of acceptable material. • Among the best article databases for the Humanities are: MLA International Bibliography, Project Muse, and JSTOR (older articles), but you may find others useful as well. • When searching article databases, always check the “Peer-Reviewed” or “Journal Articles Only” box to ensure that your searches are generating scholarly sources. • If given a choice between HTML (online) or PDF (file) versions of an article, download the PDF. The PDF file will be a scanned copy of the original article, complete with page numbers that you will need to cite in your paper. • Many books are available online these days, which can save you a trip to the library. However, be sure to distinguish between popular and scholarly books. • Do not default to online sources out of laziness. There’s still nothing like the physical book stacks in the library. Imagine two papers: Paper X cites four journal articles and two online books; Paper Y cites five print books, three online books, and four journal articles. Which paper do you think will get a higher grade for research? • If you find a promising title online that is listed as “Available” in Sherrod Library, jot down the call number and go get it. Once there, check the other books on that shelf or nearby—they will deal with the same subject.

The last word here is that your instructor can easily tell from your Annotated Bibliography or the Works Cited page in your paper how much effort a student has put into his/her research, and whether they used the library resources or a search engine like Google. To earn passing grades on your assignments, be sure to follow the instructions on the assignment sheets and meet the minimum requirements for solid academic research.

MLA System: MS Format and Documentation

The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an organization of university-level teachers in the Humanities. This organization has created a system for formatting academic manuscripts and documenting sources, published in the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing and the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. The purpose of these style guides is to ensure that all writers use the same formatting style in their written work. This helps to avoid confusion, and helps editors and teachers work with manuscripts submitted by other writers or students. When everyone does things the same way, time and labor is saved.

All work for this course must conform to the MLA style. Both of our textbooks have sections on MLA documentation format that show you how to properly cite sources in the text of your paper and on the Works Cited page. (A Quick Style Guide is also included in this Course Packet.) Both textbooks also have sample MLA-style papers with notes, and a sample paper has been uploaded to Content section of the D2L website. A link to MLA section of the Purdue OWL website is listed below. Basic manuscript formatting guidelines also appear on pages 2-3 of the syllabus. These various resources have been provided for your use, and it is expected that you will refer to them as necessary (without being explicitly instructed to do so). Papers that do not conform to MLA format will not receive passing grades. The best thing you can do to ensure a grade of C or higher is to format your document correctly.

Purdue OWL: MLA Formatting and Style Guide: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

Here’s a quick checklist of formatting elements to check before turning in your paper: • Four-line MLA style heading • Date in MLA (European) format • Header with last name and page numbers in upper right (every page) • Margins • Font • Spacing: entire document should be strictly double-spaced (no extra spaces before/after titles, etc.) • Title (centered, same font/size as everything else, no bold or quotation marks) • Block Quotes (longer than 4 typed lines): indented one full inch at left, double-spaced, same font as everything else. If paragraph continues after the quote, next line should be flush left against the margin. • All quoted, paraphrased, or cited material has been properly documented using parenthetical in-text citations according to MLA style. • Works Cited page begins at top of new page, numbered consecutively. • Works Cited entries are alphabetized by author’s last name. • Works Cited entries use a hanging indent of .5 inch (use Paragraph ( Special Menu)

Audience and Rhetoric

Academic writing is based primarily in argument.
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience. Academic writers use rhetoric (language designed to have a persuasive effect) to persuade or convince readers that their position on an issue or topic is the correct one. In his study of rhetoric, the Greek philosopher Aristotle designed a model called a “rhetorical triangle.” This model describes every act of speech or text as being composed of three parts: the subject, the speaker, and the audience. According to Aristotle, all three points on this triangle must be taken into consideration in order to produce a successful persuasive
argument:

For now, let’s focus on Aristotle’s discussion of the speaker (or in our case, the writer). Aristotle claimed that all arguments take one of three forms of persuasion (ethos, logos, or pathos), and that when making an argument speakers/writers can argue from any of these positions (or alternate between them) in order to persuade their audience.

