English Topics

Educational system in Great Britain
There are three main school systems in GB.
The comprehensive system introduced in the 1960s is the most popular in England and Wales. It consists of a primary school (children go there at the age of five) and upper school ( at the age of 11). Alternatively, child may go to a middle school for three or four years before going to the upper school. Children go from one school to another without taking any exams and without being selected according to their abilities.
The selective system where children are selected for certain schools according to their ability, is the oldest in Britain. After primary school they take an examination called the 11-plus. Those who are successful go to a grammar school, where they receive a more academic education. Those who fail the exam go to the secondary modern school, where they receive an education which is less academic, and more intended to train them for a job when they leave at the age of 16.
About 7 % of children go to very expensive private school . It has three levels – primary school (age four to eight), preparatory schools (8 to 11) and public schools where children go after an examination and they remain there until they are 18. Many preparatory and most public schools are boarding schools – the children live at there during the school term.
Within the three systems, there are several varieties of schools. For instance, you can find: a)schools for boys only; b) schools for girls only; c) mixed schools; and voluntary schools – often with religious background.
At the age of 16 pupils take the examinations of General Certificate of Secondary Education. It consists of the most common subjects: English, history, geography, French, German, Mathematics, chemistry, physics and biology. Those who have passed their GCSE may remain at school for another two years at Advanced level.
Pupils need “A” levels to enter a university. About a third of 16-year olds choose a college of further education. Universities and colleges of higher education accept students with “A” levels from 18. About 90 per cent of students receive grants from public or private funds.
University first-degree courses usually last three or four years. The first degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science is awarded for good results at the end of the course. Further study or research is required for the degree of Master. It is required at all universities for the degree of Doctor.
Some of courses in technological universities, Concentrated on science and technology known as sandwich courses. It combines academic study with training in industry. They also provide courses in other subjects such as social studies and modern languages.
The usual method of university instruction is combination of lectures, tutorials and seminars. Individual tuition is given at tutorials. While seminars are a form of group teaching.

Educational system in Russia
Russia has a long-quality education for all citizens. It probably has one of the best mass-education systems in the world producing a literacy rate (98%) exceeding most Western European countries. Education is split into a compulsory Basic Education, and ongoing Higher Education.
The right to education is stated in the constitution of the Russian Federation. It`s insured by compulsory secondary schools, vocational schools and higher education establishment. It is also ensured by the development of extramural and evening courses and the system of state scholarship and grants.
Education in Russia is compulsory up to the 9th form inclusive. After graduation from the 9th grade, which is compulsory for all Russian citizens, a pupil obtains a Certificate of incomplete Secondary Education. If a pupil of secondary school wishes to go on in higher education, he or she must stay at school for two more years. Primary and secondary school together comprise 11 years of study. Every school has a “core curriculum” of academic subjects.
The other way to complete the secondary education is to pursue an associate degree at a Community College. It takes three to four years to complete but provides a pupil with educational qualification that is sufficient for most blue-collar jobs.
After obtaining a Certificate of Complete Secondary Education a student can enter a university or a Community College. At a community College with complete secondary education can obtain an Assosiate Degree in one or two years. A student can choose a program of higher education with a duration of four to six years. A student can choose a program of higher education with a duration of four to six years. There are three different degrees that are conferred by Russian universities: Bachelor`s Degree (4 years), Specialist`s Degree (5-6 years), and Masters Degree (6 years). Bachelors and Masters degrees were introduced relatively recently; they did not exist during the Soviet period. Even now they are not offered by many six-year institutions. Many universities have evening and extramural departments. They give their students an opportunity to study without leaving their jobs.
After obtaining a specialist`s or Master`s degree, a student may enter a university or a scientific institute to pursue postgraduate education. The first level of postgraduate education is aspirantura that usually results in the Kandidat nauk degree. The seeker should pass three exams (in his special field, in a foreign language of his choice, and in history and philosophy of since), publish at least three scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, write a dissertation and defend it. After graduation a student may continue postgraduate education. From 2 to 4 years of study in doctorantura with obtaining important scientific results, publishing therm and writing new thesis would result in the Doctor Nauk degree, but the typical way is working in a university or scientific, institute with parallel preparation of a thesis. The average time between obtaining Kandidat and Doctor degrees is roughly 10 years, and most of new Doctors are 40 and more years old. Only 1 of 4 Kandidates reaches this grade.
Higher educational establishments are headed by rectors. Protectors are in charge of academic and scientific work. An institute or a university has a number of faculties, each specializing councils which confer candidate and doctoral degrees.
The system of higher and secondary education in Russia is going through a transititional period. The main objectives of the reforms are: to decentralize the higher education system, to develop a new financial mechanism, to give more academic freedom to faculties and students.

