Exam 2 Review

BSC 2093 A&P I Lecture
Exam 2 Review Sheet Chapter 5: The Integumentary System Know figure 5.1
Identify the different structures that make up the integument including the dermal layers, Sweat and Oil glands, and Nerve Corpuscles that exist there Know that Skin accounts for 7% of the body weight (911 lbs) Know how to calculate percent skin from a given weight and vice versa. Know the name, shape, and characteristics of the cell types that exist in the Epidermis Keratinocytes  keratin producing cells that allow the skin to have its protective effect. Melanocytes  the spidershaped cells that produce melanin, a dark pigment. Merkel Cells  Spikedlike hemisphere cell important for touch sensation Langerhan=s cells  Starshaped macrophages that help activate our immune system Know the difference between Thick and Thin skin and where they can be found
(Thick has five layers thin has four) - what=s the extra layer that thick skin has? Know the names of the different Epidermal Layers, where they are located, and what cell types or characteristics can be associated with each layer. Stratum Basale - Lower most layer where Melanocytes and Merkel Cells can be found Stratum Corneum - Upper most layer Comprised primarily of dead cells Stratum Granulosum - Layer below Corneum and above Spinosum where keratinocytes can be found releasing granules of lipids and keratin. Stratum Spinosum - The layer above Basale where Langerhan=s cells and Keratinocytes can be found Know that the Dermis has two layers and their characteristics Papillary  thin superficial layer made up of areolar connective tissue
Reticular  Deeper and thicker layer made up of dense irregular connective tissue Know the different proteins that contribute to skin color, what colors they contribute, and where they are located Melanin (yellow, redishbrown, black)  comes from melanocytes
What is the enzyme that synthesizes Melanin? tyrosinase Carotene (yellow to orange)  comes from pigments in plants we eat and accumulates in fatty tissue of the hypodermis Hemoglobin (Pinkish)  comes from the color of oxygenated blood Know the different Skin Appendages and their characteristics
Sebaceous (oil) glands  Secrete an oily secretion called Sebum which empties into the hair follicle and skin pores to soften the skin and hair and reduce water loss Two Types of Sweat Glands Eccrine  a coiled gland that sits below the surface of the skin and secretes sweat from a long tubular structure onto the skin
Apocrine  Larger sweat glands that secretes sweat into the hair follicles Nails (Nail Matrix, Cuticle)
Know that Nails and Hair are made up of hard keratin Know the different Functions of the Integument and the different components that contribute to that function Chemical Barrier melanin  Prevents the effects of UV that can lead to skin cancer, acid pH  Low pH due to skin excretion, sebum  Bactericidal substance human defensin  natural antibiotic cathelicidins  prevents streptococcus bacteria Physical/Mechanical Barrier 
Keratin creates a hardness of skin while glycolipids prevent water loss and water penetration.