Ethos: When a speaker establishes him- or herself as an expert on the subject in question—as someone whose ideas you can trust to be true—he or she is arguing from a position of ethos. To be persuasive, an argument based on ethos must convince the audience of the speaker’s reliability. The credibility that ethos provides could stem simply from the speaker’s status in their field. For example, Stephen Hawking would probably have little trouble convincing you that his ideas on physics are valuable and reliable. Lesser-known scholars would have to rely on other means, such as listing the sources upon which their argument is based—and in the end, you may still be unconvinced. Citing other sources and prior scholarly research as evidence to support an argument is one of the most common methods used by scholars to argue from ethos.

Logos: When a speaker relies on logic to make an argument, he or she is arguing using logos. Naturally, most scientific and philosophical arguments are based primarily upon logic. Logical arguments are supposed to proceed strictly from observations of evidence, from which logical conclusions are drawn. (For example, the syllogism: if a = b, and b = c, then a = c.)

Pathos: When a speaker draws upon emotional responses in order to sway an audience, he or she is arguing from a position of pathos. Consider a charitable organization’s TV ad, in which the spokesperson holds a starving child in a desolate village, or abandoned pets peer through the bars of a cage. These organizations are using pathos to make their argument (that you should donate money). Politicians love pathos. Even starting a speech with the phrase, “My fellow Americans” is an attempt to draw on the audience’s feelings of patriotism and unity with the speaker.

Which of the three forms of rhetoric do you think each of the following persons would primarily rely upon to persuade others?

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Audience for an Academic Research Paper: Remember that when writing an academic paper, you should consider your audience to be an unknown, random collection of intelligent, educated people who are interested in your topic and what you have to say. Imagining that you are writing for a broad audience of people you do not know will help you find the proper professional tone in your writing. Do not write as though your teacher or classmates are your only audience. For example, do not mention “the assignment prompt,” a classroom lecture, or “what Susan said the other day in class.” You need to produce a piece of polished, professional-looking writing that addresses a broad audience of interested readers.

Writing Effective Introductions

An introduction builds a bridge from where your readers are to where you want them to be when they start the body of your paper. Introduction sections may vary in length, depending upon the length and complexity of the essay. For an 8-10 page research paper for a college class, an introduction might only be one paragraph. A 20-30 page journal article might require two or three paragraphs to orient the reader and establish a claim. As you may have noticed, a book usually has a chapter-length Introduction that helps set the stage for the rest of the book. In general, it is easier to write the introduction section last, after you have completed the body and conclusion sections.

An introduction: • orients your reader • prepares your reader for the specific idea you will be presenting in the body of your paper • establishes the significance of your main idea • sets the appropriate tone for your paper

A strong introduction section for a college-level literary analysis paper should do at least the following: • Establish a critical or intellectual question, issue, or problem that the paper will address in some way. • Establish or suggest how the text(s) under consideration address the question, issue, or problem you have identified. Include author names and titles of primary text(s). • Provide any background information that is necessary to understand the paper and its central argument. • Provide a specific claim statement that establishes the central argument of the essay.

Providing a “Road Map” of your essay:
In addition to establishing a specific central claim for your paper, there may be occasions when you will also want to include a road map of the paper. That is, there may be occasions when you will want to give readers explicit information about how you 've structured the paper. Example:

“In the first section of my paper I will summarize Freud’s theory of Eros and Thanatos, as it appears in his book, Civilization and Its Discontents. From there I will turn to a more general discussion of how the protagonist’s central conflict in Murakami’s novel turns upon his attraction to both love and death, personified in the characters of Midori and Naoko, respectively.”

Such road maps tend to be most useful to readers under the following three conditions: (1) when a paper is long (say fifteen or more pages), (2) when the text divides up into separable sections, and (3) when it may not be obvious to readers how the sections of the text fit together into an organic whole.