Educational System in the USA
The American system of education differs from the systems of other countries. There are free public schools which the majority of American children attend. There are also a number or private schools where a fee is charged. Education is compulsory for every child from the age of 6 up to the age of 16 except in some states, where children must go to school until the age of 17 or 18.
There is no single governmental agency to prescribe for the American school system, different types of organization and of curriculum are tried out.
The general pattern of education in the USA is an eight-year elementary school, followed by a four-year high school. This has been called 8—4 plan organization. It is proceeded, in many localities, by nursery schools and kindergartens. It is followed by a four-year college and professional schools. This traditional pattern, however, has been varied in many different ways. The 6—3— 3 plan consists of a six-year elementary school, a three-year junior high school, and a three-year senior high school. Another variation is a 6—6 plan organization, with a six-year elementary school followed by a six-year secondary school.
Students enter the first grade at the age of six and attendance is compulsory in most states until the age of sixteen or until the student has finished the eighth grade.
Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. During the four-year high school program the student studies four or five major subjects per year. In addition, the student usually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times a week. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation.
The high school prepares young people either to work immediately after graduation or for more advanced study in a college or university. An important part of high school life is extra-curricular activities, they include band or school orchestra, sports and other social activities.
After graduating from secondary schools a growing number of Americans go on to higher education. The students do not take the same courses. During the first two years they follow a basic programme. It means that every student must select at least one course from each of the basic fields of study: English, Natural sciences, Modern languages, History or Physical education. After the first two years every student can select subjects according to his professional interest.
There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Instead, there are separate institutions ranging from colleges to universities. They may be small or large, private or public, highly selective or open to all. The National Government gives no direct financial aid to the institutions of higher education. Students must pay a tuition fee. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. This creates a finantial hardship for some people. Many of the students have to work to pay their expenses. Americans place a high value on education.
In general, higher education in the USA may be divided into two broad fields: liberal arts and professional. Each of these fields may be further subdivided into undergraduate and graduate levels. The liberal arts program, on the undergraduate level, may be a two-year junior college course, or a four-year course leading to a degree of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science. The four-year course is usually subdivided into a lower division (which may be called the junior college), consisting of the two first years, and the upper division, which is the last two years. The first two years continue the general education and specialization begins in the third year.

The profession of a teacher

There are a lot of professions and people surrender (попасть под влияние ) themselves wholly to these vocations. Undoubtedly, the profession of a teacher is one of them. To be a good teacher is not an easy task. Teaching is a very difficult job of great responsibility (ответственность) and most specific character. The most important qualities of it are love for children, an ability to communicate with them, understand and teach them. People say, that an ability to be a genuine (настоящий) teacher is God's gift. It is a talent and it's even more, it's fate (судьба).

There is a wide variety of work in teaching. A teacher is not only a communicator (носитель) of knowledge but a model of competence (o6paзeu компетентности). He forms attitudes (cnoco6нocть, склонность) to his subject and attitudes to learning. He becomes himself a symbol of education process. He is a person who is learning as well as teaching. While working and communicating with children a teacher studies them closely. Thus a good teacher always regards (считаться, принимать во внимание) capacities his pupils have. That's why he discovers their interests, their strengths, their weakness, their needs and abilities. After that the teacher builds his work and tries to temper (peгулировать) his teaching methods to children's abilities and attitudes. A good teacher is like a sculptor. He moulds (формировать) a personality of a child like a sculptor creates a beautiful statue out of clay. The teacher takes an active part in shaping (создавать, формировать) child's character, fostering (воспитывать) honesty, kindness, loyalty (верность, преданность), cooperation and respect for ideals.

Qualities of heart and head go together in the making of a good teacher. His whole attitude is optimistic and cheerful. He doesn't pretend to be omniscient (всеведующий), but is lively (активный), keen (энергичный) and receptive (восприимчивый). Such teacher enjoys his work and shares (разделять, участвовать) with his pupils their zest (интерес, склонность) for new discoveries.
"Climate" of a classroom depends on the nature of personal relationships between a teacher and his pupils. Creating a good atmosphere in class is that everybody in it respects everybody. Out of his daily contacts with children comes the understanding on which a genuine teacher relies.
The profession of a teacher combines obligations (обязательство, долг) and difficulties, great learning (эрудиция) and responsibility joy (радость, удовольствие) and sorrow (грусть, печаль), happiness and satisfaction.

Those who have inclination (иметь наклонность) to this profession choose it. In Russia there are more than 250 teachers training colleges and universities. Six of them are in Moscow. Every year thousands of young people graduate from these colleges to come to school on September 1st. According to a survey (обследование), more than 70 per cent of students enter these colleges by their own choice. It is well-known to them what difficult and sometimes ungrateful (неблагодарный) work is waiting for them after receiving their diplomas. In the process of education 60 per cent of students are not sorry about their choice of profession because it's their vocation to work with children.

In connection with the reform Russia's school and teachers are now solving (процесс решения) its basic task — to ensure personality — centered education (личностно-ориентированное образование). Their aim is to develop pupils' lively, enquiring (осведомляться, наводить справки) minds, their ability to question and argue (спорить) rationally. Teachers help pupils to acquire (приобретать, покупать) understanding, knowledge and skills relevant (уместный, относящийся к делу) to adult (взрослый, зрелый) life and the world of adult activity in a rapid1y changing environment. Russian teachers try to develop their personal, moral values and respect for religious values and tolerance of other races. Pupils have to appreciate (ценить, быть признательным) human achievements (достижение, успех) and aspirations (стремление). Today school becomes a place of work and play, of living and learning.

to surrender – попасть под влияние responsibility-ответственность communicator - носитель genuine –настоящий fate - судьба model of competence - o6paзeu компетентности to regard — считаться, принимать во внимание to temper - peгулировать attitude - cnoco6нocть, склонность to mould — формировать to shape – создавать, формировать to foster – воспитывать loyalty- верность, преданность omniscient – всеведующий lively- активный keen — энергичный receptive – восприимчивый shares- разделять, участвовать zest — интерес, склонность obligations- обязательство, долг great learning – эрудиция joy- радость, удовольствие sorrow-грусть, печаль to have inclination – иметь наклонность survey — обследование ungrateful - неблагоджарный solving- процесс решения personality-centered education – личностно-ориентированное образование enquiring – осведомляться, наводить справки argue – спорить acquire –приобретать, покупать skills -навыки relevant — уместный, относящийся к делу adult – взрослый, зрелый appreciate- ценить, быть признательным achievements-достижение, успех aspiration - стремление

Political system of Russia

The Russian Federation republic or the Russian Federative is set up by the Constitution of 1993. Under the Constitution Russia is a presidential republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative (законодательный), executive (исполнительный), judicial (судебный). Each branch is checked and balanced by President.

