Examining the Impact of Culture on Academic Performance

Importantly distinguishing discontinuities that happen between home/community, and school, in relation to children’s education is crucial in a technological age of flux. It is vital, that disconnections of intellectualities and qualities of mind and character that separate individuals who are deemed ‘advantaged’ to those that are labelled ‘disadvantaged’ are illuminated and understood. In understanding some of the complex reasons in how people become educationally disadvantaged and in recognising differences that exist, both, positive and negative, within the area of education, can help in lessening such disadvantage. This essay attempts to explore some of the reasons behind these disconnections between the home/community and school in relation to individuals achieving higher education levels. Having done this, areas that can contribute to individuals achieving acceptable education will be outlined, with examples of how to make education more equal for everyone. This essay will take a radical equality view on education believing that distribution of wealth and power should be equal.

Exploring disadvantage

Education is usually a good indicator of future life, hence the importance of understanding disadvantage in education as a means of bridging the gap between different groups in society. Considering disadvantage, one has to ask how is it that some individuals are disadvantaged, and what are the factors that contribute to them becoming disadvantaged. While there is myriad of reasons why one might be educationally disadvantaged, some of which will be discussed in this text, there are however two main areas where education plays a pivotal role, they are home/community and in school. The author maintains that there is a disconnect between these two areas, that sadly, allows children to become educationally disadvantaged. Most disadvantage in education it could be argued can be traced back to the home. Many sociologists and psychologists tell us that early years in a child’s life (0-6) are a crucial time for social, emotional and intellectual development. Furthermore many circumstances in an individual’s life can contribute to their disadvantage such as social, cultural and economic capital. This “educational disadvantage can become apparent at school through low attainment, satisfaction and self-esteem; lack of participation; truancy; school refusal; dropout; behaviour problems; and delinquency” (Connolly, 2007, p.379). That being said responsibility for discontinuities between home and school, rest also with institutions such as school and other agencies directly related to providing adequate assistance for individuals experiencing disadvantage. It could be argued that the kernel of educational disadvantage in Ireland is equality, and the neo- liberal mind-set connected with it. Lynch and O’Neill (1999) hint that this ideology treats education as a product rather than a process, and that “the absence of a working class perspective has resulted in policies designed to manage rather than eliminate inequality in education” (Ibid, p.41). Furthermore the ‘institutionalisation of competitiveness’ that seems to accompany neo- liberalism can further isolate disadvantaged people and may cause anomie. Similarly in the education system, Lynch (1989) argues, that an atmosphere of “Competitive Individualism” in schools goes against our Christian values of helping one another. There would seem to be some progress in discourse in relation to educational disadvantage in recent decades. Kellaghan et al (1993) maintains that the old deficit model of intervention for disadvantage, aimed at parents was limited, in that it failed to recognise discontinuities between home and school, believing one model could ameliorate disadvantage. They also highlight that a ‘cultural difference model’ in the 1970s finally recognised differences between cultures experienced at home, to that at school, and realised that the school environment was not superior. Recent definitions of educational disadvantage have been too broad and have failed to identify impediments that are central to combating educational disadvantage (Kellaghan, 2001). He argues that although policy has recognised indicators such as poverty, lone parents, local authorities, or families that have medical cards, as signs of possible disadvantage it fails in designing adequate intervention programmes. Kellaghan (2001) argues that as long as we continue to focus on indicators that are detached from the actual causes of disadvantage change will remain limited. He maintains that a definition that understands these limitations is necessary in reducing discontinuities. This definition needs to recognise the cultural, economic and social capital, in the form of competencies and dispositions that a child brings to school as being different to those which are required by that school (Kellaghan, 2001). “It follows from this that if environments differ, the competencies that they nourish will also differ, a situation that has obvious consequences when individuals move from one setting to another, as when a child moves from home to school”(Kellaghan, 2001, p.6). It is clear from studies done, that there is a strong correlation between low socio-economic households and being educationally disadvantaged. However it is also clear that this does not cause educational disadvantage as many individuals from these communities excel at school. However, those that are economically disadvantaged are also prone to having cultural and social differences that cause a discontinuity between home/community and school. This discontinuity has to be recognised by both home and school in all its facets before adequate intervention and implementation of strategies can be applied. Padraig Pearse advocated for nurturing and fostering talent, however over a hundred years later a clear divide exists in educational standards between those that are educationally advantaged and those that have been unfortunate enough in becoming disadvantaged in terms of realising their potential. Even though, strides have been made in tackling educational disadvantage, Lynch (1989) maintains there is no culture of critical analysis in Ireland and she advocates for radical equality as opposed to the current liberal equality. She calls for equality of wealth and power and for changes in the structure of political and economic spheres if we wish to eliminate inequality in education. This inequality, in the structure and processes of established institutions of state and school, could also be equated to the ‘disjuncture in socialisation’ that Kellaghan (2001) argues is present in Irish society. All children will experience discontinuity in moving from home to school. These are; moving from a small group within the family to a large group in the school; the difference in the way time and space are organised, from informal to formal; a change from intimate relationships to transitory and less intimate in the school; and a change from oracy in the home to literacy in school. (Kellaghan et al, 1993). However the degree of discontinuity experienced will be down to the skills that children bring to school. For those with educational disadvantage the discontinuity will be greater. It is by accommodating differences and trying to understand where to help, that competencies and dispositions which isolate disadvantaged individuals can be ameliorated. Understanding how different forms of capital either facilitate or prevent someone from attaining competencies and dispositions is the key to alleviating discontinuities that prevent someone from getting maximum benefit out of life. Taking economic capital, if one is poor then their chances of being disadvantaged are greater. Material deprivation prevents people from affording goods and activities that enable them to partake fully in society. This too can inhibit families from buying school books or supporting their children in pursuing education. According to Kellaghan (2001) there are three different types of cultural capital that can impede ones chances of attaining adequate education. He mentions dispositions “which relate to an array of cognitive and non-cognitive competencies which are heavily influenced by past experience” (Kellaghan, 2001, p.8). The second is in the form of objects such as books, dictionaries and other benefits that provide people a higher standing in the social order. Lastly, cultural capital is ‘institutionalised ‘in educational credentials. Therefore how children learn and use language is vital for future development (Kellaghan, 2001). Fundamentally for Kellaghan those that do well at school usually bring the right type of cultural capital to school. Also economic capital can buy you cultural capital just as having cultural capital does not mean you have to be economically well off. The last form of capital is social capital, which broadly relates to relationships between individuals. The negative part of this for disadvantaged people is that it can become restricted and denied to them by the dominant class, who uses it as a tool of reproduction (Bourdieu and Patterson, 1977). The importance for conceptualising these different areas of competencies and dispositions that is present in society “provide a concrete focus for identifying and addressing problems which a child may encounter in adapting to the work of the school” (Kellaghan, 2001, p. 15).