Tips for Effective Introductions • Write your introduction last—after the body and conclusion sections. An introduction is an overview; it tells the reader what a paper is about. It will be much easier to write your introduction after you have finished the body (analysis) section and drawn one or more conclusions from your work. • Don’t start with your claim. Orient your reader by drawing their attention to a question, issue, or problem that can be viewed as shared knowledge. Your claim belongs near the end of your introduction. • Don’t be too broad. It is not unusual for inexperienced writers to begin their introductions with statements that are huge generalizations, or statements that go way back in time: “Since humankind emerged from caves, we have always wanted….” or “One central function of literature has always been to critique society….” • Use the “Funnel Down” method. Imagine the shape of your introduction as a funnel, in which you start with a general question, issue, or problem (shared knowledge, bridge between reader and yourself), move into a more specific description of how your object of analysis relates to or addresses this question, issue, or problem, and then—at the bottom of the funnel—provide your claim statement.

Sample Introduction 1:

American youth today are often brought up with the idea that when making important life decisions, one should use logic to determine the best course, ignoring personal feelings and emotions. One of the main objectives Charles Dickens had in writing his novel Hard Times (1854) was to expose the serious limitations of utilitarianism. This philosophy, proselytized by John Stuart Mill (1806-73), contends that all decisions we make, both in our personal and our public lives, should be rational conclusions reached by a logical assessment of the facts. In Hard Times utilitarianism underlies the pedagogy of Gradgrind and his M’Choakum school for children; and his daughter and student Louisa’s decision to marry Bounderby is a utilitarian one. As the novel reveals, however, this marriage is a grave mistake. Louisa’s efforts to follow her father 's exhortations to suppress her imagination and ignore her feelings make her one of the novel’s most psychologically complex characters. This essay argues that the text of Hard Times functions primarily as a critique of Mills’ utilitarianism and its limitations as a method for living a full and balanced life.

Sample Introduction 2:

I believe that American high schools and colleges should continue to teach Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as a work of classic American literature. People need to read about and discuss issues like racism, because that is the only way that we can work together to solve these problems. If we ignore these problems or try to keep people from learning about them, then those kind of problems can keep going on and on and on, and nobody would notice or talk about it. This story by Twain has a lot of problems. People argue over the racism in the book, especially the use of the “N-word.” Recently, a PTA board filed a lawsuit in Vermont to ban the book from the curriculum because of these issues. That’s just plain wrong.

Which of these introductions is stronger? Why? How would you suggest the writer revise the weaker introduction?
Writing Effective Conclusions

For many undergraduate students, the conclusion is often the hardest part of a paper to write. Writing an effective conclusion requires a writer to consider the main point of a paper within the larger socio-political context in which and for which it has been written. In writing your conclusion you 'll have to keep in mind the functions of this section of a paper:

A Conclusion: • provides readers with a sense of closure • addresses the “So what?” question by discussing the ramifications or implications of what the writer has said in the body of the paper

A strong conclusion section for a college-level research paper should do at least the following: • Summarize the main points of the essay. Don’t merely restate your primary claim; remind your reader that you have done what you promised in the introduction section: “The above analyses show that….” or “In this paper, I have demonstrated….” • Explore the “stakes” of the argument. Suggest what the essay or its analysis contributes to a wider discussion. Why is your research important or relevant to readers, to a certain disciplinary field, or to society?

Stakes
Student writers often have trouble writing about the stakes, or the ramifications and implications of their argument. Think of your conclusion section as a space in which you “step back” from the gritty details and specifics of your argument and take a wider view. OK, so Charles Dickens’ novel Hard Times can be read as an exploration of the limitations of John Stuart Mills’ theory of Utilitarianism. So what? What can you say about the continued presence or dominance of utilitarian approaches in today’s society? Can reading the novel cause readers to question for themselves the society’s general assumption that using logic is the best way to make decisions in life?

When beginning to think about the stakes of your argument, ask yourself a few questions:

• How does the point you 've made fit into what you 've been studying, discussing, reading in class?

• Does your main point relate to other subjects or works you 've covered?

• Does it apply to basic themes and/or assumptions the class has been making?

• Did this investigation/analysis change your own views of the subject? Could it change other people’s views? Would that be good or bad?

• Has this project affected your understanding of other works or issues? What might it add to our general understanding of this text(s), or of more general societal or cultural issues?

• Does your research suggest a possible solution to a problem, or a future path to be taken?
Commonly Misused Words

Below are some commonly misused words with descriptions & examples of proper usage.

affect/effect: As a noun, effect means “result”; as a verb, it means “to bring about,” or “to accomplish.” Not to be confused with affect, which means “to influence.”