The President is commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Russia. He makes treaties (международные договоры), enforces (проводить в жизнь) laws and appoints (назначает) ministers.

But the ministers appointed must be approved by the Federal Assembly. The Federal Assembly represents the Legislative branch of power. It consists of two chambers . The Upper Chamber is the Council of Federation; the Lower Chamber is the State Duma.

The Federal Assembly is also called the Parlamrnt, but it's not its official name. Both chambers are headed by chairmen (председатель) sometimes called speakers. The State Duma consists of 450 deputies (one half is elected personally by the population, and the other half consists of the deputies who are appointed by their parties after voting ). The members of the Federation Counsil are elected on a different basis. There are two representatives of each subject of the RF (89 subjects).

Legislature may be initiated in either of two Chambers. But to become a law a bill must be approved by both Chambers and signed by the President. The President can veto laws passed by the Federal Assembly, but it can pass laws over the President's veto a two-thirds majority.

The executive power belongs to the Government which is headed by the Prime minister. When the Prime Minister has been appointed his duty is to form the Cabinet.

The judicial branch is represented by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the regional courts. The responsibility of the Constitutional Court is to analyse the new laws to make sure they correspond to the laws of the state. The Constitutional Court has the right to declare actions of the President, the Federal Assembly and the Federal Government unconstitutional. The Supreme Court is the highest instance for civil and criminal cases.

The members of the Federal Assembly are elected by popular vote for four year term in office (срок нахождения в должности). The president appoints the date of election and the Federal Assembly should approve it. The president is elected every four years by popular direct secret ballot (тайное голосование).

Today the state symbol of Russia is a three-coloured banner . It has 3 horizontal stripes: white, blue and red. The white stripe symbolizes the earth, the blue one stand for sky and the red one symbolizes liberty. It replaced the former (прежний) banner in 1991. The hymn of the country is “The Patriotic Song” by M. Glinka. A new national emblem is a two-headed eagle. It is the most ancient symbol of Russia. It belonged to the Ruricovitches.

The Olympic Games
The Olympic Games are one of the most spectacular (театральный) reminders (напоминание) of the debt (долг) we owe to the Greeks.
The original Olympic Games were held every four years in honour of Zeus , the supreme god of Greek religion. The Olympic festival was a great unifying bond between the Independent city-states of Greece.

The modern Olympic era began in 1894 when Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin decided to revive the ancient Greek tradition of celebrating health, youth and peace with a sports festival. Baron de Coubertin created the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the first modem Olympiad took place in Athens (Афины) in 1896. Since then the Olympic Games have been held every four years with only two exceptions because of the two world wars.

Even though the modern Olympic Games embrace the whole world, the connection with Greece is still very strong. A lighted torch (зажженный факел) is brought all the way from Greece, carried by a relay (эстафета) of runners, in order to light the Olympic Flame which bums (выгорает) all through the Games. As in ancient Greek times, the competitors still take the Olympic Oath (клятва) . The long-distance race (бег) is still called the Marathon . Marathon was a village about 26 miles from Athens. In the year 490 BC(birth of Christ) the Greeks defeated a powerful Persian army at that spot. After the fierce (суровый) day's fighting a soldier volunteered to bring news of the victory to the anxious (беспокоящимся) citizens of Athens. He ran all the way and after gasping (судорожно) out the message he died.

One important rule of the Olympic Games is that the competitors must be amateurs (спортсмен-любитель). This rule has been under a lot of pressure in recent years because modem sport is so professional and competitive. Athletes train for years to take part in the Olympics and some countries spend much more than others on equipment and facilities. But despite (вопреки) these pressures, the amateur rule remains (сохраняется).

In modern times the Olympic movement has become an enormous (грандиозный) and expensive organisation, It's controlled by the International Olympic Committee, which consists of members from all the participating countries. The IOC is based in Lausanne (Лозанна), Switzerland. It chooses the locations of both summer and winter games (both take place once every four years, with winter games half a year before summer Olympiads). It also controls the rules of the competitions and selects new Olympic sports. The famous flag (знамя) of the IOC shows five rings of different colours linked together. The rings represent the five continents.

US economy

The United States is rich in natural resources, the main being iron ore(железная руда), coal (каменный уголь) and oil. The nation produces more than 100 million tons of iron a year. Four fifths of the ore mined (добытый) in the USA comes from the Great Lakes region . Though a great deal of the ore has been used up, its resources have not been exhausted (истощен). Most of the coal mined in the USA is used by power plants (электростанции) to produce electricity. Coal is also used in the chemical industries for the manufacture of plastics (пластмассы) and other synthetics. The production, processing' (обработка) and marketing (продажа) of such oil products as petrol make up one of America's largest industries.

The basic metals and minerals mined in the United States are zinc, copper (медь) and silver(серебро). Some of the main crops grown in the USA are wheat (пшеница), maize (кукуруза), cotton, tobacco and fruit.

Cattle breeding (животноводство) and pig raising make up an important branch (отрасль) of America's agriculture. To make the farmer's work more productive scientific methods of farming are employed (применяются) and modern technique of freezing (приемы замораживания), canning (консервирования) and packing farm products is used.

The United States is an industrial country with various branches of heavy industry prevailing, namely (а именно), the mining, metallurgical, automobile and chemical industries as well as engineering. Many branches of light industry are also developed, among them are the textile, food and woodworking (деревообрабатывающая) industries.

The leading US exports are industrial machinery (промышленное машинное оборудование), electronic equipment, armaments (вооружение), grain (зерновые культуры), oil products and chemicals.

