Etruscan Art Research Paper

Etruscan Art
(800 B.C. to 100 B.C.) Italian art history begins with the Etruscans. Etruscan Civilization was created on the now known Tuscany region of Italy. It isn't known where they came from, but the character of their art and many distinctive features of their religion make it clear that the original Etruscans were from a region in Asia Minor. During the Iron Age (1000 to 1 B.C.), urban civilization spread throughout Etruria - Tarquinia was probably the oldest city and is the most famous. The other centers were Caere (Cerveteri), Vulci, and Veii (Veio). When they arrived, they brought a high level of a Greek-like culture with them. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans lived in fortified cities. Their civilization stretched from the
Arno River in the North to the Tiber River towards the center of the Italian peninsula in the South. The Etruscans were an agrarian people, but they also used military means to dominate the region. At the height of their power (c. 500 B.C.), the Etruscans dominated Italy from the Po river in the north to central Campania. These people rose to prosperity and power, and then disappeared, leaving behind many unanswered questions concerning their origin and their culture. For their Greek contemporaries and Roman successors, the Etruscans were clearly a different ethnic group. Little Etruscan literature remains and the language of inscriptions on their monuments has been only partially deciphered. They had an alphabet based on the Greek alphabet. Etruscan art appears nowhere as related primary upon the influences, concepts and methods of Greek art. There are marked similarities to the art of the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon, Egypt, Asia Minor, and even Assyria. It also promotes Italian elements and reflects distinctively Etruscan religious beliefs. Etruscan art had great influence on subsequent Roman styles and was largely absorbed by the 1st century B.C.

Architecture Etruscans built palaces, public buildings, and early temples in wood and brick, so nothing remained. Ceramic models of temples, as well as traces of later stone structures, indicate how temples were built in enclosures and had tiled, gabled roofs supported on pillars, like their Greek counterparts. An Etruscan temple, to meet religious requirements, was located on a north-south axis and stood on a high podium with a four-columned porch. Roman temples were patterned on the form developed by the Etruscans. Most Etruscan cities were fortified and with encompassing walls enforced by double gates and towers. No remains of Etruscan homes have been found. The Etruscans also built aqueducts, bridges, and sewers. Outside the cities were cemeteries containing family tombs. They were built underground but had large vaults of overlapping stones covered by mounds of earth.

Sculpture and painting The Etruscans created artistic objects mostly for religious purposes. Important part of their art is associated with their funerary customs. The cult of the dead, similar to contemporaneous Egyptian practices, produced a highly developed sepulchral art. The sculptured lids of sarcophagi often represented a single figure or a couple with the haunting archaic smile so evident in early Greek sculpture. The most famous Etruscan works are in terra-cotta, or baked clay, and these include besides sculptures on sarcophagi, also works from temples. As a consequence of abundant ore deposits, bronze statuary was common and the Etruscans brought the art of bronze working to a very high level of achievement. Extant examples of their craftsmanship in bronze include the life-size statue of Orator and Brutus. They rank as the finest bronze statues of its era. Most Etruscan sculpture, however, was executed in clay. Surviving Etruscan painting in underground funerary vaults, consists of murals on the stone or plastered stone walls and ceilings of tombs. Frescoes frequently depict banquets, festivals, and scenes of daily life, sometimes have subjects from religion, some depict figures dancing or playing musical instruments. Figures are stylized, heavy, and often outlined in black. They painted little birds or animals which somehow do not seem out of place or look like merely decorations, but landed a natural harmony to the finished work.

Decorative Arts The Etruscans at first imported and copied painted Greek pottery. They were particularly noted for their black bucchero pottery with incised or relief decoration suggesting metalwork. They were experts with the potter's wheel. It was at its height in the late 7th and 6th centuries B.C. Working in bronze, the Etruscans made chariots, bowls, candelabra, cylindrical coffers, and especially polished mirrors, all richly engraved with mythological motifs. The Etruscans were famous for their gold jewelry. Their goldwork was among the finest anywhere in the ancient world. They also crafted silver, and ivory jewelry, using filigree and granulation. The influence of Etruscan art on the Romans was supreme from the 6th century BC until the ascendancy of Greek styles in the 3rd century B.C. |

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Troilos' Horse and a Palm Tree, detail
Tarrquinia, Tomb of the bulls

Gorgon Antefix
Etruscan art

The Dancer
Tomb of the Juggler, Tarquinia

A Dancing Girl
Tomb of the Lionesses

Double Flute Player
Tomb of the Leopards, Tarquinia

Red-figured kylix; Oedipus and the Sphinx
Oedipus Painter, Etruscan art

Wall Cladding
Cerveteri, Etruscan art | | | |

Etruscan Art

Introduction | | | Jewellery | | | Frescoes | | | Pottery | | | Bronzes | | Mirrors | | | Home | | |
In all studies of Etruscan art, it should be remembered that a large proportion of Etruscan art did not survive up until the present day. We read of the Roman destruction of Volsinii and the destruction of 2000 Etruscan bronzes which were melted down to produce bronze coins. As a result of this, we have a somewhat skewed perception of Etruscan art, in that most of the art that survives today is funerary art, and we form totally wrong impressions about the Etruscans as a result. From excavations at Murlo, Roselle and other city sites, it is apparent that art was a normal part of Etruscan life. In Murlo, a seventh century Etruscan villa has been unearthed. Reconstructions show large painted terracotta panels adorned the entrances. Necropolis art in the form of polychrome reliefs and frescoes hint that the Etruscans used colour to great advantage even from the earliest times. Although painted tombs are among the most famous, it should be remembered that these represent a minority, and that only the aristocratic families could afford such luxuries as tomb frescoes.

The above image shows part of the antefix from the temple of Juno Sospita, Lanuvium (6th - 5th Century BCE). This is part of the terracotta antefix at the temple of Juno Sospita, and depicts a maenad, Many similar examples have been found, in many cases with traces of the original polychrome decoration. The characteristic smile is shared by many statues of the contemporaneous Greek Archaic period.
Etruscan Art has been said by some 19th and even 20th Century writers to be somehow inferior, although this was usually by erroneous comparison to the Greek mathematical ideals of beauty. Nowadays we can appreciate Etruscan Art much more readily, since Etruscan Artists seem to capture the feeling and the essence of so many of their subjects so much better than for example art of the highly stylised Classical period.
The styles of Etruscan Art vary considerably between the individual Etruscan cities, and there was also significant variation on style depending on the period - so much so that we can date Etruscan art works in many cases by comparison with other examples. The interest in Etruscan Art grew during the renaissance, at which time the extant Etruscan art had considerable stylistic influences on the emerging artists of the renaissance, many of whom lived in former Etruscan cities where such art was plentiful. By the nineteenth century, Etruscan art had grown to a passion, and the "excavation" of Etruscan tombs to meet growing demands increased. An example of this is the brother of Napolean, who owned land near Canino, which included the Etruscan necropolis of Vulci. These "resources" he exploited to great effect, destroying many pieces of Etruscan art in the process, and covering in the tombs with soil afterwards. As a result of this and many other examples, we now have thousands of pieces of Etruscan Art whose provenance is unknown, and which are still in private collections , or have been donated to museums in Europe and the Unted States.
The Art of The Etruscan Gold-Smith

Introduction | | | Jewellery | | | Frescoes | | | Pottery | | | Bronzes | | Mirrors | | | Home | | |
Etruscan gold work was arguably unrivaled in the Mediterranean during the first millennium BCE. A considerable selection of Gold jewellery was found in the Regolini Galassi tomb, which was discovered in the 19th Century, surprisingly with little evidence of looting. Looting was all too common in Ancient days, and was even encouraged officially by Alaric the Goth when his armies overran Rome in the early 5th Century CE.

The above magnificent gold fibula was taken from the Regolini- Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri (Caere) and dates back to the 7th Century BCE. This to me is one of the finest examples of Etruscan goldsmith's art. This illustration does not do justice in revealing the fine work that went into such a piece. The precise technique of granulation was for a long time a forgotten art, and it was only rediscovered in the 20th Century by E Treskow.
(A fibula is a kind of large ornamental safety pin used to fasten a robe)

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| The Fibula on the left is another illustration of the art of the Rasenna goldsmiths.Etruscan Frescos.Above Left: From the tomb of the Lionesses, Tarquinia. Above Right: From the tomb of the Triclinium, Tarquinia. Both pictures illustrate the ubiquitous Etruscan joi de vivre.These are very typical of so many Etruscan Frescoes which depicted figures vibrant with life, often dancing or playing musical instruments. They painted birds or animals on many of these intermingled with the human figures, who usually looked strong and healthy and full of the joy of life. The little birds and other figures from nature somehow do not seem out of place or look like mere decorations, but lended a natural harmony to the finished work. The above sculpture (actually a hollow cinerary urn) comes from the Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, and is known as the Sarcophagus dei Sposi. It is currently exhibited in the Villa Giulia museum in Rome. The terra cotta sarcophagus lid with figures of a man and woman, presumably his wife reclining on a triclinium or dining couch presumably eating a meal or having a quiet moment after supper. Both figures are propped up on their left elbow with the man close behind the woman. Both faces share a secret, tender smile. A very similar sarcophagus to this was also found in Cerveteri. They are believed to be by the same artist and date to 520 - 530 BCE.
The Greeks and later the Romans had some very pointed ideas about the Etruscans. Theopompus of Chios, a Greek historian who lived in the Fourth century BCE wrote of the : Morality of the Etruscans (warning - may offend) "...Further they dine , not with their own husbands, but with any men who happen to be present, and they pledge with wine any whom they wish. They also drink excessively and are very good looking. The Etruscans rear all the babies that are born, not knowing who the father is in any single case....." |

Why The Etruscans?