Failure to meet all four course outcomes satisfactorily will negatively affect your final grade for this course.

If you fail to meet all four course outcomes satisfactorily, it will have a negative effect on your final grade.

apart/a part: as an adverb, apart means “at a little distance” or “away from one another in space or time; as an adjective it means “separate, isolated.” A part (as two words) means “a component of.”

It is difficult to tell the Olsen twins apart.

When they were younger, the Olsen twins were a part of the cast of the sit-com, “Full House.”

allusion/illusion: allusion means “an indirect reference,” illusion means “an unreal image” or “a false impression.”

In her paper, Crystal made many allusions to Greek mythology.

Integral to the concept of commodity culture is the idea that the “image” associated with a product is an illusion, created by advertisers.

anybody: In the sense of “any person,” not to be written as two words. Any body means “any corpse,” or “any human form,” or “any human group.” This rule holds equally true for everybody, nobody, somebody, and anyone.

By doing no more that merely reading Emily Dickinson’s poems, anybody can see that she was a brilliant poet.

For the medical college’s lab on autopsy, any body certified by the state for this purpose will suffice.

compare to/with: To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order.

Life has been compared to a pilgrimage, a drama, and a battle. Congress may be compared with the British Parliament.

data: Like strata, phenomena, and media, data is a plural and is best used with a plural verb. The word, however, is slowly gaining acceptance as a singular.

The data generated by the study are misleading.

farther/further: These two words are commonly interchanged, but there is a distinction worth noting: farther serves best as a distance word, further as a time or quantity word.

Harry chased the Golden Snitch farther than Malfoy did.

Professor Snape wished to pursue the subject of Harry’s invisibility potion further.

fortuitous: Limited to what happens by chance. Not to be used to mean “fortunate” or “lucky.”

In a fortuitous turn of events, the song Kyle had been thinking of came on the radio.

less/fewer: Less should not be used to mean fewer. Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.”

secondly, thirdly, etc.: Generally, do not add “-ly” to numbers. Modern usage prefers second, third, etc.

that/which: That is the defining, or restrictive, pronoun; which is the nondefining, nonrestrictive pronoun.

The wand that Harry selected was made of the same wood as that which belonged to his archenemy, Voldemort. (specific; tells which one)

Harry selected a mangrove root, which had a head of triple leaves. (Adds a fact about the only root in question)

very: Use this word sparingly; can usually be done without.

It was a very interesting performance.

Better as: It was an interesting performance.

Sources: Strunk, William, and E.B. White. The Elements of Style. New York: Longman, 2000. 40-63. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1985.
The “Snapshot Method” for Formulating/Revising Argumentative Essays

The “Snapshot Method” is a useful tool for structuring and revising papers that rely on a logical progression of ideas in order to persuade readers. The idea is to summarize each paragraph of your paper in one concise sentence, then string these “snapshots” together in a single paragraph. This condensed paragraph is a bit like an “abstract” of your paper. Reading the paragraph should give someone a clear indication of how your argument evolves over the entire paper, and may suggest places where you can either expand or cut back in order to make your argument clearer. Use the five steps below to revise a paper draft, or use steps 1-4 to construct a basic outline for a paper.

1. In three or four sentences, write a summary of your paper’s primary claim.

2. For each paragraph of your paper, write one concise sentence that summarizes the main point of that paragraph. String these “snapshot” sentences together to create one paragraph. The paragraph should look like a general abstract of your paper—i.e., readers should be able to read this paragraph and get a good sense of your argument. Underline your main claim. Identify the “snapshot” sentences that provide support for that claim by labeling them with an “s”.

3. Look at the “snapshot” paragraph you have constructed. Does your argument flow from one “snapshot” to the next? Have you diverged from your initial, primary claim? Have you skipped a “step” in the development of your argument? Disregarding minor inconsistencies, write down any major logical disjunctions that occur between these “snapshot” sentences.

4. Compare your “snapshot” paragraph with the paragraph you wrote in Step 1. Does your “snapshot” paragraph accurately represent what you intended to argue? How does it differ? Note the specific differences between the two paragraphs here.