American industry is distributed unevenly (распределенный неравномерно). Originally most of the industrial enterprises were located in the eastern part of the country. But industry was spreading out (развертывалась) as there was a tendency to build factories far removed from the home plant and closer to natural resources and markets. Good transportation facilities and rapid communicational systems made it possible for the main plants to keep in touch with branch factories.

A great deal of attention was devoted (посвящено) to research (исследование) and the number of scientists and engineers at the plants was steadily (устойчиво) growing. Mechanization and automation did away with (ликвидировало) thousands of office jobs (рабочие места), intensified production and increased labour productivity (увеличило производительность труда).

New industries are created as new discoveries are made in physics, chemistry and other sciences. Atomic energy, for instance, has created a wide range of new industries. Electronics has become a major industry.

Rapid development of communication means (средства сообщения) has facilitated1(облегчило) cooperation and control but increased (усилило) competition. Competition is a struggle for survival (борьба за выживание), victory being on the side of professionals. Special emphasis (акцент) is being laid on management training. A great number of schools and colleges are training young people to become industrial leaders.

Exhausted - истощен power plants - электростанции plastics - пластмассы processing' - обработка' marketing – продажа maize - кукуруза branch - отрасль methods of farming are employed – применяются методы ведения фермерского хозяйства technique of freezing – приемы замораживания canning - консервирования namely – а именно woodworking industry – деревообрабатывающая промышленность industrial machinery – промышленное машинное оборудование armaments - вооружение grain – зерновые культуры distributed unevenly - распределенный неравномерно spreading out – распространилось far removed далеко удаленный devoted - посвящено research – на исследование steadily- устойчиво did away with- ликвидировало office jobs - рабочие места increased labour productivity – увеличило производительность труда

British economy

Britain lives by manufacture and trade. For every person employed (используемый, задействованный) in agriculture eleven people are employed in mining, manufacturing and building. The United Kingdom is one of the world's largest exporters of manufactured goods per head of population.

Apart from coal and iron ore Britain has very few natural resources and mostly depends on imports. Its agriculture provided (обеспечивает) only half the food it needs. The other half and most of the raw materials for its industries such as oil and various metals (copper (медь), zinc, uranium ore and others) have to be imported. Britain also has to import timber (древесина), cotton, fruit and farm products.
Britain used to be richly forested, but most of the forests were cut down to make more room for cultivation. The greater part of land is used for cattle and sheep breeding and pig raising. Among the crops grown on the farms are wheat, barley (ячмень) and oats (овес). The fields are mainly in the eastern part of the country. Most of the farms are small. Farms tend to be bigger where the soil is less fertile (плодородный).

In the past century Britain secured a leading position in the world as manufacturer, merchant and banker. After World War I the world demand for the products of Britain's traditional industries — textiles, coal and machinery — fell off, and Britain began expanding trade in new engineering products and electrical goods.

Britain produces high quality expensive goods, which has always been characteristic of its industry. A shortage (нехватка) of raw materials, as well as the high cost of production makes it unprofitable for British industry to produce semi-finished goods (полуфабрикаты) or cheap articles (дешевые изделия). Britain mostly produces articles requiring skilled labour (требующий квалифицированного труда), such as precision instruments (точные приборы), electronic equipment, chemicals and high quality consumer goods (товары широкого потребления). Britain produces and exports cotton and woollen goods, leather goods (изделия из кожи), and articles made of various kinds of synthetic materials.

The original basis of British industry was coal-mining, and the early factories grew up not far from the main mining areas. Glasgow and Newcastle became great centres of engineering and shipbuilding. Lancashire produced cotton goods and Yorkshire produced woollens, with Sheffield concentrating on iron and steel. Birmingham developed light engineering. There appeared a tendency for industry and population to move to the south, particularly to the London area. (Britain's industry is now widely dispersed (рассредоточена).) Great progress was made in the development of new industries, such as the aircraft, automobile, electronic industries and others. A number of atomic power reactors were made. Great emphasis was laid on the development of the war industry.

employed - используемый, задействованный provided - обеспечивает the food it needs – необходимых продуктов питания copper - медь timber - древесина cattle - рогатый скот

barley - ячмень oats - овес fertile - плодородный shortage - нехватка semi-finished goods - полуфабрикаты cheap articles - дешевые детали requiring skilled labour – требующий квалифицированного труда precision instruments – точные приборы consumer goods – товары широкого потребления leather goods – изделия из кожи steel- сталь dispersed - рассредоточена

Economy in Russian
Russia is reach in natural resources. In the past few years Russia tries to remove from a centrally controlled economy to a market economy. In spite of decline Russia has various branches of industry, such as metallurgical, automobile and chemical industry.

Russia is divided on 11 economic regions such as: North, North west, central part, West Siberia, East Siberia, the Far East and others. Russian machine building industry provides most of the Federations requirement for steam boilers and turbines ,electric generators, grain combines, automobiles and electric locomotives and machine tools, instruments and automation components. Important automobile factories are located in Moscow, Н.Новгород, Ярославль and Ижевск. Russian textile industry are heavily concentrated in the European sector especially in the central region.

Russian agriculture is not so developed. But some of the main crops grown on the South are wheat and fruits, on the North are wheat, barley, oats and vegetables.

Cattle breeding and pig raising make up an important branch of Russian agriculture. Forests is a very important branch of Russian economy. Russian resources is sold as the raw materials. We have to use our resources more effectively. It is necessary to employ of manufacturing.