Introduction
People often ask me the question: Why would anyone be interested in the ancient Etruscans? There is probably no good answer to that. Perhaps it is the magnificent artwork including fine gold jewellery with the intricate granulation style, or the magnificent bronzes such as the Arringatore or the Chimera of Arezzo, or perhaps it is the enigma of the origins of this people, and their language which was so unlike any other. We are only recently beginning to understand the words of the Ancient Etruscans little by little.
However above all, there is the fact that for too long the Etruscan civilisation has been totally ignored in studies of the ancient world. This is totally unjustified given what we now know about this remarkable people.
I am glad to see that the balance is being set right thanks to renewed interest in the Etruscans, and the teachings of a few dedicated academics.
I would like to quote directly an introduction by Professor Graziano Baccolini (reproduced by his kind permission) which I believe summarises quite eloquently the immense contribution made by the Etruscans to Western Society. The original Italian version can be found at: http://members.xoom.it/_XOOM/Farf/riflessetr.htm Reflections on the Etruscan Civilization
By Graziano Baccolini
" I can never succeed in understanding why Italians still fail to recognize the enormous contribution that the Etruscan civilization has made to our Western civilization. We keep on believing the teaching that the Greeks and above all the Romans are the peoples to whom the Western world owes its origins. All of this is considerably exaggerated and based on historical falsehoods. However, I have ascertained instead that it is the Etruscans, coming from the East, who are the true founders of our European culture, for both good and bad aspects. This truth continues to be understated and at times hindered by various Italian historians while it has been being recognized for numerous decades by the majority of the historians of the whole world. Etruscology is now a subject of enormous interest all over the world and a lot of falsehoods and commonly held beliefs are crumbling because they were used to discredit a people for appropriating of their worths. In the past centuries first the powerful and unculturated Rome h as falsified its own origins and has ignored the legacy of the defeated Etruscan civilization, then the first Christian emperors have completed the work with their edicts. Subsequently on the ruins of the empire, the Pontifices of the new religion appropriated many ancient insignias of the Orient handed down to the Romans from Etruscan leaders and priests. For example the purple of the Lucumones became the colour of the cardinal, the Etruscan priest's Littus became the Pastoral one of the Bishops. The solemn ceremonies of the new religion are a reproduction of the Etruscan religious ceremonies. The ancient former Etruscan cities became the first Episcopal centers (Volterra, Vulci, Orvieto, etc). The longest existing Etruscan text is a calendar containing 12 columns with the religious instructions for every day.
Also the figurative Christian patrimony retraces the images found again in the Etruscan tombs. The winged figures of the Etruscans return in the Christian figures of the angels and Satan. On top of the ancient Etruscan temples has been built the new churches which very probably still conceal in many things their walls. It is strange that Etruscologists have not considered this yet. Then first Rome, then above all the priestly hierarchy of the new Roman religion snatched the symbols of the Etruscan civilization but denied the so-called pagan origin of it all. As always happens rather in the history and in the life, slandering the legitimate owners and accusing them of various inequities. Unfortunately our culture has inherited the worse of the Etruscan religion as for example, the concept of infallibility, seconded by the Christian religion.
However as also happens at times in life, the truth is reborn. From accumulated evidence, one succeeds in gathering that the truth is quite different. The great civilizing inheritance of the Etruscans was for centuries abandoned, earths once rich with produce became uncultivated, shops of artisans and artists became empty, their advanced knowledge of metallurgy and of hydraulics was forgotten and Etruscan creative individuality was oppressed - fortunately not entirely. After centuries of cultural regression (I probabably suspect due to the new religious Imperium) of hiding and of destruction of the sources of the Etruscan civilization there came the rebirth. In the ancient suburbs of the Appennines there remained the descendants of the Etruscans and the wonder contained in the tombs of their ancestors woke up again their native genome: the central part of the ancient world earth of the Etruscans, Tuscany, became the cradle of the Humanism and of the Renaissance. In these cities, for long generations Etruscan, characters such as Dante Leonardo, Brunelleschi, Giotto, Bernini, Michelangelo etc were born, and above all so many unknown artisans and artists to which the growth of our Western civilization is owed.

The Etruscans and the Sea

繁体中文 francais Maritime Trade | | | | The Amphora | | | | Amphorae and Trade | | | | Piracy and Naval Conflicts | | | | Home | | | |
Maritime Trading
There is no doubt that the Etruscan sea ports, or emporia were important international trading centres, and therefore of great economical and cultural significance for the Etruscans. Judging from the Greek and Phoenician sanctuaries found in Graviscae and Pyrgi respectively they were probably populated by mixed peoples, and attracted merchants and artisans from far afield. We have a historical example of such a trader in Demeratos of Corinth. Livy tells us that he sold Etruscan goods to the Greeks and Greek goods to the Etruscans, and that he brought with him a number of artists from Corinth. The presence of Proto-Corinthian and Corinthian ware in Caere and Tarquinia would appear to be consistent with this account.
It is possible that there were restrictions placed on centres such as Pyrgi and Vetulonia by the Carthaginians and Phoenicians, as demonstrated by the only surviving example of a Sea Treaty with Carthage.
During the time of the Etruscan rule of Rome, one such treaty was made with Carthage, and it details for example that the Western Mediterranean was out of bound for Etruscan (then Roman) trade. This was probably an example of many other treaties with Etruscan cities.
The fact that Etruscan goods have been found in Carthage and throughout the Western Mediterranean, shows that the Etruscan trading network was quite extensive from the earliest phase in their history. There is also evidence of the close trading ties between the Etruscans and Carthage, as shown by a terracotta "calling card" recently found in the ruins of Carthage, and inscribed in Etruscan with the name of a Carthaginian merchant, which stated that he came from Carthage. The terracotta device was intended to match up with another half, presumably in Etruria.

We have a rough idea what Etruscan merchant ships must have looked like from a wall painting in The Tomb of The Ship in Tarquinia. This shows a two masted sailing ship, perhaps some 20 metres long. The perspective has been over-exaggerated by the artist, since the ship was painted on dry land, presumable looking up at it from below.

The above picture shows a reconstruction of what this ship must have looked like. The lines show the probably water level. From a wreck of an Etruscan ship found off the island of Giglio, we have a reasonable idea of their construction. There is evidence to show that planks were butted together (not overlapped) and bound in place using thick ropes, which were passed through 2 centimetre (1") diameter holes in the planks. The gaps were probably then sealed using pitch.
The ship was quite squat in shape, and this example was totally different from Greek and Roman ships, in that it had two masts, rigged with square sails. The fact that it had square sails meant that quite often they had to wait many days for a favorable wind. Attached to the stern of the ship were two large steering oars. According to ancient accounts from the Greeks and the Romans, merchant vessels would sail within sight of land, and would weigh anchor at night in shallower water close to shore. Anchors were made of stone, and were typically inscribed with relevant details, such as "I am the property of Avle Spurinas". Ancient sources attribute the invention of the anchor to the Etruscans.
The cargoes of these merchant ships included many goods carried in amphorae, and many other goods such as metal ingots and pottery.
The shipping amphora was pointed in the ends, enabling storage on special racks with holes. However not all amphorae carried on ships were of this type, and flat based amphorae are also common.
The Amphora - The multi-purpose containers of the ancient world

The ubiquitous amphora has come in a myriad of distinct forms spanning four millennia, from the Mycenaean amphora of about the 14th century BCE up to the present day.
Remarkably enough , some goods are still being transported in amphorae in the 21st century, although nowadays it is much is more common to find stainless steel bulk containers for bulk wine or olive oil shipments.
The amphora was one of the most common vessels in Etruscan, Roman and Greek pottery, and was common throughout the ancient Mediterranean. It is a two-handled pot with a neck narrower than the body.
There are two types of amphora: the neck amphora, in which the neck meets the body at a sharp angle; and the one-piece amphora, in which the neck and body form a continuous curve. The first is common from the Geometric period to the decline of Greek pottery; the second appeared in the 7th century BCE. Amphorae have varied in size from the 1.5 metre aphora of the Greek Geometric period down to the miniature " amphoriskoi" which stood less than
30cm..
The neck amphora, from the geometric style (c. 1000- 900 BCE), has about 12 distinct shape variations, determined as much by utilitarian as by aesthetic considerations. Noteworthy are the Nolan type (from Nola, Italy), some of which had triple handles, popular in red-figure pottery; the Panathenaic amphora, painted in black-figure and presented as a prize (filled with olive oil and having the inscription "I am one of the prizes from Athens") at the Panathenaic Festivals from the 6th to the 2nd century BCE; and the loutrophoros, slender-bodied, with a tall neck and flaring mouth, used from the 6th century for ritual purposes at weddings and funerals..
The amphora was truly the multipurpose container of the ancient world. Amphorae, which survive in great numbers, were used as storage and transport vessels for olives, cereal, oil, wine and many other less likely goods.
"Shipping Amphorae" were generally (but not always) pointed at one end to allow easy storage on racks. However, in order for this system to be successful, there has to be a certain uniformity of shape and size among amphorae. The Roman measure known as the "amphora" or 48 sextarii was a standard measure of approximately 25.5 litres while the original Greek "amphora" was about 34 litres.
In some cases, archaeologists can identify the exact age and provenance of most amphorae by their shape and size.
The Amphora in Maritime Trade
To get some insight into how amphorae were handled, we need to look at some practical aspects of shipping, which apply equally to this day.
I think we can presume that the Etruscans and the Romans after them had a good grasp of the efficient use of labour, and how to avoid double handling.
Unlike a barrel, an amphora cannot be rolled along the ground without damaging it, so we are left with few choices. It would be a slow process and an inefficient use of labour to carry them on to a ship manually. Even with the readily available labour of slaves in the Ancient World, to actually carry them on in this manner was inefficient in terms of both time and labour, and time in the shipping industry means money. In fact in those ports of the Southern Mediterranean where amphorae are still used, amphorae are loaded and discharged in grape like structures, with the rope passed through the
handles.
The bungs or stoppers of amphorae were generally marked with identification. This is hardly surprising when we consider that ships may have contained cargoes destined for many ports. A consignment of amphorae may have had to travel as much as 2000 kilometers in total, both by land and sea, and in some cases they were trans-shipped, in other words left at the Emporium for collection by another vessel destined for the customer's port. So as well as identification of the customer, details of the ship, the origin of the goods, would have to be recorded as a guide for the various people who would handle them en route. Strict record keeping would have been necessary as a record against theft of the contents and to ensure that the cargoes were not mixed up, or stacked in the wrong order so that the cargo for the first port of call were on top of others for the first destination. The resulting double handling that would result, not to mention demurrage costs would have had serious repercussions for the profit margin.
The contents themselves would have to be checked, perhaps many times during the shipping operation, and skilled workers at a typical Mediterranean "Emporium" would know what the contents were, what the correct ullage was for each type of Amphora either by experience, or by using special tools such as are used in the wine industry.
The Etruscans and the Phoenicians alike were very successful in their dominance of the seas during the early part of the first millennium BCE. From the above description, it can be seen that a written language and good systems were needed to get to this stage and there is little doubt that the trading competition was extremely fierce during this time. It was a cut throat business in some cases literally, and as well as physical conflict and piracy, there was the technological competition to ensure the competitive edge.
Most of the knowledge we have of Greek pottery comes from the graveyards of Etruria. The tombs and grave yards of the ancient Adriatic city of Spina alone have yielded over 2000 examples.
Some of the earliest examples are clearly Greek imports, but the Etruscans departed significantly from the Greek model, and created distinctive schools of art in their own rights.
Etruscan Piracy and Naval Conflict
(Written by Jim Penny & Robert Destellirer)

Above : Battle at sea, detail from the Caeretan Hydria
Etruscan ships of war were built for speed,were typically sleek and streamlined in their design, and were propelled by crews of oarsmen in a single bank of oars (such as pentaconters) or two banks (diremes). Sails were used as a back-up in instances where speed was not required.
Such Galleys were typically from 20 metres to 30 metres in length, and were fitted with a "rostrum" or beak which was inserted on the prow of the ship to ram enemy galleys. According to Herodotus, the rostrum was an Etruscan invention.
Battles would often rely on tactics, which made good use of knowledge of tide and wind changes. In some cases, ships were forced into the shallows where they were easy prey to their adversaries. In other cases, enemy ships were rammed using the rostrum fitted to the prow, and when ships were in close quarters, considerable exchange of arrows (some burning) and spears would take place.
The Etruscans never developed the trireme (with its three banks of oars), which was used to great advantage by the Greeks at Syracuse. We shall now consider why this may have been the case.
The trireme was already in use prior to 500 BCE, but Themistokles persuaded the Athenians to build and perfect this extremely expensive single purpose craft. This venture was financed by putting the silver mines at Laurion at the disposal of the building program.
The trireme is exorbitantly expensive in many ways:

At least 200 crew (oarsmen and sailors) are needed to man it. The crew has to be in a permanent state of readiness - a navy in reserve. The training necessary for this can be very costly indeed. For example a fleet of 100 triremes would require at least 20 000 crew - We then need to add about 10 - 20 per ship on top of this, giving us an extra 2- 3000 crew.