5. Look at your essay draft and compare the “snapshot” sentences you’ve written to their respective paragraphs. Below, note any information in each paragraph that can be cut. Also, note any information that needs to be added in order to make the main point of the paragraph readily apparent to your readers. Identify one sentence from each paragraph of your paper that could be improved in terms of grammar, style, or logical unity.
Research Paper Checklist

Use this checklist to review a first draft or revised draft of a paper, making sure that all relevant boxes are checked before you turn in your work.

1. Opening Paragraph or Introduction □ The first sentence draws attention to a general issue, problem, or question. □ Titles and author names for the primary texts under consideration are provided. □ Book/play/movie titles are italicized; titles of shorter works appear inside quotation marks. □ Relevant or necessary background information on primary text(s) is included. □ A general outline or “road map” of the argument is provided. □ The introduction concludes with a strong but arguable claim statement that connects to the general issue, problem or question defined above.
2. Body Paragraphs □ Each body paragraph clearly establishes / argues one (and only one) specific point. □ Each body paragraph includes a strong, often arguable topic sentence that clearly articulates what the paragraph will be about, or advances a particular point that will be addressed in the paragraph. □ Each body paragraph that requires textual evidence for support includes at least (a minimum of) two quoted passages from the relevant text(s) that support the main idea in the topic sentence. □ Quoted passages from primary and secondary sources are used in a way that supports the topic sentence, with commentary that connects the quote to the claim made in the topic sentence. □ All quoted passages are properly introduced and attributed in a way that flows smoothly and is grammatically correct. □ All quoted passages are properly cited using MLA format. □ Each body paragraph ends with an arguable concluding sentence that draws a conclusion from the evidence presented and which ties back to the primary
claim. □ Each body paragraph conforms logically to the “road map” provided in the introduction.

3. Conclusion □ The paper’s main argument is clearly summed up. □ One or more specific conclusions are drawn from the analyses in the body section, and these conclusions are clearly articulated. □ The “stakes” of the argument are clearly articulated; the argument is correlated with an important “real-world” issue.

4. Proofreading □ The title adequately reflects the paper’s central argument/topic and, if relevant, names specific texts/authors under consideration. □ The Works Cited page is alphabetized and conforms to MLA format. □ Font, margins, headings, headers, paragraph indents and spacing all conform to MLA format or teacher instruction. □ Paper has been proofread and is free of spelling, punctuation, and grammar errors.
Key to Microsoft Word Instructor Comments

? = I don’t understand this. The meaning of the words is not clear, the logic is flawed, or the details don’t match up with something else you’ve said.

¶ = paragraph. “New ¶” means that you have packed too much into one paragraph and should break it into two or more paragraphs. Remember, a paragraph should only have one topic—if the topic changes, you need a new paragraph.

adv. = unnecessary adverb. This means you have used an adverb to modify a verb in a way that actually weakens your prose and/or doesn’t add meaning to your sentence.

AWK = Awkward sentence structure or phrase. In other words, the way you have structured your sentence makes it confusing and difficult to understand. Fixing this will often require moving phrases or clauses around or making two sentences out of one.

conf. = confusing. Often this refers to the sentence structure or clarity of expression.

cs = comma splice. A comma splice is a type of “run-on sentence” wherein two complete sentences are joined by a comma. A sentence (no matter how long it is) must convey only one complete thought. If you have two complete thoughts in the same sentence, you must either use a semicolon (if the two ideas are related), or split them into two sentences.

frag. = sentence fragment; incomplete sentence. Occasionally, it’s OK to use fragments for effect, as when you want to really stress that sentence or idea or vary the rhythm of your prose. I point out fragments when they aren’t obvious stylistic choices—i.e., when they are just bad grammar. Sentence fragments yield choppy sounding prose, and are tiring to read. Make sure you only use fragments in order to create specific effects.

gr = grammar.