The ecological problems of Kamchatka About two hundred years ago a man lived in harmony with nature, because industry was not so highly developed. Today the contradictions between a man and nature are dramatic. Now the industrially developed states cannot ignore the problem of invironment protection. It has become a part of political programmes in many countries, including Russian Federation. The problem of Kamchatka ecology is faced by Kamchatka`s scientists, and by the international committee”Gore-Chernomyrdin” which decides ecological items of Russian Far-East. Ecological situation in Kamchatka comparing (сравнивая)to the other industrialized regions is rather favourable (благоприятная). Kamchatka region nature ecosystems practically are not drawn into the human economic activity and still are kept undamaged all over the region except some local areas where the majority of the population is concentrated. The territory of Petropavlovsk-Elizovo agglomeration is the most polluted zone. Here we have typical for urban (городской) territories pollution`s of air, water, ground, degradation of soils on agricultural ranges (зона), concentration of industrial waste (отходы) and garbage. Technological impacts (воздействие) represent the real threat (угроза) for unique (уникальный) bioresource potential as well as for rare (редкий) and endangers (под угрозой опасности) plant (растениям) and animal species (разновидности) of Kamchatka peninsula. Many of them have been written into the “Red Book of nature”. One of the most beautiful and convenient bays of the world - The Avacha Bay, now is spoiled (испорчен) by the town waste, oil products and harmful (вредный) garbage of the fleet (флота) . The bay became a natural recipient (резервуар)of various polluting (загрязняющих) substances , which receive economic –house-hold and industrial waste. The Avacha Bay and the shelf of Kamchatka used to be most productive fishery region of Kamchatka up to the latest years. To improve (совершенствовать) the sanitary conditions of the bay waters, as well as to provide ecological safety (безопасность) at the territory of Petropavlovsk-Elizovo agglomeration (городской комплекс) a complex of expensive nature protection measures should be made. The preservation (сохранение) in Kamchatka of high quality of water is of great importance not only for fishery and marine products supply but for participation (участия) in the formation of food balance of the mankind. But some positive steps to keep nature of Kamchatka have been already made. Kamchatka region has recreational (восстановительные) resources corresponding to the world standarts and also the region has vast (широкий) wild nature territories which are not touched by civilization. There is the programme of creating of the system of specially protected areas in Kamchatka region. No doubt that state should carry out special policy and invest much money in nature protecting programmes, but such programmes can not be of great use if we do not change people`s attitude (позиция) towards (по отношению) the biosphere.

The Political System of the USA

The USA is a presidential Republic.

The legislative branch of the US Government, or the Congress, represents all of the American states. It consists of two parts: the House of Representatives and the Senate . Each state has two senators, who are elected every 6 years. A senator must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for 9 years, and live in the state she or he will represent. A representative must be at least 25 years old, a citizen for 7 years, and live in the state.

The job of the Congress is to make laws. The President can veto a bill. The Congress can pass the law anyway if it gets a two-thirds majority vote. The Congress can also declare war. The House of Representatives can also impeach the President. This means that the House can charge (обвинить) the President with a crime (преступление). In this case, the Senate will put the President on trial (судебное разбирательство). The Senate votes to approve the justices (члены суда) that the President appoints to the Supreme Court.

The executive branch of the government puts the country's laws into effect (силу). The President of the United States is a member of the executive branch. The President must be at least 35 years old, and be a natural citizen of the USA. In addition, he must have lived in the US for at least 14 years, and be a civilian. The President is elected every four years and cannot serve more than two terms. The Vice-President of the USA is president of the Senate. When the President receives a bill from the Congress, he must sign it, and then the bill becomes a law. However, if he disagrees with the law, he can veto it. The President can also ask the Congress to declare war. He also appoints the justices to the Supreme Court. He must do his job according to the Constitution, or he may be impeached.

The judicial branch of the government is the system of courts in the United States. Its job is to enforce laws. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country. It consists of 9 justices: one Chief Justice and 8 associate justices. The President appoints the justices, but the Senate must approve them. The justices are appointed for life. The Supreme Court makes sure that people obey (повиноваться) the laws. The Supreme Court can also decide if a law is constitutional, that is, if it is in agreement with the Constitution. The judicial branch works together with the legislative and executive branches to protect the Constitution and the rights of people.

The British Museum

London is one of the biggest world centres of culture and art. There are quite a number of different museums and art galleries there. The British Museum is one of the greatest and best known museums in the world, which was founded in 18-th century. There are eleven major departments in the museum, that contain the Egyptian, the Greek and Roman, the Assirian and Babylonian antiquities. Extremely (чрезвычайно) interesting are its ethnological collections including exhibits from the Pacific Islands, the American and African civilizations. Examples of Chinese, Japanese and Indian art forms represent Oriental Art (восточное искусство). There is also a notable collection of items from all the countries of Europe. The British Museum is also known for its library which is the greatest and most famous in Britain.
Among other museums of London that attract visitors are the Natural History Museum, the Museum of British Transport, the Museum of London and Madame Tussaud's Museum of Waxworks.
The best known art galleries of London are the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery and the Tate. The National Gallery which is in Trafalgar Square, contains Britain's famous collection of pictures. It is also rich in paintings by such Italian masters as Raphael and Veronese, and contains pictures representing all European schools of art. Admission (вход) to the Gallery is free, as to other British national galleries and museums.
The National Portrait Gallery stands just behind the National Gallery. It contains portraits of British monarchs and of historical celebrities (известные люди) such as Chaucer, Shakespeare and Cromwell.
The Tate or the National Gallery of British Art, represents English artists and modern pictures and sculptures by foreign artists. The Tate Gallery is very popular with the young people.
The Metropolitan Museum is by now probably the richest museum in the world in painting and other objects of Art, due to what had been bought from Europeans after World War Two. Besides, we can see the works of American painters there.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is the most famous art museum in New York. It has great collection from all over the world.
Washington’s museums and art galleries are among the finest in the world. The Smithsonian Institution consists of museums of similar units in the areas of science, technology, history and art. Several of its museums are on the Mall. The Smithsonian’s best-known scientific bodies include the National Museum of Natural History and the National Air and Space museum.
Radio and TV in the USA

Mass media (that is the press, television and radio) play an important part in the life of society. They inform, educate and entertain people. And first of all mass media shape public opinion.