The trireme was expensive to build, man and supply. This becomes evident when we consider having to provide food and water for 20 000 men every day. The trireme was so swift and small that it could not carry supplies for more then 2 days. It was also so fragile that it could not remain overnight in the open sea, and had to beach each night or remain in close proximity to the coast. As well as this, triremes could not function effectively in rough sea conditions.

The Spartans (Laconians), Etruscans, and later on the Romans were quite accomplished in sea conficts, although they also excelled in land warfare (more about Etruscan naval tactics later)
The Athenians preferred to use fewer crewmen and relied instead on swift ramming actions (Periplous and Dikplous). Of course they had the necessary highly trained crews and ships for these tactics.
Only the richest maritime states such as Athens could maintain such an enormous revenue consuming navy. The great sea power of Corcyra around 480 BCE (reference Thukydides) was unable to follow the Athenian example - It was just too expensive.
We should remember that the Spartan navy in the Peloponnesian war was financed by Persian gold. Only Syracuse could afford to follow the Athenian example.
The trireme had an extremely short lifetime - about 20 years. In contrast, the penteconter was far less expensive and more durable. It didn't need such a large crew, and was multi-purpose. It had plenty of room for stores, so it could be used for both war and trading purposes in extended voyages. The Pentaconter was also much more robust than the trireme.

The reign of the trireme as empress of naval warfare was very brief. Even around 450, the supreme attacking force of the trireme was countered by constructing long beams on ships, so that ramming became difficult.
Furthermore around 390, there came the Quadrireme, and later on the Quinquireme, so that the trireme eventually became obsolete.
Why obsolete? - A quadrireme requires 4 oarsmen for each oar, but only one of them needs to be skilled. Consequently it can be maintained in readiness with only a small core unit of highly trained rowers.
Pirate ships have to be swift and light, and like the later Drakars they had to appear from nowhere and vanish again after swift bloody action. However they could not remain on the high seas, so merchant ships with good trained crews sailing in conveys were not an easy target for them.

Footnote:
It is an interesting observation that in 17th century Europe, specialised warships first made their appearance (before this time, a merchant vessel could easily be refitted to become a warship by the addition of armaments)
The House of Stuart in England wanted a Royal Navy. This was the financial reason for the revolt against Charles I, who bled the country for taxes in order to finance a navy)
The Dutch Republic, a mercantile nation par exellence, disbanded their Navy in times of peace. It was too expensive even for the rich republic to have a permanent navy of warships. The Dutch suffered for this when the sea wars with England started in 1672. The English had an navy, since Cromwell adopted a similar policy to the Stuarts, but the Dutch had to build again.
The conclusion from the above example is that it is very expensive to maintain an active Navy.

The Etruscan League of 12

(Click on the city names on the above map.)

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See also: The Northern Centres of Padan Etruria

According to legend, the Etruscan League of 12 cities was founded by two Lydian noblemen; Tarchun and his brother Tyrrhenus.

Tarchun lent his name to the city of Tarchna, or Roman Tarquinnii. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the Tyrrhenians - the alternative name for the Etruscans.

Although there is no total consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the mark: Arretium (Arezzo), Caisra (Caere or modern Cerveteri), Clevsin,(Clusium or modern Chiusi), Curtun (modern Cortona, Perusna (Perugia), Pupluna (Populonia), Veii, Tarchna (Tarquinii or modern Tarquinia-Corneto), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Felathri (Volaterrae or modern Volterra), Velzna (Volsinii or modern day Bolsena), and Velch (Vulci or modern day Volci).

Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later imperial times when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later Grave stones from the 2nd Century onwards.

According to Livy, the twelve city states met once a year at the Fanum Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the league.

As well as the "dodecapoli" of Etruria itself, there were two other Etruscan leagues, that of Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the Po Valley City States in the North, which included Spina and Adria (Atria).

It has been suggested by some authors that the number 12 is of ritual significance, and is also associated with the Eastern origins of the Etruscan civilisation. Ionia, with whom Etruria had a long association, also consisted of a league of 12 city states. There is a considerable discrepancy in the spelling of some of the names, depending on the sources, much of it stemming from spelling differences between the various cities, grammatical cases etc. In some cases, we can only guess at the original Etruscan name.

The History of Etruria

Introduction | | | Origins | | | Orientalizing Period | | | Early Rome | | | Etruscan Decline | | | Burning of the books | | | Home | | |
INTRODUCTION

(see also A Chronology of Early Italian History)
Virtually all that we know about Etruscan history today comes to us from indirect sources- either from Roman historians who had a patriotic axe to grind, or from Ancient Greek historians, who in some cases failed to grasp the very different sets of values held by the Etruscans. For example the status of women in Etruscan society, which was so alien to the Greeks and Romans alike, both being of Indo European origins. The Greeks saw the Etruscans as being an immoral race of people (although this accusation was on very shaky ground given their own morality). The Greeks also refer to the Etruscans quite frequently as pirates. There is no evidence to suggest that the Etruscans dabbled in piracy any more than other races of the day, and what was piracy to one group of people was defense to others. One fact was indisputable, and that was that during their heyday, the Etruscans controlled a significant part of the Mediterreanean.

The Etruscans went on to lay the foundation of the city of Rome, to clear the shepherds huts which once littered the Palatine Hill, to drain the swamps and transform what had been a collection of tribal sheep herders into a true city which would eventually dominate large tracts of Europe, Asia and North Africa alike. From the Etruscans came writing, and Roman history was born in the true sense.

From their beginnings in the area that is now Tuscany, these Etruscans had deep rooted influences which survive to this day. Although the Etruscan language is by no means totally decoded, we now know enough to see that many words of Etruscan origin found themselves into Latin and from there into English. For an unknown language, many Etruscan words look very familiar.

Their Religious legacy had profound influences on at least the rituals and dress of the Church. Etruscan Art had obvious influences on renaissance artists such as Michelangelo.

While the Roman legions conquered region after region, the Etruscan cities were occupied by Veterans, and the citizens of the once proud Etruria bowed to the pressure and became part of Rome or died during numerous rebellious uprisings.

Those same legions were organised in accordance with Etruscan traditions, responded to the sound of the tuba (from Etruria), built their camps on a North/ South grid, as specified by the Etruscan sacred books, and carried a Standard inscribed with SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus. "Populus" is a word of Etruscan origin, -que (Etruscan -c with probably the same pronunciation) means "and", and even Romanus itself probably came from the Etruscan language. There are various theories among which connect it with the Etruscan gentilial name Rumlua

The Etruscan Haruspices and soothsayers remained well into the 5th Century CE, and according to some reports, may have survived in the Eastern Empire in Byzantium. The ancient tradition of their ancestral leaders proved difficult for the Romans to give up entirely.
ORIGINS OF THE ETRUSCANS
The question of Etruscan origins has been a controversial subject for many years. Nowadays, it is fair to say that most authorities would agree that the Etruscans were autochthonous, and that the predecessors of the Etruscan civilization that started to manifest itself in the regions of Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci and Vetulonia in the North in the early 7th century BCE had been in the region for many hundreds of years beforehand. There is however a large gulf between popular conceptions of the Etruscans, and the generally well established beliefs of academics in the field, as the generally acknowledged 'father of Etruscology', Massimo Pallatino pointed out in his introduction to the 1986 reprint of D.L. Lawrence's "Etruscan Places" :
"I dont think there is any other field of human knowledge in which there is such a daft cleavage between what has been scientifically ascertained and the unshakeable beliefs of the public...."
It is however interesting to examine the various theories about Etruscan origins.

Above: Representation of a sea fight between the Egyptians and the Sea people from the reliefs at Medinet Habou. This dates to the period of Ramses III (1200-1166 BCE) and thought by some to represent the ancestors of the Achaeans, Etruscans, Sicilians and others.
Even among ancient writers, there was difference of opinion as to whether the Etruscans were Autochthonous (indigenous) or originated from Asia Minor. The earliest historical account of the Etruscans was given by Hesiod who mentions the Etruscans in the "Theogony". However it is fair to say that the works of such early writers as Hesiod and Homer consist of an equitable mixture of legend and fact, stemming from the period around 750 BCE in Ionian Greece, part of Asia Minor. Homer himself is probably not one, but the collected oral traditions of many authors.

The first reasonably believable account was given by Herodotus in the 5th Century BCE. He writes that the Etruscans originated in Lydia, in Asia Minor, and that due to a famine in the area, they invented a number of games to take their minds off the lack of food:
"...After some time, the famine had not improved, so they drew lots, and half the population, and eating on the following day without playing. In this way they got through 18 years. Things got worse, however, rather than better, and the king therefore divided all the Lydians into two groups and drew lots to decide which should stay and which should emigrate, putting himself at the head of those who were to remain and appointing his son, who was called Tyrrhenus, as the leader for those who had to leave. Those Lydians whose lot it was to leave went down to Smyrna and built boats on to which they loaded all their possessions and sailed away to seek a life elsewhere. After sailing past many lands they came to Umbria in Italy where they built cities and still live to this day, changing their name from Lydians to Tyrrhenians after the king's son Tyrrhenus who had led them...."
However, despite the fact that he travelled widely, the accounts of Herodotus were prone to inaccuracies.

It has been suggested that the Etruscans were part of the famous Pelasgians, or Sea Peoples of Lemnos, and the evidence is that the Pelasgians were a mixture of various peoples including some of the biblical Canaanites who later became the Phoenicians. There are many ancient references which use the terms Tyrrhenian and Pelasgian interchangeably.
Hellanicus of Lesbos, another Greek historian writing in the fifth century BC, mentioned a group of Pelasgians who arrived in Italy and there changed their name to Tyrrhenians.
Roman authors confirmed an eastern origin for the Etruscans. Virgil referred to the town of '. . . Cerveteri, built on an ancient rock where once the Lydians, a race distinguished in war, settled the hills of Tuscany.' And Seneca (who died in AD 65) stated that '. . . Asia claims the Etruscans as her own.' Tacitus (first to second centuries AD) accepted the story as told by Herodotus. Other tales also locate the Etruscans in Asia Minor, linking them with the Pelasgians; and refer to Tyrsenians or Tyrrhenians on the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Lesbos, just off the Asian coast in the northern Aegean, and on Delos, the holy island in the centre of the Cyclades.
The Etruscans referred to themselves as Rasenna, but to the Romans and Greeks they were Etrusci, Tusci, Tyrrheni, or Tyrseni. To the modern Italians they are still Etrusci and the name of the Etruscan Sea is still the Tyrrhenian, after perhaps 3,000 years.
But in the first century BC, a dissenting voice spoke up. Dionysius, another Greek historian from Halicarnassus, writing four centuries later than Herodotus, declared a different finding:
"I do not believe that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the Lydians, for they do not use the same language as the latter, nor can it be alleged that, though they no longer speak a similar tongue, they still retain some other indications of their mother country."
The controversy was to rage on until the late 20th century.
Perhaps the strongest evidence put forward by the Eastern providence school is the Lemnian inscription. Excavations on Lemnos turned up a community there which dates to around 600 BCE and which links the Etruscans to that place.