Int/Att = Introduce and attribute your quoted passage to the person or character who wrote or said it. Don’t let quotes “pop in” out of thin air; give your reader some context by using a short phrase in your own words.

logic: Something you have written doesn’t make sense logically or contradicts something you wrote before.

pn = punctuation. This indicates that you need to add, eliminate, or change the punctuation. Most often this will be the lack of or unnecessary use of a comma, or the lack of an apostrophe in a possessive. I will sometimes provide the correct punctuation mark in the comment bubble, but sometimes I’ll simply highlight the error in hopes that you’ll figure out what needs to be done.

ps = plot summary. Avoid simple plot summary; i.e., “telling” your reader “what happens” in a story. Summarize plot briefly when necessary to situate your reader, but always connect this to your own commentary with an arguable statement. Example: When the prince places the shoe on Cinderella’s foot and it fits perfectly, the reader’s belief that good should always triumph over evil is confirmed.

referent = no referent or referent unclear. You have used a pronoun but have not supplied enough information for the reader to understand to what or whom you are referring. Examples: using “she” when there are two or more female characters present; using “it” when there are two or more objects that “it” could refer to.

sing/pl = singular/plural. You have used a singular noun or pronoun with a plural verb form, or vice-versa.

sp = spelling. I won’t be pointing out all spelling errors in your manuscripts (it’s your job to catch them), but I will occasionally highlight or comment on them, especially homonyms or words that your spell checker might not catch.

s/v = subject/verb disagreement. This means you have used a plural verb with a singular subject, or vice-versa.

tense = disagreement in tense. You have used a verb tense that is at odds with the rest of your sentence or paragraph.

tf = title formatting. Titles of longer works (books, movies) should be italicized or underlined; titles of shorter works (short stories, poems, journal articles, book reviews and song titles) should be in quotation marks.

ts = topic sentence. Either your topic sentence is not arguable, or it does not tell readers what your paragraph is about. A good topic sentence will put forth an arguable statement that relates to your primary claim in some way, and that you must then “prove” in the paragraph using evidence (often textual evidence) and commentary. Poor topic sentences often merely summarize plot points or make an obvious statement (ex.: The protagonist of James’ novel Daisy Miller is an American living in Europe), or offer some vague, generalized argument that doesn’t relate to the primary claim or text (ex.: It is human nature to strive for recognition by others).

unclear = unclear as stated. Either I can’t tell what you mean, or I can figure out what you mean, but it is not clear from the way you’ve written it.

wc = word choice. Either you have used a word that doesn’t mean what you intended it to mean, or the word you have chosen is too imprecise or vague for the context.

who?: This could mean that you need to indicate who is speaking, or you have used a pronoun like he, she, etc. without explaining who you are talking about.

X = cut this unnecessary word, phrase, or punctuation. Generally means that these words can be removed without any loss of meaning in your sentence.
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Strategies for Revision

▪ Editing your paper is different from revising it. Editing your paper for grammar, spelling, punctuation errors, etc. is important—but it is not enough to demonstrate “substantial and successful revision.”

▪ Revision means stepping back, re-conceptualizing your paper, and making adjustments to improve the persuasiveness of it. Your goal with revision should be to analyze what has been said (in your earlier draft) and decide what could be said (in a revised draft).

▪ The written feedback you’ve received on your paper from your teacher is a good place to start when deciding how to revise your paper—but remember, these are only suggestions; they are made rather hastily due to time constraints, and they are certainly not to be considered the “only” issues you need to address to get a good grade.

▪ Imagine yourself as a “fresh” reader and re-read your paper. 1. Claims: Is your claim clearly stated? Could it be made clearer? 2. Continuity: Are the sub-sections of your paper (the points your make in the process of “proving” your claim) tied back to your primary claim at appropriate points? 3. Sentence-Level Clarity: Try reading your paper aloud (or certain parts of it). What “sounds” off to you? If it doesn’t sound right when spoken aloud, the writing is probably not clear enough. 4. Paragraphs: Does each paragraph focus on one specific idea or aspect of your claim? Do the paragraphs develop your ideas in a logical progression, with each new idea or conclusion built on what came before? Are the transitions between paragraphs or ideas clear enough to cue the reader as to the logical progression of ideas?