Millions of Americans in their spare time watch TV and read newspapers. The daily paper dominates family life at breakfast, TV dominates the life of the family most of the time. It is a habit-forming drug impossible to resist. The radio is turned on most of the time, creating a permanent background noise.

On the radio one can hear music, plays, news, and various commentary and discussions called forums. At a forum several authorities exchange views on social, economic and political problems, as well as on books of common interest. A number of sides are represented so that the listeners can hear various opinions. Such broadcasts (радиопередачи, радиовещание) are popular with the listeners.

Various radio and TV games, such as a panel game (радиовикторина) on the radio and a quiz program (телевикторина) on television, also attract a large audience . During a radio panel game the listeners send questions to the studio to be answered by the members of the panel, who compete for the best results. During TV quiz programs the questions are answered by the viewers.

Then there is a daily TV serial known as a soap opera. It is a sentimental drama featuring (показывающая) domestic (семейный) problems of a group of people. Some people find it boring, others consider (рассматривают) it to be good entertainment and relaxation.

There is a lot of advertising on American TV and radio. Most of the TV and radio stations are owned by big corporations. The owners advertise whatever they choose. They sell TV and radio time to commercial firms which buy it to advertise their goods. So most of the TV and radio time is taken up by advertisements. Commercial firms sponsor shows and programs that make people buy their goods. For instance, to attend (принять участие) a show or to take part in a quiz program you have to send to the studio the required (требуемое) number of empty cartons (упаковка), boxes or wrappings (оберток) (depending on what product the sponsoring firm is selling). People are attracted by such programs not only because they provide entertainment. A valuable prize is usually promised for the correct answer to the main question. The sponsoring firm makes a great profit on such programs. The more people attend the show, the greater is the profit of the firm.

Advertising promotes (содействует) business and benefits (приносит выгоду) businessmen but often annoys (раздражает) the general public. According to some critics the immense (огромные) cultural possibilities of American mass media are used mainly for the purpose (цель) of selling people more things that they really need. Freedom of speech, as some critics declare, allows great commercial firms to pull the rest of the people down to their own intellectual level.

But it is hardly (едва ли) fair (честно) to say that American media do not try to raise the cultural level of the people or to develop their artistic taste. Many of the TV programs are excellent, they are made in good taste and with great professional skill. Radio and television bring into millions of homes not only entertainment and news but also cultural and educational programs. Radio stations broadcast about ten thousand hours of musical programs weekly. Many programs are made up almost entirely (всецело) of classical music.

There is a lot of education both on television and radio. For instance, you can take a TV course in history, political economy, management, banking and in many other subjects, or learn a foreign language by TV and radio. Educational TV films and programs are shown at schools and colleges as part of the curriculum.

The opinion that all commercial programs are of little artistic value (непрофессиональны) can also be disputed (оспаривать).

Mass media

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Customs and traditions of Russia

Many great holidays and anniversaries (годовщина) are celebrated in our country. On the 1st of May there is May Day — the holiday of spring and labour (труда) . On the 8th of March there is Women's Day — the holiday of all women and girls. We celebrate Day of Independence of Russia on the 12th June and Day of Russian Constitution on the 12th of December. Now people celebrate some religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter.
There are lots of New Year traditions in Russia. In every home there is a New Year tree glittering with coloured lights and decorations. Children always wait for Father Frost to come and give them a present. Many people consider (рассматривать) New Year's Day to be a family holiday. But the young prefer to have New Year parties of their own. It is a really wonderful holiday. People get ready for this holiday long before it. They buy New Year trees and decorate them. Every year a fairy-tale (сказка) comes to every house and every family on New Year's Eve. Children and even grown-ups wait for this day because they believe that all their wishes and desires (мечта) come true and different wonderful miracles happen on that day.

On New Year' s Eve people get together to see “the old year out and the new year in”. People see the new year in at midnight on the 31st of December. They greet the new year with champagne and listen to the Kremlin chimes (колокола) beating 12 o'clock.
Then they eat tasty food, drink champagne, dance and have a good time together. They wish each other happiness and good luck in the new year and put the presents under the New Year tree. Children like this holiday very much. They wait for New Year presents, which, they believe, Father Frost bring to them. Everybody is merry on that day and wishes the next year to be good and happy and all one's troubles and disappointments to remain in the past.

A renewed (возобновленный) holiday in our country is Christmas. It is celebrated on the 7th of January. It's a religious holiday and a lot of people go to church services (церковная служба) on that day.
On the 8th of March we celebrate Women's Day when men are supposed (предполагается) to do everything about the house and cook all the meals.

THE CINEMA AND THE THEATRE IN USA
When New Yorkers go to the cinema, they expect to see a large program: a newsreel (кинохроника) (which is usually the first item (пункт) on the program), a cartoon (комикс), a documentary and a feature (полнометражный) film. Sometimes two feature films are included in the program. Foreign films are shown with subtitles or are dubbed.

The program may have one or two intervals during which refreshments (закуски) of all kinds are offered. In some American cinemas there is a continuous showing of the program from opening till closing time. In that case the exact time of the shows is not fixed and seats are not reserved. You may enter or leave the hall any time during the show and take any seat you like. Most New York's cinemas are situated on Broadway and in Times Square.

A great number of various films are released (выпускаются) in the USA every year. Hollywood-released films differ in genre as well as in artistic value. Hollywood's early films were westerns; horror films; comedies. Then there were romance films.

Musicals (which like westerns are a wholly American production) are still popular with the cinema-goers.