The inscription on the Lemnos Stele was dated at 600BCE and was written in a language similar to Etruscan. It was found in a warrior's tomb with weapons and pottery which are very similar to early Etruscan. The necropolis of the city contained 130 cremated burials. In the women's burials an early form of Etruscan Bucchero pottery was found. Bucchero clay was used by the people of Asia Minor and by the Etruscans. In the male sites daggers and axes of the Cretan and Etruscan models were found. The evidence, then, is for a small community which had strong cultural ties with the Etruscans and, to a lesser extent, the inhabitants of Asia Minor.
One theory that was put forward was that the inhabitants of Lemnos represented a pocket of pre-indoeuropean speaking people, whose language was similar to Etruscan. There are difficulties with that theory when one examines the alphabet and the language in some detail. The Stele is dated at approximately 600, and uses an alphabet used in Northern Etruria at that time. The first evidence of Etruscan inscriptions dates to about 750 BCE, and use a script which was based on the early Euboan alphabet, learned from the Greeks at Cumae. The Greeks first established their colony at Cumae in about 750 BCE, yet there was evidence of the Etruscans in Italy well before this time. If the Lemnos stele was an isolated outlier of a pre-indo european language, then the alphabet is too similar to Etruscan for it to have developed from any other source. It is more likely to represent an isolated colony of either 'Pelasgians' or Etruscan pirates.
The Northern provenance theory, which bases its evidence on the similarities of Raetian and Etruscan languages has one major flaw, in that the Raetian Alpine inscriptions are much later, and are more consistent with later Etruscan influences, or associated with the scattering of the Northern Etruscans as a result of Celtic incursions.

There are problems with all theories which suggest that the truth is far more complicated as always.A likely solution is that the Etruscans were autochthonous, but were subjected to cultural influences and immigrants at various stages in their history. The nature of these cultural influences are nowadays understood much better. The result of this was a gradual development of an Etruscan civilisation. The influx at some time of a group from Lydia is not inconsistent with this Neo Autochthonous theory which is gaining more and more acceptance.
There is no precise time when we can say that the Etruscan civilisation began. According to the libri fatales as described by Censorinus, the date can be calculated at 968 BCE, but it was a gradual change that came over the land that was to become Etruria. Between the 10th and the 8th century BCE, several things began to happen: There was a drift from scattered village settlements into urbanised centres. The incidence of cremations decreased in favour of inhumation. Land was cleared and drained on a massive scale. Trade with the Aegean commenced, evident from the appearance of Greek artifacts.

The plentiful deposits of metals on Elba and the nearby coastline, and the bounty of Etruscan agriculture resulted in growing prosperity for the Etruscans. Bulk export trade typically used large shipping amphorae, and metal ingots have also been found in several sites.

By the end of the 7th Century BCE, Etruscan territory had expanded to include parts of Northern italy, with the Po Valley league, and the Etruscan city states held sway over large areas of Latium, including Rome, and Campania to the South.

With the increasing trade and the specialization of crafts, the application of new techniques, particularly in metal extraction and agriculture, the living standard improved. This corresponded to an exponential increase in demographic growth. The Etruscan aristocracy increased in power, authority and wealth. They were buried in rich tombs or necropolises next to cities such as Tarquinia, Caere, Vulci and Veii.

Greek immigrants started to arrive and began to exert a significant influence in the art and culture of Etruria.

It was also during this period that grapes were introduced to the Italian peninsula. Grape seeds found in early Etruscan grave sites in Chiusi, show that the predecessor of Chiante had arrived. Craters and other vessels of Greek design started to appear.

The Orientalizing Period is generally taken as the period between the end of the 8th Century until the late 7th Century BCE. It is so called because of the eastern influence in art and artifacts. Typical of this period was the Regolini Galassi tomb at Caere, in which were found objects with obvious Egyptian and Eastern influence such as Ostrich eggs, Sphinxes, scarabs and lions with an Assyrian like character.

During this period, the Etruscans began to take control of sea trade particularly in the Tyrrhenian sea, and the control of sea routes to Campania, where a strong Etruscan core settled around Capua and Salerno.

The orientalization period was not unique to the Etruscans, and a similar trend of eastern influence was evident in the Greek cities of the Archaic age.

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The Sixth Century - Etruscan Glory Days

The Decline of the Etruscans

The burning of the books
This Section is titled "The burning of the books" and the title suggests that much of Etruscan literature was in fact deliberately destroyed. This is certainly the view expressed by a number of authors, but was this entirely the case?

There are many unanswered questions, owing to the lack of the literature in the first place. How much of a literature base did the Etruscans have and what was the nature of this literature?

Did they have written histories, or were their writings mainly for the purpose of trade and religion, in the same way as the Phoenicians?

Early Christians in the 4th Century CE have been blamed for the systematic destruction of Etruscan literature. It may have been the fact that Etruscan religious beliefs and practices were so deep-rooted among the Romans that led to the complete destruction of all Etruscan literature as a result of the advent of Christianity. Arnobius, one of the first Christian apologists, living around 300CE, wrote "Etruria is the originator and mother of all superstition".

There is evidence that a significant portion of Etruscan literature was systematically destroyed following the Theodosian code, since it represented the Old Religion and was considered as idolatry and the work of the devil. (It is recorded that Flavius Stilicho, a regent for the Emperor Honorius between 394 and 408 CE, burnt a number of "Pagan volumes" which included the Tagetic books, which had been stored in the Temple of Apollo in Rome.) However there are other probable reasons that led to the demise of Etruscan literature.

In order to better understand the fate of Etruscan literature we should first look at how Roman writing was recorded. The Roman literature that survives today originates from about 200 BCE onwards. There is very little from before this period. In the early days, wax tablets were used as notebooks. Schoolchildren learnt to write on wax tablets. Papyrus was used, but this was an expensive item, since much of it had to be imported. Carbonised papyrus rolls have been found at Herculaneum, some of them partially legible, but the bulk of Papyrii available nowadays survive as fragments, usually from Egypt and Byzantium.

In the later Roman period, Papyrus began to be replaced by Vellum and parchment. These materials are treated animal skins. These survived much better than papyrus, and became very popular since they could be scraped, and re-used many times. During the dark ages, monks spent many long hours manually transcribing Classical literature, some religious, but some of secular origin. It is largely thanks to these monks that we have quite an extensive library of Latin and Greek literature to this day.

But what of the Etruscans? One noted discovery of the 20th Century was the Liber Linteus, or Linen book, which was thought to be the fragments of an Etruscan book made of linen and re-used to preserve an Egyptian Mummy. The Liber Linteus can be seen in Zagreb museum. If linen was used as a medium, then this would have had even less chance of survival than papyrus. Certainly there have been examples of models of Etruscan books found in the tombs of Cerveteri. These suggest that Linen was indeed traditionally used by the Etruscans for the written word.

The question of the scope of Etruscan literature remains unanswered, but it is quite clear from other sources that it must have been quite substantial. Censorinus refers to the Annals of Etruria, and during the late Roman Republic and Early Imperial years it was considered quite fashionable for Roman Patricians to send their boys to Etruscan schools to further their education. Some of this would no doubt have been a grounding in the disciplina etrusca, but it seems unlikely that that was all that they learned. We also know that enough of the history of Etruria survived in written form even up to late Imperial times for the emperor Claudius to write a twenty volume history of Etruria. (together with an 8 volume history of the Carthaginians, both in the Greek Language) If even a fragment of this history survived today it would answer a great many questions.

ETRUSCAN RELIGION

Introduction | | | Education | | | Rituals - Founding a city | | | Belief in Predestination | | | Etruscan Deities | | | Home | | |

Introduction
The basis of Etruscan religion was the fundamental idea that the destiny of man was completely determined by the vagaries of the many deities worshipped by the Etruscans. Every natural phenomenon, such as lightning, the structure of the internal organs of sacrificial animals, or the flight patterns of birds, was therefore an expression of the divine will, and contained a message which could be interpreted by trained priests such as Augurs.

Emerging from this basic concept the Rasenna scrupulously followed a complex code of rituals known by the Romans as the "disciplina etrusca". Even up to the fall of the Roman Empire, the Etruscans were regarded by their contemporaries with great respect for their religion and superstitions.

It may have been the fact that Etruscan religious beliefs and practices were so deep-rooted among the Romans that led to the complete destruction of all Etruscan literature as a result of the advent of Christianity. Arnobius, one of the first Christian apologists, living around 300CE, wrote ,"Etruria is the originator and mother of all superstition" .When the Gothic army under Alaric was approaching Rome, the offer made to Pope Innocent I by Etruscan Haruspices was seriously considered by the senate, but finally rejected.

The obvious Eastern Greek influence in Etruscan religion and art from the emergence of the civilisation in the 8th Century BCE, can be interpreted either as evidence of the Etruscan origins in Lydia, or as the influence of subsequent Greek settlement in the prosperous region of Etruria. However it is interpreted, the Etruscan religion was fundamentally unique to the region.

The Etruscan Religion was, like Christianity and Judaism, a revealed religion. An account of the revelation is given by Cicero(On Divination 2.50) . One day, says the legend, in a field near the river Marta in Etruria, a strange event occurred. A divine being rose up from the newly ploughed furrow, a being with the appearance of a child, but with the wisdom of an old man. The startled cry of the ploughman brought lucomones, the priest kings of Etruria hurrying up to the spot. To them, the wise child chanted the sacred doctrine, which they reverently listened to and wrote down, so that this most precious possession could be passed on to their successors. Immediately after the revelation, the miraculous being fell dead and disappeared into the ploughed field. His name was Tages, and he was believed to be the son of Genius and grandson of the highest God, Tinia (or Jupiter as he became known to the Romans). This doctrine was known to the Romans as the disciplina etrusca,

From the writings of the Etruscan haruspex Tarquitius around 90 BCE, we also get a glimpse of the prophesy of the nymph Vegoia (Latinised form of the name). This is bound up in the Gramatici veteres, in a corpus of Roman land surveys, We have a passage in which a divinity, the nymph Vergoia, speaks to Arruns Velturnnus:
"You should know that the sea is separated from the earth. When Jupiter claimed the land of Etruria for himself, he decided and commanded the fields to be surveyed and the lands marked out. Knowing the covetousness of man and his worldly greed, he wanted the boundaries of everything to be marked by boundary stones. Those which at any time anyone has placed because of the greed of this eighth - almost the latest - saeculum, arrogating to themselves licence, men with wrongful deceit will violate, touch and move. But if anyone touches or moves a boundary stone, extending his own possessions or diminishing those of someone else, for this crime he will be condemned by the gods. If slaves shall do this, they shall be moved to a lower status by their owner. But if this is done with the knowledge of the master, the household will be immediately uprooted, and the whole of his family will perish. The people responsible will be afflicted by the worst diseases and wounds and their limbs will be weakened. Then even the land will be shaken by storms or whirlwinds and many landslips. The crops will be frequently laid low and cut down by rain and hail, they will perish in the heat of the summer, they will be killed off by blight. There will be civil strife amongst the people. Know that these things happen, when such crimes are committed. Therefore do not be either a deceitful or treacherous. Place restraint in your heart. ..." . é The Disciplina Etrusca
The disciplina etrusca seems to have comprised three categories of books of fate. The first was that of the libri haruspicini, which dealt with divination from the livers of sacrificed animals; the second, the libri fulgurates, on the interpretation of thunder and lightning; the third, the libri rituales, which covered a variety of matters. They contained, as Festus says, "prescriptions concerning the founding of cities, the consecration of altars and temples, the inviolability of ramparts, the laws relating to city gates, the division into tribes, curiae and centuriae, the constitution and organization of armies, and all other things of this nature concerning war and peace.