▪ Types of Adjustments 1. Structural adjustments (moving paragraphs, adjusting the “flow”, establishing a logical progression of ideas, etc.) 2. Focus adjustments (fixing unnecessary digressions, off-topic material, misunderstandings of textual sources, etc.) 3. Additional research (strengthening your argument with more “evidence”, engaging the work of other authors, etc.) 4. Doing “more” with the topic (expanding scope of research, addressing blind spots, potential counterarguments, etc.)
Paper Grading Rubric

Outstanding Paper (A)

This paper exhibits outstanding proficiency in all four outcomes categories–rhetorical strategy, research/textual analysis, argument, and revision/proofreading–outweighing its few weaknesses. The paper offers an outstanding demonstration of all four course outcomes through a highly proficient and skillful handling of the traits associated with them. The central argument is clearly presented and is well supported by evidence, discussion, and good transitions. The stakes of the argument are articulated and insightfully explored. The outstanding paper will likely demonstrate some appropriate risk-taking and originality, and will usually use more than the minimum number of secondary sources. The manuscript will be properly formatted and proofread so as to be nearly error-free.

Strong Paper (B+ to A-)

The strong paper exhibits strengths clearly outweighing weaknesses, but may show somewhat less proficiency in one or two of the outcomes categories. The paper, although slightly less consistent in demonstrating the course outcomes, nonetheless offers a strong demonstration of effectiveness in many traits associated with the outcomes, handling a variety of tasks successfully. This paper engages the material and follows the assignment given, but may risk less than the outstanding paper. The central argument is clearly presented, but use of evidence, discussion, and transitions may not be as proficient as the outstanding paper. The stakes of the argument may not be articulated, or they may not be explored with enough depth. The paper may use more than the minimum number of secondary sources, though perhaps with less effectiveness. The manuscript may suffer slightly from formatting and proofreading errors.

Good Paper (B- to B)

The good paper also exhibits strengths outweighing weaknesses, but may show less strength in two of the outcomes categories. The paper effectively demonstrates the course outcomes, but with less proficiency and control. The paper usually will not display the appropriate risk-taking and creativity of the strong and outstanding papers, perhaps simply restating ideas from class discussions. A central argument is evident, but is perhaps not clearly presented. Evidence, discussion, and transitions are probably not handled with the proficiency and control of the strong and outstanding papers. The stakes of the argument are not adequately articulated or explored. The paper likely uses the bare minimum of secondary material, and the manuscript likely has a significant number of formatting and proofreading errors.

Acceptable Paper (C to C+)

The acceptable paper is competent, demonstrating that the course outcomes are basically met, but the traits associated with them are not as fully realized or controlled. Strengths and weaknesses are about evenly balanced. Parts of the paper may be underdeveloped, too general, off-point, or confusing. Key steps in constructing an academic argument may be missing. While demonstrating knowledge of the primary text(s) under consideration, this paper typically will not display strong academic argumentation skills or control over revision, editing, and proofreading. Stakes of the argument are not considered, and use of secondary material is at the bare minimum required. The manuscript likely suffers from too many formatting and proofreading errors. There may be moments of excellence, but in general the paper simply meets the basic demands of the course outcomes.

Inadequate Paper (F to C-)

A paper will be inadequate when it shows serious deficiencies in three or more of the four course outcomes. Significant portions of the paper are likely too general, off-point, confusing, or incomprehensible. The writing is difficult to understand and may wander from topic to topic with no clear structure. The paper is likely marred by a large number of typos and formatting errors. The paper either lacks a central argument, or the writing is so unclear that the central argument cannot be pinpointed. The paper indicates that the student may need more time to be able to handle the demands of both academic reading and writing as characterized in the course outcomes and associated traits.

Incomplete Paper (F)

The incomplete paper covers the range from no paper turned in (0.0) to the paper that includes only part of the required work, such as a paper that does not meet the minimum page length requirements.
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[1] For your convenience, MLA-style citations for the textbook essay readings have been provided here (in the order we will read them, not in alphabetical order as they would appear on an Annotated Bibliography or a Works Cited page). Note the 12-point Times New Roman font, title formats, double-spacing, and hanging indent of .5 inch.

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Paper Final
Draft
(Week 4)

Paper
1st Draft
(Week 3)

Annotated
Bibliography
(Week 1)

Project
Proposal
(Week 2)

Audience

Speaker

Subject