Know the different Substances that can penetrate the skin barrier are
Lipidsoluble substances  Oxygen, CO2, Fat soluble vitamins, and steroids
Oleoresins  Poison Ivy and Poison Oak
Organic solvents  acetone, dry cleaning solution, paint thinner
Salts of heavy metals  lead, mercury, and nickel
Drug agents called penetration enhancers
What is the chemotoxin that can be produced by Lime juice? Biological Barrier  Langerhan=s cells are macrophage cells that activate immune response Body Temperature Regulation  Sweating Cools the body, blood vessel constriction warms the body Cutaneous Sensation (exteroceptors) 
Meissner=s corpuscles, Merkel Cells  Light pressure and tactile sensations
Pacinian receptors  Deep pressure
Hair follicle receptors  Sensations of the hair
Bare nerve endings  Pain stimuli Metabolic Functions  Synthesizes Vitamin D & Keratinocyte enzymes Blood Reservoir  5% of the body=s blood Excretion  Water, Salt, Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid Know the different disorders that afflict the Integument and be able to identify them either by description or by looking at the picture (Figures from the book as well as those used in class) Types of Hair - Adults have two types of hair. Vellus hair is soft, fine, and usually short. It may be colorless. This gives the impression of "hairless skin@. In women, this occurs on the face, chest and back. Terminal hair is longer, coarser and thicker. Examples are the scalp, pubic and axillary hair in both men and women. Facial and body hair in men is also of the terminal hair. Hirsutism B An excess growth of terminal hair in locations where hair growth in women usually is minimal or absentY.usually occurs in androgenstimulated locations, such as the face, chest, stomach, back, upper thighs, upper arms and/or areolae. Hypertrichosis  An excess growth of terminal hair and the vellus hair on the face, chest, stomach, back, upper thighs, upper arms and areolae becomes dark. Alopecia  is a thinning or a balding of the scalp that can be seen in both men and women
Can be caused by: Acutely High Fever, Surgery, Severe emotional trauma, certain drugs, proteindeficiency, lactation, and autoimmune disease. Male Pattern Baldness  is a genetically determined sexinfluenced condition. Harlequin Ichthyosis - An inherited skin disorder which causes the thickening of the keratin skin layer in fetal skin. 1 in half a million babies are born with Harlequin Ichthyosis and most die of dehydration. It is 99% fatal, however there is one exceptionYRyan Gonzales who survived by using Acutane (a antiacne cream). Vitiligo  Skin pigmentation disorder where melanocytes die creating light patches on the skin Nevus B a rare genetic condition where there is an overproduction of melanocytes creating dark patches of skin Xeroderma Pigmentosum B a rare genetic condition in which DNA repair processes are defective causing susceptibility to chromosome breaks and cancers when exposed to ultraviolet light Port Wine Stain  Birth mark caused by an abnormal collection of dermal blood vessels Rosacea  Flushing of the skin as dermal blood vessels become engorged which can eventually disfigure the skin
Acne  is caused by the increase of oil production and the activation of the sebaceous glands during adolescence. Irritations and Dermatitis B Itching and scratching of the skin that can lead to an inflammatory response which can spread
Irritations are generally associated with external agitations while dermatitis is an inflammatory response that can lead to itching and scratching in response to an external irritant Psoriasis B Genetic trait that leads to an autoimmune attack that causes severe skin flaking (scales) and lesions of the skin (plagues) Eczema  Patches of skin become rough and inflamed leading to itching and bleeding Skin Cancers and Tumors  Overgrowth of skin cells Skin Cancers and Tumor - know the different types of cancers and their characteristics Warts  Benign cancers that result from virus infection Moles Benign cancers that emerge on the skin Basal Cell Carcinoma  cells of the stratum basale rapidly divide Squamous cell carcinoma  keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum Melanoma  Cancer of melanocytes (pigmented cells) Freckles Epithelioma
(Adenoids Cysticum)
(Calcification and Pseudoepitheliomatous)
Carcinoma of the Parotid
What does the Parotid do? Trophic Ulcers  Localized breakdown and ulceration due to interference in blood supply Fungal Infections  Various Fungi are capable of infecting the skin leading to irritation, inflammation, swelling and skin loss -