Among the libri rituales were also three further categories: the libri fatales, on the division of time and the life-span of individuals and peoples; the libri Acherontici, on the world beyond the grave and the rituals for salvation; and finally, the ostentaria, which gave rules for interpreting signs and portents and laid down the propitiatory and expiatory acts needed to obviate disaster and to placate the gods. é Education
So complex and all-embracing a doctrine naturally required long and laborious study. For this, the Etruscans had special training institutes, among which that at Tarquinii early enjoyed the highest repute. These institutes were much more than priests' seminaries in the modern sense. To judge by their range of studies they were a kind of university with several faculties. For their curricula included not only religious laws and theology, but also the encyclopaedic knowledge required by the priests, which ranged from astronomy and meteorology through zoology, ornithology, and botany to geology and hydraulics. The last subject was the specialty of the aquivices who advised the city-states on all their hydraulic engineering projects. They were expert diviners who knew how to find subterranean water and how to bore wells, how to dig water channels, supply drinking water in the towns, and install irrigation and drainage systems in the fields. In addition they could create artificial reservoirs and they collaborated with other priests who specialized in constructing subterranean corridors and tunneling mountains. In Etruria, as in the ancient East, theological and secular knowledge were not separated. Whatever man set himself to do on earth must be in consonance with the cosmos. Thus all the efforts of the priests were directed upon the heavens when it was necessary to discover the will of the gods in accordance with the sacred doctrine. The orientation and division of space were of crucial importance as much in divination from an animal's liver as in laying the foundation of a temple, in interpreting a shooting star as in surveying land and marking out a garden and field. é Rituals and Planning
Heaven and earth were imagined as being quartered by a great invisible cross consisting of a north-south axis called cardo and an east-west line called decumanus, to use the Latin terms. All ritual and religious observance was based on this division of celestial and terrestrial space. It alone enabled the priests to decipher and understand the signs emanating from the gods. And every sacral and secular undertaking on earth had to be coordinated with it. For the Etruscans believed that auspicious and inauspicious powers were irrevocably and for all eternity located in the four quarters of the sky, in accordance with the cosmic stations of the gods. The east was considered of good augury, because there the highest deities, those favourable to man, had chosen to dwell. The north east was the most auspicious and promised good fortune. In the south the gods of earth and nature ruled. The terrible and merciless gods of the underworld and of fate dwelt, it was believed, in the drear regions of the west, especially i n the quarter between north and west, which was the most inauspicious. The Etruscans even evolved a system of town planning based on these religious concepts, which were likewise reflected in the elaborate ritual prescribed for the foundation of a new city. In Etruria the town laid out in accordance with the sacred rules was considered a minute portion of the cosmos, harmoniously integrated with an all-embracing order governed by the gods.

The priest, after fixing the north-south and east-west lines by the sky, turned to the south and pronounced the words: "This is my front, and this my back, this my left and this my right."

Then wearing his conical hat (which survives today in the form of the Bishop's mitre) and holding his lituus (the Bishop's crook), he solemnly marked out the cross of the cardo and the decumanus. |

Etruscan Priest |

é
Belief in Predestination
The Etruscans believed in predestination. Although a postponement is sometimes possible by means of prayer and sacrifice, the end is certain. According to the libri fatales as described by Censorinus, Man had allocated to him a cycle of seven times twelve years. Anyone who lived beyond these years, lost the ability to understand the signs of the Gods.

The Etruscans also believed the existence of their people was also limited by a timescale fixed by the gods. According to the doctrine, ten saecula were allotted to the Etruscan name. This proved very accurate, and it is often said that the Etruscan people predicted their own downfall. é Etruscan Deities

The following list of Deities is not exhaustive.
The Etruscan Pantheon is quite extensive since the Etruscan Cities were autonomous and each had slightly different traditions, and in some cases, languages.

Etruscan Deity | Other Equiv. | Comments | Aita,Eita | Pluto | Ruler of the dead & personification of the underworld. Wolf's head from Greek Hades | Aivas, Eivas, Evas | Ajax | aivas tlamunus, aivas vilates - Terror " | Ani | Janus | God of Beginnings. Sky god (North)
Note: Ani/Ana (male/female) | Aplu | Apollo | Weather God:Thunder and lightning. Wears laurel Wreath, holds staff & laurel twig. | Artumes/Artimi | Artemis | Goddess of night and death, Growth in nature. | Atuns | Adonis | Rebirth God. *(Boy, Oracle, Voice of the Gods.) Consort for Turan | Cautha, Cath | | Sun god. Often shown rising from the ocean. | Cel,Cilens | Celens | Equivalent of Greek Gaia. Ati/Apa Cel: Mother/ Father Earth | Charontes | | Etruscan demons of death. Name suggests a connection with Charun/Charon. | Cul, Culsu | | Culsu: The Etruscan demoness: guards the underworld. Torch & scissors. | Evan | | Goddess of personal immortality, belongs to the Lasa | Ethausva | | Winged Lady in service to Tinia | Februus | | Purification, Initiation & the dead. Associated with February | Feronia | | Etruscan Goddess who protects freedmen, associated with woodlands, fire & fertility. | Fufluns, (Pacha?) | Bacchus? | God of wine, Rebirth, Spring. Wild Nature. Fertility.Son of the earth-goddess Semia. | Horta | | Goddess of Agriculture | Herc/Horacle/Hercle | Heracles | Strength & Water ? | Karun/Charun | Charon | Demon of death; Blue Demon? With Red hair and snake, feathered wings and an axe or hammer. Or human with red hair & beard. | Laran | | God of war. Youth with helmet and spear | The Lasa: Alpan, Evan, Racuneta & Vecu | | Female deities, guardians of graves. Attributes: mirrors & wreaths. | Lasa Vecu | Nymph Vegoia | Prophesy | Leinth | | Faceless goddess. Waits at the Gates of the Underworld with Eita | Letham/Lethans | | Protector, lives in Eita (underworld) | Lusna, Losna | | Moon Goddess | Mania & Mantus | | Guardians of the underworld. Mantus is associated with the city Mantua | Maris | Mars | Agriculture. Fertility. Savior God. | Menrva | Minerva | Goddess of Wisdom & the arts. Born from the head of Tinia | Nethuns | Neptune | God of Water & Moisture.Trident,anchor seahorse,dolphins | Nortia | Fortuna | Goddess of fate and fortune. At the beginning of the New Year a nail was driven into a wall in her sanctuary as a fertility rite. | Persipnei/Ferspnai | Persephone/ Prosperpine | Queen of the Underworld. | Satres | Saturn | God of time and necessity. Old man carrying a sickle and hour glass. sand | Selva | Silvanus | Earth God,Woodlands | Semla | Semele | Mother of Atuns. In common Mother and child motif. | Sethlans, Velchans | Vulcan | Axe God. Fire, the Forge | Silenus | Silenus | The Satyr. *Wild Nature" | Tarchies,Tages | | Boy, Oracle, Voice of the Gods. Appeared from ploughed field. 2 snakes for legs | Tecum | | God of the Lucomones(Ruling class) | Thalna | | Winged Lady. Lover of Tinia. Goddess associated with childbirth | Thesan | Aurora ? | Goddess of the Dawn, Childbirth | Thethlumth | | Underworld deity, fate | Tuchulcha | | Grotesque demon. Horse's ears, a vulture's beak and snakes in his hands. | Thufltha(s) | | A fury: Inflicts punishment on behalf of Tins | Tinia Tins | Jupiter | Supreme God. Sky god.With Uni, & Menrva forms a triad of gods. Attributes: Lightning bolts, spear and a scepter. | Tiv(r) | | Moon deity (cf Germanic Tiw) | Tluscva (Tellus and Tellumo) | | Tellus and Tellumo, Earth mother and father. | Turan | Venus | Goddess of love, health & fertility, Goddess of the city Vulci. Usually portrayed as a young woman with wings on her back. Attributes: Pigeon and black swan. Accompanied by the Lasas. Wife of Maris. | Turms | Mercury | Trade and Merchandise. Messenger of the Gods. Winged shoes / Heralds staff | Turns Aitas | | "Hermes of Hades" Leader of the dead. | Tvath | Demeter | Goddess of Resurrection, Love for the Dead | Uni | Juno | The supreme goddess. She is the goddess of the cosmos, City goddess of Perugia. Together with her husband Tinia and the goddess Menrva she forms a triad. Mother of Hercle (Hercules). | Usil | | Sun God | Veive | | God of revenge: Youth with laurel wreath & arrows in hand. A goat stands next to him. | Vanth | | female demon of death. Lives in the underworld. With the eyes on her wings she sees all and is omni-present. Herald of death and can assist a sick person on his deathbed. Attributes:snake,torch & key. | Veltha | Voltumna, Vertumnus | Original God of the Etruscans, Patron of the Etruscan League Centred on the Fanum Voltumnae in Volsinii.God of Change,Seasons. | Vetis | | Underworld god of death and destruction | Etruscan Territory
Click on the slide show on the left at any stage to get a more detailed description

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It is hard to determine exactly when the history of the Etruscans started, but most writers now agree on the period between the tenth-eleventh century BCE as the early beginnings of what was to become the Etruscans. There is no distinct change occuring between the "Villanovan" period and that of the Etruscans.The maximum extent of Etruscan expansion occurred around the middle of the 6th Century, and that territory corresponded almost exactly to that of the Villanovan phase, which also included the Northern Centres and Campania. Latium had its own unique characteristics which marked it apart from that of the true Villanovan period, but there were marked differences even within what is taken to be Etruscan territory, for example the Northern Etruscan disposition towards cremation as opposed to inhumation in the south.

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The Etruscan obsession with elaborate burials leads us to suppose that they may have had an underlying belief, similar to the Egyptians that a part of the soul remained with the body, or at least that the body was important for the afterlife. Having said that, the earliest grave sites were cremations, with the ash being retained either in biconical urns, or urns fashioned to represent huts. Gradually inhumation burials began to appear, the first being in Tarquinia and Caere, and during the Orientalizing period eventually became the prevailing rite, except in northern Etruria, where cremation persisted right up to the 1st century BC, epitomised by the elaborately carved alabaster urns of Volterra.