American films of today are science fiction (научно-фантастический) films, Gangster films, films based on novels and films which deal with historical events. Many of the films raise urgent (актуальные) problems facing contemporary (современный) society and give food for thought.

Most American films are made with great professional skill. Acting and photography are usually excellent. But there are also cheap second-rate films, which critics call stupid, badly written and badly directed.

With the popularity of television, the theatre lost a great deal of its attraction. Besides, theatre tickets are so expensive that the theatre is a luxury.

Not many theatres risk staging serious intellectual plays. Producers avoid them as unprofitable. They are sure that the public will not like them as one goes to the theatre to relax. They think that if people do not expect to be entertained and amused at the theatre, they would rather stay at home.

Most new plays are presented first on Broadway, which is the theatrical district (район) of New York. Plays shown at small theatres off Broadway, though modestly staged, equal (не уступающий) sometimes the best Broadway performances in professional skill.

If a play is a hit, it may have a long run, which is the case with a great number of musicals.

The nation's leading opera and ballet companies are situated in New York in Lincoln Centre for the Performing Arts, which also houses a symphony orchestra, a theatre and a library museum. Touring (путешествующие) ballet companies also perform at Madison Square Garden (which is not a garden but a show place and a stadium ). Classical music can be heard at Carnegie Hall. Films coupled with a stage show may be seen at Radio City Music Hall, one of the world's largest theatres seating over six thousand people.

Travelling

Millions of people all over the world spend their holidays travelling. They travel to see other countries and continents, modern cities and the ruins of ancient towns, they travel to enjoy picturesque places, or just For a change of scene, It is always interesting to discover new things, different ways of life, to meet different people, to try different food, to listen to different musical rhythms.

Those who live in the country like to go to a big city and spend their time visiting museums and art galleries, looking at shop windows and dining at exotic restaurants. City dwellers usually like a quiet holiday by the sea or in the mountains, with nothing to do but walk and bathe and laze in the sun.
Most travellers and holiday-makers take a camera with them and take pictures of everything that interests them-the sights of a city, old churches and castles, views of mountains, lakes, valleys (долина) , plains (равнина) , waterfalls, forests; different kinds of trees, flowers and plants; animals and birds.
Perhaps years later, they will be reminded by the photos of the happy time they have had.
People travel by train, by air, by boat and by car.

All means of travel (способы путешествовать) have their advantages and disadvantages. And people choose one according to their plans and destinations (ожиданиями) .

Of course, travelling by air is the fastest and the most convenient way, but it is the most expensive too. Travelling by train is slower than by plane, but it has its advantages. You can see much more interesting places of the country you are travelling through. Modern trains have -very comfortable seats. There are also sleeping cars and dining cars which make even the longest journey enjoyable. Speed, comfort and safety are the main advantages of trains and planes. That is why many people prefer them to all other means.
Travelling by sea is popular mostly for pleasure trips. On board large ships and small river boats people can visit foreign countries and different places of interest within their own country.

As for me I prefer travelling by car. I think it's very convenient. You needn't reserve your tickets. You needn't carry heavy suitcases. You can stop wherever you wish and spend at any place as much time as you like.

If we are fond of travelling, we see and learn a lot of things that we can never see or learn at home, though we may read about them in books and newspapers, and see pictures of them on TV. The best way to study geography is to travel, and the best way to get to know and understand people is to meet them in their own homes.

Music and its role in the life of the people

Music accompanies us everywhere. Small children hear their mothers' songs when they put them to bed. We hear the music of birds in the gardens and woods. We listen to music on the radio and TV and cassette recorders.
When we grow up, we prefer to listen to music we like. Some people are fond of classical music and attend opera houses and concert halls. They also collect recordings of their favourite singers and orchestras. Others especially young people, are more interested in light and pop music. They frequently go to pop-group concerts and listen to their favourite group. Some of them can play a guitar and like to sing to their friends at parties and gatherings. Many young people, especially students, compose music and write the lyric themselves; they take part in the contests of amateur singers which are very popular.
Specialists explain that music isn't only a combination of pleasant sounds. It is an art which reflects life. There are a lot of different kinds of music. Some of them appeared long ago, and some are modern. For example, folk music appeared long ago, but it is still alive. There are many local performers, choirs and folk groups in Russia; but perhaps the most famous singer is Nadezhda Babkina. Folk songs are very tuneful and pleasant to listen to. Classical music is often associated with the music of the past. However, this style also includes music being written now, and we may speak of modern classical music. Rap is a modern musical style where the singer speaks or shouts the words in time to music with a steady beat. Such groups as Public Enemy or House of Pain are leaders in this style.

There are a lot of music schools and children's choirs in small and big towns, where children learn to play different musical instruments, to sing and to appreciate music. So, besides guitar, piano is also a very popular musical instrument. Folk songs and instruments have always been popular in Russia. Every nationality and ethnic group has its own folk traditions. There are non-professional groups and choirs that perform during national holidays and festivals. The most popular traditionally Russian musical instruments are balalaika and accordion, especially in small towns and villages.
Young people in bigger cities and towns like to spend their free time in disco clubs where they listen to their favourite music and dance. Today everybody has an opportunity to enjoy the kind of music he or she likes best. to accompany — сопровождать woods — лес to attend — посещать recording — запись light music — легкая музыка lyric — слова песни contest — конкурс amateur — самодеятельный choir — хор to appreciate — понимать, ценить folk — народный to perform — исполнять