What is an example of a fungal infection? (Hint: think Foot) Burns  Tissue damage inflicted by heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals, and extreme cold
1st degree  only the epidermis
2nd degree  Epidermis and upper region of the Dermis
3rd degree  Burns the entire regions of the skin
What image was used at this time to indicate another type of burn besides the ones mentioned above? Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis Syndrome (TENS) B An immunecomplex mediated disorder that causes large sheets of epidermis and the underlying dermal surface to become necrotic. StevensJohnson Syndrome (SJS)  an inflammatory disorder of the skin and mucous membranes (mucocutaneous) that is triggered by an allergic reaction Supernumerary B having more than the typical number of body structures
Digits B fingers and toes
Breasts B the production of extra mammary tissue inbetween the mammary and axillary regions Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue Know the Three types of cartilage, their characteristics and sub categories, and what they look like (figure 4.8) Hyaline Cartilages - The most abundant Skeletal cartilage Types of Hyaline include
Articular Cartilage  ends of most bones
Costal Cartilage  connects ribs to sternum
Respiratory Cartilage  forms the skeleton of the larynx and reinforces respiratory passageways
Nasal Cartilage  supports the external nose Elastic cartilage  similar to hyaline except that it has elastic fibers. Found in two locations  external ear and the epiglottis Fibrocartilage  an intermediate between Hyaline and Elastic that are highly compressible and have great tensile strength. Found in padlike cartilages of the knee (menisci) and the disks between the vertebrae

Know that there are 206 bones in the adult human Know that the Skeleton can be separated into Axial and Appendicular Whereby Axial includes:
Skull
Hyoid
Vertebral Column
Rib Cage and the Appendicular includes:
The Upper Extremities
Clavicle, Scapula, Upper Arm (Humerus), Forearm (Radius and Ulna), and Hand
The Lower Extremities
Pelvic Girdle, Upper Leg (Femur), Lower Leg (Tibia and Fibula), and Foot Know the different Bone Types and where they can be found Long Bones - Arm, Leg, Metacarpals, Metatarsals, Phalanges
Short Bones - Wrist (Carpals) and Ankle (Sternum)
Flat Bones - Sternum, Os Coxa, Scapula, and Skull
Irregular Bones - Vertebrae
Round Bones - Knee cap Know the different Functions of Bones 1 Support  Provides the body framework and cradles the soft organs
2. Protection  Skull protects the brain, the vertebrae protects the spinal cord, and the rib cage protects the lungs
3. Movement  Skeletal muscles attach to bones and provide movement
4. Mineral Storage  Main reservoir for calcium and phosphate.
5. Blood Cell Formation (hematopoiesis)  Blood formation occurs in the marrow cavities of certain bones Know the different Bone Structures and their definitions Depressions and Cavities
Foramen  an opening in the bone that provides passageway for nerves and blood vessels Fossa  a shallow depression in the bone
Sulcus  a groove or furrow
Meatus  a canal or long tubelike passageway
Fissure  a narrow slit
Sinus  A cavity in a bone

Processes
Condyle  a rounded knucklelike eminence on a bone that articulates with another bone
Tuberosity  A large roughened process where muscle may anchor
Tubercle  A small rounded process
Trochanter  A very large process on a bone
Crest  A narrow ridge of bone
Spine  A sharp slender process Know figure 6.3 and the different Bone Components and their characteristics
Spongy Bone  A honeycomb of small needlelike or flat pieces, trabeculae, making up the inside of the bone
Compact Bone  Smooth dense bone that makes up the outer bone
Diaphysis  The neck or shaft of a long bone
Epiphysis  The ends of long bones
Metaphysis/ Epiphyseal plate  The area at which bone growth occurs
Medullary cavity  an tubular space in long bones where yellow marrow can be found
Endosteum  Connective tissue that lines the interior of the diaphysis and the trabecula of spongy bone
Yellow Marrow  Fat marrow
Red Marrow  Hematopoetic marrow
Periosteum  Connective tissue that surround the outer surface of bones
Articular Cartilage - The hyaline cartilage that surrounds the ends of bones (epiphysis)
Perforating (Sharpey=s) fibers  Secures the periosteum to the underlying bone Know the different Osteo words and definitions associated with them