In the Orientalizing period the use of writing, the potter's wheel, and monumental funerary architecture reflected the accumulation of luxury goods of gold and ivory and exotic trade items such as ostrich eggs, tridacna shells, and faience. Many scholars hypothesize the existence of a powerful aristocratic class, and craftsmen, merchants, and seamen would have formed a middle class; it was probably at this time that the Etruscans began to maintain the elegant slaves for which they were famous.

(Various Greek and Roman authors report on how Etruscan slaves dressed well and how they often owned their own homes. They easily became liberated and rapidly rose in status once they were freed.)
Funerary Games
The passion for games was very widespread among the Etruscans. Besides the funereal games of the Phersu (See: tomb of the Augurs), other games of skill were popular ( See tomb of the Juggler): In this game, the objective was to throw a series of disks into a large wine crater balanced on the head of a female performer. The game of Pertica, consisted of a slippery wooden pole which competitors had to climb.Sporting competitions were important events in the Etruscan world and took place at religious ceremonies such as funerals. Athletic competitions took place in the stadiums while horse races took place in the Hippodrome. One of the most frequent competitions was the chariot race, as illustrated in dramatic detail in the Tomb of the Bigas in Tarquinia. In the arena jumpers and discus and javelin throwers also competed. The Tomb of the Olympic Games shows some graphic details of such sports together with crowds of spectators.
Table showing examples of Etruscan Tombs Period | Caere | Tarquinia | Others | Villanovan | Cremations- biconical or hut shaped urns; | Cremation, Biconical Urns
Early trench graves; | Mostly cremation | 7th Century | Tumulus II
(Tomb of the Beds and Sarcophagi)
Tomb of Regolini Galassi
Tomb of the Hut
Tomb of the Five Chairs
Tomb of the Painted Lions | | Tomb of the ducks (anatre),Veii
The Campana Tomb,Veii | 600-520BCE | Tomb of the Capitals
Tomb of the Greek Vases
Tomb of the Frame | Tomb of the Olympiads
Tomb of the Augurs
Tomb of the Bulls
Tomb of The Jugglers
Tomb of the Lionesses | | 520-500BCE | Tomb of the clay (argilla)
Tomb of the Shields & Chairs
Tomb Of Giuseppe Moretti | Tomb of the Baron
The Cardarelli Tomb
Tomb of the Painted Vases
Tomb of Hunting and Fishing | | 5th Century | Tomb of the Polychromes | Tomb of the Ship
Tomb of the Triclinium
Tomb of the Leopards
Tomb of the Chariots
Tomb of the Blue Demons
Tomb of the Funerary Bed | Tomb of the Monkey,Chiusi | 4th-3rd Century |
Tomb of the Reliefs
Tomb of the Sea Waves
Tomb of the Tasmnii
Tomb of the Alcoves | Tomb of the Shields
Tomb of Orcus | Francois Tomb, Vulci |

ETRUSCAN LIFESTYLE

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Introduction | | | Music | | | Fashion | | | Horses | | | The Aristocracy | | | Architecture | | | Home | | |

Introduction

The internal walls of Etruscan tombs such as those at Cerveteri and Tarquinii still contain the remains of magnificent murals which give us a considerable insight into the Etruscan way of life. A commonly recurring theme is the banquet, which in the case of the Necropolis paintings, carried a double meaning. For the banquet was also an intrinsic part of the religious ceremony at funerals. After all the formal funeral ceremonies were complete, the relatives of the deceased were treated to a sumptuous banquet, at which the spirit of the departed was believed to attend.
In Etruscan daily life, the banquet was very much a status symbol, indicating to all and sundry that the hosts had "arrived" in the estimation of the Etruscan social elite. Certainly in the heyday of the Etruscan league, around the seventh century BCE a wide reaching trading network (the first EEC) had been well established with far flung parts of Europe. Etruscan bronzes have been found as far afield as Hassle in Sweden. Ships loaded with amphorae and the bounties of Etruscan mining and agriculture were traded throughout the Mediterranean and possibly into the Atlantic Ocean as far as Madeira. As a result of all this, life for the rich Etruscans was extremely pleasant.
Lavish receptions were laid on, in which the guests; men and women of high social standing, reclined on couches waited on by numerous servants, and were entertained by musicians and dancers swaying to the hypnotic but strident rhythms of music played by Etruscan virtuosos.
The tables were covered with elaborately embroidered table cloths, on to which the various dinner courses were arranged. The dishes included generous selections of fish such as Tuna, and meats such as hare, deer and birds (Wild boar was a particular favourite). Grapes were originally native to the Arabian peninsula, but widely grown by the beginning of the first millennium BCE. The Etruscans probably introduced grapes and wine to Italy around the 9th Century BCE. çé Music

What we know of Etruscan music comes to us from the impressions and feelings gained from the many tomb illustrations, or from the mysterious inscriptions on sarcophagus lids. We base our scant knowledge of Etruscan music from the few testimonies which survive from ancient sources, and as far as written score is concerned, there are no examples. Only with the Pythagorean system of the Ancient Greeks can we talk with some certainty of true musical scores, in some cases carved on grave steles, which represent the various Ancient Greek musical traditions. Modern interpretation of such notation is very theoretical and the true values of the musical notes can only be estimated.
Most writers believe, based on the absence of musical manuscripts, that the Etruscans seem to have more of an oral rather than a written musical tradition. On the other hand there is nothing more than circumstancial evidence to suggest otherwise.
The Liber Lintaeus of Zagreb, believed by some to be part of one the Etruscan sacred books, appears to contain certain repetitive rhythmic phrases, which would indicate congregational involvement in the litturgies. Certain tablets found in Etruscan tombs also show rhythmic patterns, indicative of poetry or verse. Those sources together with tomb illustrations showing numbers of musicians playing together, and accounts by Livy of Etruscan theatre tend to lend credence to the viewpoint that such elaborately planned events may have had rehearsals possibly utilising written scores.
The important role of music in all significant aspects of life: banquets, religious celebrations, funeral rites; and its asscoiation magical and spiritual aspects tend to add weight to this argument.
Music accompanied both work and leisure activities. Solemn ceremonial events such as the games of the annual Fanum Voltumnae were accompanied by professional Musicians and dancers as attested by Titus Livius. It featured during sporting competitions, and military drills, during hunting and funeral activities, as well as providing background ambience during the banquets that went on within the walls of the sumptuous palaces of the aristocracy. But this music was played not only during the meal itself (SYNDEIPNON), but also while the food was being prepared and of course during the long convivial drinking sessions spent after meals (the origin of the term SYMPOSIUM).
During the funeral ceremony, the sweet inviting sound of the Auleta (flute) and lyre, would lighten the atmosphere of the banquet, persuading participants to dance. We know little of the original Etruscan names of the musical instruments and therefore use the Latin or Greek names instead. We can classify them in their various groupings:
Percussive instruments such as Bells, Campanella (Tintinnabulum) and castanets (crotalus) are found, such instruments easily carried by young dancers.
From Pliny the Elder's description of the tomb of Lars Porsenna, we can draw some interesting conclusions. As with many other objects with Apotropaic function, bells were mounted on the tomb with the objective of producing sounds when they were moved by the wind, thus repelling evil presences.
Stringed instruments:
Lyres, usually with seven strings (Heptacord).
Kithara or Barbitones.
Lyres can be divided into two types: Those where the sound box was made of the shell of a turtle (lyra and barbitos) and those made of wood (kithara and phorminx). In Ancient Greek times, the Lyrae and Barbitos were used by amateur musicians, the kithara and phorminx by professionals.
According to Greek mythology, the invention of the lyre is attributed to Hermes. When Hermes was one day old, he climbed out of his cradle and found the shell of a turtle. He stretched the pelt of a cow around it, fixed the two horns through the leg holes of the turle and tied strings across it.
One day, when Hermes stole some sheep from Apollo, the latter was soothed by the sound of the instrument. Hermes escaped punishment and the instrument gained its divine status.

Wind instruments
The Tuba was a straight trumpet made out of copper or iron. It was a long tube with a length of about 120-140 centimeters finishing in a bell shape. In its usual form (from later Roman models) it came in 3 parts with a mouthpiece. The origin is Etruscan and has many similarities with the Greek Salpinx. The difference between these two is that the end of the tube of the salpinx had the form of a tulip. They were both used in the army and during games. The objective was to sound as loud as possible. The sound of it according to Ennius invoked fear and panic in the minds of enemies: "at tuba terribili sonitu taratamtara dixit". As in later Roman times, the tuba was used at sacrifices, triumphal processions and funerals. However its main purpose was to give signals for tactical movements during battle.
The Lituus - The term Lituus has two meanings: A crooked staff, usually held by powerful individuals in the religious and political arena, and often used to trace signs in the sky or on the ground for ritual division purposes"; but it was also an L-shaped wind instrument. The instrument was usually made of bronze and could be up to 160 cm long.
The Cornu (from the Latin "horn"), was a coiled brass instrument, often of huge diameter (in Pompeii an example was found with a diameter of 150 cm). It was probably coiled so that it could be worn across the shoulders (Its possible origins was for the hunt, but in later years it became an instrument of ceremony). Its longer length gave it more musical versatility than the tuba
The Tibia: a type of flute. According to Livius, the Tibia was played by Etruscan musicians during the Ludi Scenici, organised during the fourth century BCE to counter the great plague of Rome.
The Aulos or double flute, which could almost be called the Etruscan national instrument had two divergent flute-pieces attached to a double mouthpiece, often fixed to the lips of the player by means of a Capistrum, or a strap around the head. The virtuosity of Etruscan flautists was almost legendary among the Greeks and Romans. Timaeus, writing in the fourth century BCE, gives us an account of how the Etruscans made practical use of the entrancing and melodious graces of the Etruscan flute to lure wild boars out of the wilds only to be caught by waiting huntsmen.

Examples of Etruscan performers can be seen vividly portrayed on the walls of the Tomb of the Triclinium in Tarquinia.

While the Musicians work their musical magic, The dancers, depicted in an Idyllic landscape move with subtle expressive movements, wearing diaphanous veils or colourful cloaks (Tebenna) often knotted on their shoulder, or folded in the hands, similar to modern day dancers from Ionian Greece.

Music often accompanied the rhythmical movements of dancers, whose dance was not just for entertainment, but in some cases was linked to various rituals including funeral celebrations.
Music was also used in the Etruscan performing arts. As well as mime, the Etruscans gave theatrical performances with the various dramatis personae represented by masked histrioni, or theatrical performers. From the 4th Century BCE, there was considerable influence by Greek theatre. çé Fashion
In the 7th century BCE, Etruscan clothing was very similar to that of the Greek archaic period. The men in the archaic age wore a kind of robe, which was knotted at the front. In later times this gave way to the "tunica" which was worn over the head, usually with a colourful cape slung over the shoulders. This cape, usually wide and heavily embroidered, became the national costume of Etruria - the "tebenna", later to become the Roman toga.

Women wore a long tunic down to the feet, usually of light pleated material and was typically decorated on the edges. Over this was worn a heavier colorful mantle.