UK Political System
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. This means that Great Britain is governed by the Parliament and the Queen is Head of State.
The legislative power in the country is exercised by the Houses of Parliament. The British Parliament consists of two chambers the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords is composed of hereditary ] (потомственный) and life peers and peeresses . The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. They are elected from the constituencies (избирательные округа) in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The House of Commons is the real governing (руководящий) body of the United Kingdom
The executive power is exercised by Prime Minister and his Cabinet. The government is usually formed by the political party which is supported by the majority in the House of Commons. Prime Minister is the majority party leader and is appointed by the Queen. Prime Minister chooses a team of ministers; twenty of the ministers are in the Cabinet.
The second largest party becomes the official opposition with its own leader and the Shadow Cabinet. The two leading parties in Great Britain are the Conservative Party (the Tories) and the Labour Party.
The judicial branch of the government determines (определяет, устанавливает) common law and is independent of both the legislative and the executive branches.
There is no written constitution in great Britain, only precedents and traditions.
The present Sovereign is Queen Elisabeth II. Today the Queen isn't only head of the state, but also an important symbol of national unity. In law the Queen is head of the executive and the judicial brunches of the government, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Royalty and the established (признанная) Church of England. The monarchy's absolute power has been progressively reduced (ограничена), the Queen is impartial and acts on the advise of her ministers. The Queen and the Royal family continue to take part in many traditional ceremonies. Their visits to different parts of Britain and to many other countries attract (притягивает) considerable interests and publicity.

Keeping the inviring clean progress and problems
The planet Earth is only a tiny part of the universe, but it's the only place where human beings can live.

People always polluted their surroundings. But until now pollution was not such a serious problem. People Lived in uncrowded rural areas and did not have pollution - causing machines. With the development of crowded industrial cities, which put huge amounts of pollutants into small areas, the problem has become more important. Today our planet is in serious danger. Acid rains, global warming, air and water pollution, and overpopulation are the problems that threaten human life on Earth.

Our forests are disappearing because they are cut down or burnt. If this trend continues one day we won't have enough oxygen to breathe.

The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear waste, chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The Mediterranean is already nearly dead; the North Sea is following. The Aral Sea is on the brink of extinction. If nothing is done about it, one day nothing will be able to live in the seas.

Every ten minutes one kind of animal, plant or insect dies out forever. If nothing is done about it, one million species that are alive today may soon become extinct.

Air pollution is another serious problem. In Cairo just breathing the air is dangerous - equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. The same holds true for many Russian cites.

Factories emit tons of harmful chemicals. These emissions have disastrous consequences for our planet. They are the main reason for the greenhouse effect and acid rains.

And even greater threat are nuclear power stations. We all know how tragic the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster are.

Fortunately, it's not too late to solve these problems. We have the time, the money and even the technology to make our planet a better, cleaner and safer place. We can plant trees and create parks for endangered species. We can recycle litter. Individuals and groups of people can work together to persuade enterprises to stop polluting activities.

TRADITIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN In Britain there are thousands of old customs and traditions and many of them seem strange now.

Long ago the British Kings and Queens were moving from one castle to another accompanied by many courtiers (царедворец) and servants. The Queen still rides in formal state in the historic gilded (позолоченный) coach (карета) through the streets of London accompanied by the Household Cavalry . One can see such a procession when the Queen rides for the State Opening of Parliament from Buckingham Palace to the Palace of Westminster. Robed (облаченная в мантию) and crowned (с короной на голове) the Queen enters the Upper House and delivers the address (произносит речь) from the throne . The speech is written for her by the Prime Minister. Probably the oldest military ceremony in the world is the Ceremony of the Keys which has taken place every night at the Tower of London for more that 700 years. At seven minutes to ten, a sergeant of the guards with the Keys, accompanied by four soldiers in dress uniform and carrying rifles (винтовка) , appears in turn at the four main towers. The timing of this old ceremony is so exact that at that very moment the hour of ten strikes.

Here is another tradition which was formed quite accidentally (случайно) . Queen Elizabeth the First was knitting (вязание) when the list of new police appointments was given her. She had to make a check in ink against the name of each person whom she wanted to appoint. But there was no pen at hand. So she made a little hole in the paper with one of her knitting needles (спица) beside each favoured name. That is the reason why today Queen Elizabeth the Second appoints sheriffs (судебный исполнитель) of England by pricking (прокалывание) holes in the list of candidates.

There are lots of domestic customs which go centuries back. There is the English custom of afternoon tea. It is nearly 250 years old. The British drink their afternoon tea round the fire in winter and out in the garden on sunny summer days. Tea even played its part in wars. When George III of England tried to make the American colonists pay import duty on tea, a group of Americans dressed as Indians threw 342 boxes of tea into the sea in Boston Harbour — the famous «Boston Tea Party», which led to the American War of Independence.

Another tradition is sitting at a fireplace which is found in every home. People may like to sit at a window on a summer's day, but for many months of the year they like to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames. In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of castles used to be very wide. Such wide fireplaces may still be seen in old inns (гостиницах) , and in some of them there are even seats inside the fireplace. When coal fires became common( в широком употреблении) , fireplaces became much smaller. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf, on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed ( в раме) pictures.
These and many other traditions and customs are characteristic of the British scene(современное общество) . Britain is changing together with the rest of the world, but traditions remain.

Topics:

1. Your first experience in teaching children at school- 2. +Education in the USA 3. +The profession of a teacher 4. +Education in Great Britain 5. +Political system of Russia 6. +Ecological problems of Kamchatka 7. +Olimpic Games 8. +The outstanding museums of English speaking countries 9. +The economy of the USA 10. +Political system of the USA 11. +Education in Russia 12. +The economy of Great Britain 13. +Radio and TV in the USA 14. +Mass Media and it`s role in life of modern people 15. +Customs and traditions of Russia 16. +Cinema and theatre in the USA 17. +Travelling is the best way, so learn the worlds culture and the way people live 18. Music in our life 19. +Political system of Great Britain 20. +Keeping the inviring clean progress and problems 21. The economy of Russia 22. +Customs and traditions of English speaking countries