Osteocytes  Spiderlike cells found in bone
Osteoblasts  Cells that build bone
Osteoclasts  Cells that breakdown bone
Osteon  structural unit of compact bone
Osteogenesis  The process during development that forms the bony skeleton

Know what Ossification is and the different subcategories and their characteristics Ossification  is the process that produces bone
Osteogenesis
Intramembranous ossification  the process by which flat bones of the Skull and the Clavicle are made Endochondral ossification  the process by which all other bones are made whereby Hyaline cartilage skeleton is replaced by bone. Bone growth  occurs after the formation of the bony skeleton until early adulthood Remodeling and repair  is the process by which bones maintain homeostasis even after adulthood Know what the different hormones do and where they are produced Growth Hormone - Hormone most responsible for bone growth produced in the Pituitary
Testosterone and Estrogen - hormone(s) responsible for promoting growth spurts and the feminization and masculinization of the bone produced by the sex organs
Calcitonin - stimulates calcium deposit in bone produced by the Thyroid
Parathyroid Hormone - stimulates osteoclasts to breakdown bone produced by the PT Know the different Bone Fractures
Nondisplaced Vs Displaced - Whether or not the bone has moved out of alignment
Complete Vs Incomplete - Whether or not the bone is broken all the way through
Linear Vs Transverse - Whether the break is parallel or perpendicular to the long axis of the bone
Open (compound) Vs Closed (Simple) - Whether or not the break penetrates the skin Know the different Homeostatic Imbalances that can affect Bone, what those disorders look like (pictures shown in class) and their characteristics Gigantism  Overproduction of Growth Hormone leads to increases in bone growth
Dwarfism  Underproduction of Growth Hormone
Osteomalacia  When Calciumsalt deposits are not being made even though osteoids are being produced
Rickets  When cartilage in the epiphyseal plates are not being calcified leading to bowed legs and deformities in the skull, pelvis, and rib cage.
Osteoporosis  Disease where bone resorption outpaces bone deposit.
Paget=s Disease  Caused by excessive bone deposit and resorption whereby there is a higher ratio of spongy bone to compact bone What is the famous wrestler=s name who suffered from Gigantism?

Chapter 7: The Skeleton Know the different bones of the skeleton Figure 7.1 and 7.21 Know the Bones of Skull (22 bones) Cranial Bones (Cranium)
Frontal Bone
Parietal Bone
Occipital Bone
Temporal Bone
Sphenoid Bone
Ethmoid Bone
Sutural Bone Facial bones
Mandible
Maxillary Bones
Zygomatic Bones
Nasal Bones
Lacrimal Bones
Palatine Bones
Vomer
Inferior Nasal Conchae Know the Cranial Sutures and what bones they join together Coronal Suture
Frontonasal Suture
Sagittal suture
Lamboidal suture
Squamousal suture
Occipitomastoid suture Know the openings of the skull Foramen Magnum
Infraorbital and Supraorbital Foramen
Internal and External Auditory Meatus Foramen
Incissive/ Anterior Palatine Foramen
Jugular Foramen
Mental Foramen
Optic Canal
Jugular Foramen

Know the different Paranasal Sinuses (Figure 7.11) Frontal Sinus
Ethmoid Sinus
Sphenoid Sinus
Maxillary Sinus Know the different regions of the Vertebral Column and how many vertebrae are located in each region (Figure 7.13) Cervical  7 Vertebrae
Thoracic  12 Vertebrae
Lumbar  5 Vertebrae
Sacrum  is made up of 5 fused vertebrae
Coccyx  is made up of 4 fused vertebrae Know the basic structure of the Vertebrae ( Figure 7.15) Body
Spinous Process
Transverse Process
Superior and Inferior Articular Process
Vertebral Foramen
Pedicle
Articular Facet for the Rib Know where you can find the Atlas and the Axis Know the Bony Thorax (Rib Cage) (Figure 7.19) Sternum
Manubrium
Clavicle Notch
Body
Xiphoid process Ribs
True Ribs (Vertebrosternal)
False Ribs (Vertebrochondral)
Floating Ribs (Vertebral) You should be able to identify the bones of the Upper and Lower Extremities (Figure 7.21) Know the Hand (Figure 7.26) Know the Pelvic Girdle (7.27) Only the ones mentioned in class Know the Foot (Figure 7.31) Know the different disorders that can afflict the skull Gigantiform Cementoma  Caused by excessive bone deposit leading to cancerous growth of the Maxilla and/or Mandible. Can be fatal if tumor grows to the extent off blocking all air passageways (also know what it looks like).