The most common types of footwear were high sandals, ankle boots and one characteristic type of shoe, with upward curving toes, possibly of Greek or Oriental origin.
The most common head wear was a woolen hat, but these came in many different forms such as caps, conical type hats, pointed hoods and wide brimmed hats, such as are still worn to this day by Tuscan farmers. Often the hat identified the person that wore them with a particular social class. From the end of the 5th century BCE, it became more common not to wear a hat. Also from the 5th century BCE men, who previously wore a beard, began to shave and to wear short hats.
The regalia of later Roman times, such as the purple robes worn by the emperors, were of Etruscan origin, as were a number of symbols often ascribed to Rome such as the Lictor and Fasces.
Women wore a great variety of hairstyles including long, shoulder length, knotted or interlaced behind the shoulders, in later times, the hair was worn shorter, and was knotted at the crown of the head or collected in gauze mantles or caps.
The magnificent robes of the patrician women were finished off with exquisite jewellery including ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets and fibulae. In its time, Etruscan Jewellery was unsurpassed by any other in Europe.
The bronzes of Etruria were equally celebrated throughout Europe, North Africa and the middle East. çé The Aristocracy
The Aristocracy or dominant class in the Etruscan cities originated in the remote past and was composed of rich families of local and overseas origin. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Lucius was probably a corruption of the Etruscan title "Lucumo"), was the first Etruscan king of Rome. It was probably his limited chances of political advancement in Tarquinii which prompted him to found a city among the sheep herders who lived around the Palatine hill, later to become the Romans.
The Etruscan aristocracy held the keys to power in the Etruscan cities, and was largely made up of rich families of noble descent together with rich merchants and land owners with aspirations to enter the elite social order.
From the tomb inscriptions, we can read the names of some of these families, such as the Apatrui,and Spitu from Tarquinii; and the Acvilna and Hathli families from Vulci for example.
Each of the cities in the Etruscan league of twelve, together with the Po Valley cities to the North of Italy were independent states. It may have been the fact that the ruling classes in each city were unwilling to join forces with other city states, that ultimately left the Etruscans vulnerable to attack from the Celts, and later the Romans, leading to the downfall of the civilisation.
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Architecture

Etruscan city planning was on a rigid planning system as determined by the disciplina etrusca. Houses were laid out in streets with sewage lines located under the roads. Early Rome as founded by the Etruscans was laid out in a similar fashion. Following the invasion of Rome by the Celts during the days of the Early republic, the local population begrudgingly rebuilt the city, but the final result was a more hap-hazard street pattern with housing built above sewer lines in many cases, resulting in disease epidemics.
While the Romans are admired for their magnificent aquaducts, the Etruscans reticulated water by means of underground water pipes and pressure boxes- a technology which was not passed on to the Romans. A form of underfloor heating was used, which continued on with the Romans in later years.
The pillars used by the Etruscans to support Temples and other public works complied with defined ratios, and computer models show that in terms of Engineering, they were an improvement on the Greek Corinthian, Doric and Ionian orders.
Arches, unknown in Classical Greece, were originally used in Mesopotamia, and were introduced to Italy by the Etruscans. They were used to good effect by the Romans in later years.
The residences of the Etruscan ruling classes were typically characterised by a wide central courtyard entered from an "Atrium Tuscanicum" as the Romans called it. The word Atrium itself comes from the Etruscan word for entrance or harbour, as in the Etruscan port of Atrii which gave its name to the Adriatic sea.. Several other rooms led off from this central courtyard. The Etruscan villa was the precursor to the later Roman Villa.
The buildings were single storey and were built with blocks of stone as a foundation. The walls were constructed with frames of wood and clay plastering.
The typical shape of the roof was eaved, but terraced roofs were also built. The exterior and interior walls of the houses were frescoed with geometric patterns or with moulded terracotta. Painted scenes adorned the interiors. As in Roman times, it was common to have painted pictures in frame like sections giving an overall effect of pictures hanging on a wall.

ETRUSCAN ENGINEERING & AGRICULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS

Introduction | | | Land Improvement | | | Geology | | | The port of Spina | | | Agriculture | | | Home | | |

Introduction
All Etruscan Engineering knowledge was inextricably entwined with the disciplina etrusca and the core of Etruscan religion. When I said that to a modern day engineer, he laughed and said, "What do you mean- They built something, then prayed that it would work ?"

Like many peoples of the time, including the Celtic druids for example, rituals passed down from the dark and distant past formed an intrinsic and essential part of the knowledge base for all walks of life. If it is accepted that the Etruscans origined in Asia Minor, then their forefathers would have come in contact with numerous ancient civilisations going back as far as the dawn of civilisation itself in Mesopotamia.

The rituals of Etruscan religion have much in common with the ancient Sumerian and later Akkadian civilisations. The examination of livers, and the assigning of sectors of the liver to sectors of the cosmos was one such common theme. é Land Improvement
The Etruscans had a deep knowledge of Hydrology and hydraulics, a knowledge which they put to good use in their many land drainage schemes. The lower lying portions of Rome such as the area between the Capitol and Velia was formerly marshland. Settlement of the low-lying ground would never have been a possibility without the hydraulic engineering skills of the Etruscans.This took place around 625 BCE when, according to archaeological evidence a network of drainage channels was dug through the marshy ground, and at the same time, the stream that separated the two hills of the Capitoline and Palatine was regulated, its embankments were strengthened, and it was finally covered over.

That remarkable structure, the Cloacha Maxima, which is still functioning today is the outlet of an underground canal which runs for some six hundred yards from the Forum and keeps it dry by collecting the water that flows down the Quirinal and Viminal. Pliny the Elder in his "Natural History" talks of "the public sewers, a work more stupendous that any; as mountains had to be pierced for their construction……Navigation had to be carried out beneath Rome….It is said that Tarquinius made these sewers of dimensions sufficiently large to admit of a wagon laden with hay passing along them"

Nowadays, the sewer systems of Rome are taken for granted. é Knowledge of Geology
At Viterbo, where the remains of Etruscan Surina lie, the underlying rock is perforated by innumerable channels, devised to drain the ground. Their construction shows that the builders had an incredibly detailed knowledge of the local geology. Below the topsoil lie volcanic formations of tufa, and beneath that again, a deeply fissured layer. A modern report reads " The deep layer is saturated with moisture from the subterranean outflow of the crater lakes. The topsoil absorbs all the rainwater. The surplus from the two layers passes into the middle layer from which it cannot evaporate and which remains permanently wet. The land was only dry and healthy as long as water was removed from this absorbent layer of Tufa". Investigation has shown that it was precisely through this layer that the Etruscans drove their cuniculi, as the drainage tunnels are called.

This knowledge of hydraulic engineering was also put to good use in regulating river flows, in preventing the silting up of harbours, and in providing a complex system of reticulated water for public use. This has long since fallen into disuse, although traces of the pressurised water systems have been found in recent times. é The Ancient City of Spina

Over the centuries the belief lingered on that here had been a great, wealthy, powerful commercial city that dominated the mouth of the Po and the shores of the Adriatic, a city of luxury and splendor, a kind of ancestor and predecessor of Venice, founded more than a thousand years later.

Classical scholars also knew about Spina, for ancient literary sources indicated that there must once have existed a thriving maritime trading settlement of great economic importance, until the Celtic invasion of the Po valley destroyed it. Pliny the Elder refers to Spina in his Natural History. Strabo, the Greek geographer who lived in Rome at the beginning of the Christian era and wrote the seventeen books of his Geography, had seen with his own eyes the "village" which in his time was all that remained of the "anciently celebrated" city.

In the Renaissance, Flavio Biondo, the archaeologist and historian from Forli, was the first to look for the lost city, and since then the question of its history and whereabouts has more than once intrigued scholars and whetted their scientific curiosity. They knew, in a general way, where to search. Somewhere in the region where the Po over the centuries has pushed its deposits of sediment farther and farther into the shallow sea, in the desolate, strange wilderness of lagoons that stretches along the coast as far as Ravenna, somewhere under the sand and mud, under the brackish water or the barren marshes, Spina must lie. But the great question remained—Where exactly along this extensive stretch of coast should the search begin?

It was only in this century, in the quite recent past, that an unusual clue was found. At the beginning of the twenties, museum officials and antique dealers were driven to a surprising deduction. They realized that there must be people who had some how managed to tap a rich source in ancient Spina, because other wise it was impossible to explain how Greek vases and Etruscan bronzes kept turning up on the black market for antiques. An army of snoopers was set in motion, the police and customs officials were roped in to help. But the result was nil; nothing was discovered about the source. Nobody suspected how the illegal diggers pursued their clandestine and highly profitable trade within range of numbers of official observers, and under the eyes of the police. As it later turned out, the diggers were in fact fishermen. They lived at Comacchio, an ancient little town on a wide lagoon, some nineteen miles north of Ravenna. The shallow waters of the famous vault with their marshes and seabirds, which stretch far and wide all round the little fishing town, provided a bountiful "hunting ground." Eels are the principal catch, and the fishermen quite openly and officially went out to fish for eels in the traditional way. In their shallow-draft flat boats they glided slowly over the wide waters, armed with their traditional harpoonlike lance. This, they discovered, could be used to fish up not only eels, but also the much more lucrative, indeed highly valuable painted vases. Just one of these would bring in more than months of laborious fishing of the ordinary sort. Thus, in complete secrecy, a profitable vase fishing industry went on, and no outsider noticed anything. After all, why should anyone see anything unusual in eel fishers going out at night?

It was by chance, as the result of an administrative measure for quite different purposes, that one day the authorities got on the track of the Comacchio fisher folk. The government had decided on the draining and reclamation of the troublesome flooded areas. No sooner had the work begun in I922 than there was a surprise discovery in the Valle Trebba, about four miles west of Comacchio. The workmen came upon a vast necropolis, and what they dug out—the first legal archaeological finds—revealed the site of ancient Spina.

Under the supervision of Enrico Arias, director of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale of Ferrara, the contents of the first graves were dug out. When scores upon scores of magnificent vases were found, it suddenly became clear why the people of Comacchio had so vigorously opposed the land reclamation scheme. They feared that it would rob them of their main source of income, the vase fishing grounds which had proved so profitable.

Soon Professor Arias's assistant, the young archaeologist N. Alfieri, was put in charge of the excavations, and he quickly recognized that these burials differed from those in Tuscany. He found no imposing tomb chambers, no sarcophagi or stone funerary urns. And instead of grave stelae, the sand yielded only smooth slabs of rock.

For all that, the grave goods were rich and splendid. The votive gifts of 1,213 graves were recovered before the campaign was interrupted in I935. They included Etruscan bronzes and gold jewellery—and imported Attic vases dating from the sixth to |fourth century BCE The glass cases of the Ferrara archaeological museum rapidly filled up with the unexpected treasures from the Valle Trebba. It seemed that the great goal, Spina itself, could not be far away. So large a necropolis, with such richly furnished graves, could not be all that distant from the city whose inhabitants had been buried there for centuries. But this assumption was not confirmed until work on the and reclamation scheme was resumed after an interval of eighteen years. In an area hitherto submerged under the waters of the Valle Pega, a second and equally large necropolis was discovered in I954. A further 1,810 graves yielded up their treasures of pottery and bronze, all the various articles of luxury and daily use which reflect the life o f the Etruscans. It seemed certain that Spina must lie somewhere between the two cemeteries. The final key to its ultimate discovery came from aerial photography. Some The photographs taken for the purposes of land cultivation schemes solved the centuries-old puzzle. This bird's-eye view of the northeastern edge of the Valli di Comacchio showed something unusual. Underneath the white lines of the modern drainage channels of the reclaimed area appeared a ghostly network of dark lines and light rectangles. Alfieri realized at a glance that the spectral dark lines indicated vegetation growing taller on the site of ancient canals and thus revealed the layout of the buried city. Not only the precise topographical situation was clear; even before the soil was touched by a spade, the town plan could be studied. The Insulae, the blocks of the individual houses could be resolved in the aerial photograph. And thus was discovered the ancient city of Spina, but it was no longer on the Adriatic coast.

Remeains of a palisade at Spina

Deposits of silt and sand from the Po over half a millennium had pushed the coast forward, and Spina, like Ravenna to the south, was far inland. When Strabo wrote his Geography in the first century CE, Spina was already "ninety stadia," some ten miles, distant from the coast. From the main channel of the Po the ramifications of a system of waterways spread out over the countryside. Pliny, who, as the commander of a fleet, may be presumed knowledgeable on such matters, says that this system was "first made by the Tuscans, thus discharging the flow of the river across the marshes of the Atriani called the Seven Seas, with the famous harbor of the Tuscan town of Atria which formerly gave the name of Atriatic to the sea now called the Adriatic." The "Seven Seas" mentioned by Pliny were lagoons, separated from the open sea by sandbanks. Amid this chain of lagoons the Etruscans made new canals to act as auxiliary branches of the P o. They constructed cross-connections between the individual lagoons, and then further connections between the former. The most northerly of these canals, the "Philistma,' led to Atria. Thus an extensive system of inland waterways was constructed along the coast. As late as the time of the emperor Vespasian, says Pliny, galleys could still travel from Ravenna to Etruria. Etruscan hydraulic experts contrived to do what seemed impossible, namely, to confine the wide river at Spina to its continually rising bed. They did this by means of the artificially constructed branches of the river and the canals. Even when "the melting of the snows at the rising of the Dogstar causes it to swell in volume," as Pliny puts it, this system carried the annual floods away into the lagoons and the sea. By this means they mastered the terrible inundations, with their dangers to land and people, which even now still occur in the region. "The masterpiece of their hydraulic know-how," says Mario Lopes Pegna, "was their abolition of the periodic scourge of floods in the lower reaches of the Po. This was a gigantic undertaking. Accomplished by digging a whole network of coordinated canals, and at the same time damming the river with caissons or brushwood. much further afield.

As well as Hydraulic engineering, the Etruscans were masters of a number of other branches of knowledge, including metallurgy and dentistry to give two examples. The Island of Elba was the source of much of the Iron and copper ores which contributed to the wealth of Etruria. The Island of Giglio also had copper mines, and the tools of the ancient miners were found when the mines was briefly re-opened early in the 20th Century. é Agriculture

Soon after about 700 BCE, the Etruscans commenced large scale land improvement schemes, including drainage, land reclamation and irrigation of drier areas. With this treatment the land flourished. Mario Lopes Pegna, the Italian Etruscologist says: "The Etruscans were the first to tackle and solve the problem of land improvement, and did so by a series of technical operations so ingenious as to arouse admiration even in our days. A complicated skillfully constructed network of canals collected surplus and stagnant water throughout Etruria and Latium. These waters were then channeled to wherever they were needed for farming purposes, and any excess still remaining was carried in big drains down to the sea....... The Etruscans first developed the technique of dry farming and applied it to the arid soils of the Maremma hills"

Etruscan Language

En Français

Introduction | | | Alphabet | | | Interpretation | | | Paleography | | | Numbers | | | Home | | |

Introduction
Unlike Greek and Latin, Etruscan, the third great ancient language of culture in Italy, does not survive in any great literary works. An Etruscan religious literature did exist (1), and evidence suggests that there was a body of historical literature and drama (5) as well. Known, for example, is the name of a playwright, Volnius, of obscure date, who wrote "Tuscan tragedies". (4),(2) Although there is no evidence of notation, it is possible that Etruscan music was in written form. (6)
The Etruscan language is universally accepted as an isolated case. It cannot be shown conclusively to be related to any other language, living or dead, except for a couple of sparsely attested extinct languages.
Raetic, recorded in the Alps, was clearly related to Etruscan judging by the few inscriptions found.
Lemnian, recorded on the island of Lemnos, also appears to have been related to Etruscan. A third language, Camunic, sparsely recorded in NW Italy and written in the Etruscan alphabet, may possibly also have been related, but the evidence is too sparse to allow any safe conclusions.
Etruscan had ceased to be spoken in the time of imperial Rome, though it continued to be studied by priests and scholars. The emperor Claudius (d. 54 CE) wrote a history of the Etruscans in 20 books, now lost, which was based on sources still preserved in his day. The language continued to be used in a religious context until late antiquity; the final record of such use relates to the invasion of Rome by Alaric, chief of the Visigoths, in 410 CE,(1) when Etruscan priests were summoned to conjure lightning against the barbarians.
There is a corpus of over 10,000 known Etruscan inscriptions, with new ones being discovered each year. These are mainly short funerary or dedicatory inscriptions, found on funerary urns, in tombs or on objects dedicated in sanctuaries. Others are found on engraved bronze Etruscan mirrors, where they label mythological figures or give the name of the owner, and on coins, dice, and pottery. Finally, there are graffiti scratched on pottery; though their function is little understood, they seem to include owners' names as well as numbers, abbreviations, and non alphabetic signs.

The origin of the Etruscan alphabet is not in doubt. The first alphabet was invented by Semitic-speakers in the ancient Near East, though the Caananite and later Phoenician alphabets had only consonants, and no vowels. The Greeks derived their alphabet from the Phoenicians and added vowels, producing the first true alphabet. A western variety of the Greek alphabet was carried by the Euboean Greeks to Italy, and the Etruscans acquired the alphabet from them. The Etruscans in turn passed on the alphabet to the Romans.
(In its turn the Etruscan alphabet was diffused at the end of the Archaic period [c. 500 BCE] into northern Italy, becoming the model for the alphabets of the Veneti and of various Alpine populations; this happened concurrently with the formation of the Umbrian and the Oscan alphabets in the peninsula.)
The Germanic Runes (the Futharc) are now thought to derive from the Northern Etruscan alphabet, a fact which supports the existence of a vast Etruscan trading network.
Interpretation
The present day notion that there is a "mystery" regarding the Etruscan language is fundamentally erroneous; there exists no problem of decipherment, as is often wrongly asserted. The Etruscan texts are largely legible. The real problem with the Etruscan texts lies in the difficulty we have in understanding the exact meaning of the words and grammatical forms. A fundamental obstacle stems from the fact that no other known language has close enough kinship to Etruscan to allow a reliable, comprehensive, and conclusive comparison. The apparent isolation of the Etruscan language had already been noted by the ancients; it is confirmed by repeated and vain attempts of some to assign it to one of the various linguistic groups or types of the Mediterranean and Eurasian world.
However, there are in fact connections with Indo-European languages, particularly with the Italic languages, and also with more or less known non-Indo-European languages of western Asia and the Caucasus, the Aegean, Italy, and the Alpine zone as well as with the relics of the Mediterranean linguistic substrata revealed by place-names. This means that Etruscan is not truly isolated; its roots are intertwined with those of other recognizable linguistic formations within a geographic area extending from western Asia to east-central Europe and the central Mediterranean, and its latest formative developments may have taken place in more direct contact with the pre-Indo-European and Indo-European linguistic environment of Italy. But this also means that Etruscan, as scholars know it, cannot simply be classified as belonging to the Caucasian, the Anatolian, or Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin, from which it seems to differ markedly in structure.
The traditional methods which have been employed in interpreting Etruscan are (S4):
(1) the etymological, which is based upon the comparison of word roots and grammatical elements with those of other languages and which assumes the existence of a linguistic relationship that permits an explication of Etruscan from the outside (this method has produced negative results, given the error in the assumption);
(2) the combinatory, a procedure of analysis and interpretation of the Etruscan texts rigorously limited to internal comparative study of the texts themselves and of the grammatical forms of the Etruscan words (this has led to much progress in the knowledge of Etruscan, but its defects lie in the hypothetical character of many of the conclusions due to the absence of external proofs or confirmations), and;
(3) the bilingual, based on the comparison of Etruscan ri tual, votive, and funera ry formulas with presuma bly analogous formulas from epigraphic or literary texts in languages belo nging to a closely connected geographic and historical environment, such as Greek, Latin, or Umbrian. Nonetheless, with the increase of reliable data, in part from more recent epigraphic discoveries (such as the Tabula Cortinensis and the Pyrgi Lamellae), the need to find the one right method appears to be of decreasing importance; all available procedures tend to be utilized.
Paleography
Of the longer inscriptions, the most important is the Zagreb mummy wrapping or "Liber Lintaeus", found in Egypt in the 19th century and carried back to Yugoslavia by a traveler (National Museum, Zagreb). It had originally been a book of linen cloth, which at some date was cut up into strips to be wrapped around a mummy. With about 1,300 words, written in black ink on the linen, it is the longest existing Etruscan text; it contains a calendar and instructions for sacrifice, sufficient to convey some idea of Etruscan religious literature.
From Campania, Italy comes an important religious text, inscribed on a tile at the site of ancient Capua. From Cortona comes an inscription on bronze,(top of article) which details a land contract between two families.
The few Etruscan-Latin bilingual inscriptions, all funerary, have some limited importance with respect to improving our knowledge of Etruscan. However, the inscribed gold plaques found at the site of the ancient sanctuary of Pyrgi, the port city of Caere, provide two texts; one in Etruscan and the other in Phoenician, of significant length (about 40 words) and of similar content. They are the equivalent of a bilingual inscription and thus offer substantial data for the elucidation of Etruscan by way of Phoenician, a known language. The find is also an important historical document, which records the dedication to the Phoenician goddess Astarte of a "sacred place" in the Etruscan sanctuary of Pyrgi by Thefarie Velianas, king of Caere, early in the 5th century BC.
The Pyrgi Lamellae

The following is an attempt to translate the (first) Pyrgi Tablet based on a number of sources. In the transliterataion I have used an upper case K to represent the Etruscan letter "ch" (as in the German Bach). The Etruscan letter which resembles the Greek Theta, pronounced like "th" in "thing" is represented by Anglosaxon "Eth" (ð). Original Etruscan: | Transliteration:............... ita.tmia.icac.he ramasva.vatieKe unial.astres.ðemia sa.meK.ðuta.ðefa riei.velianas.sal cluvenias.turu ce.munistas.ðuvas tameresca.ilacve. tulerase.nac.ci.avi l.Kurvar.tesiameit ale.ilacve.alsase nac.atranes.zilac al.seleitala.acnasv ers.itanim.heram ve.avil.eniaca.pul umKva. | Rough Translation:This temple and (this) statue have been dedicated to Uni / Astarte. Thefariei Velianas, head of the community, donated it for the worship of our peoples. This gift of this temple and sanctuary and the consecration of its boundaries during his three year term in the month of Xurvar(June?) in this way, and in Alsase (July?) this record together with the divinity/statue shall thus be buried by order of the Zilach that the years may outlast the stars. |