Ameliorating disadvantage

Zappone (2002) argues that there needs to be better coordination, integration and communication between policies programmes and services, related to the educational system. He calls this a ‘living system approach’ where there is no secrecy and there is a special concern for children. This is similar to the ‘dialogic partnership’ that Friere (1997) called for between teachers and students. While there seems to be many programmes and strategies to combat educational disadvantage in the last forty years in Ireland, such as the introduction of DEIS schools in helping children that are deemed disadvantaged; the home school community liaison scheme; the learning support teacher scheme; and the early start pre-school scheme, there is still a lot to be done. It could be argued that literacy is the most important step in preventing one from becoming educationally disadvantaged. "Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society” (UNESCO, 2004, p.13) The key to a child’s education is literacy. Literacy is paramount to enable children gain access to knowledge, jobs and culture and a good standard of life. Literacy problems in Ireland are still at an unacceptable level. According to the Department of Education and Skills (2011) 10% of children in Irish schools have serious reading and writing difficulties, this is even more serious in some disadvantaged schools with up to 30% having difficulty. In Fact, Hyland (2007), states that literacy and numeracy levels have decreased in recent years. Tackling the problem of literacy is complex but there are solutions. For Instance, Finland have one of the highest literacy and numeracy levels in the world (Shiel & Eivers, 2009). There are many reasons given by Finnish educators for this success. These include:

“high levels of engagement and interest in reading among students; frequent reading of newspapers, magazines, comics, emails and web pages…; a system of comprehensive schooling, with equal opportunities for all students…..; teaching students in heterogeneous groups; highly- qualified teachers; strong respect for the teaching profession; curricular flexibility and pedagogical freedom; and cultural homogeneity” (ibid,p358)

Arguably, what is needed for Ireland to succeed to this level is a cultural awakening in the area of education. There have been many positive happenings in Irish education, but unfortunately literacy levels have not improved. Therefore the question has to be asked, why literacy levels remain the same. One possible area that could be explored is the support that parents give to their children. The support and engagement that parents can provide is vital for children in attaining literacy and numeracy skills (Dept. of Education & Skills, 2011). This correlates to Vygotkys (1978) theory on the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’, whereby he asserts that development and problem solving are determined by guidance given by adults. It could be argued that such guidance would prevent most children from becoming educationally disadvantaged. Related to this, are studies done by Hart and Risely in 1995, where they observed that the amount of words spoken by children of professional families was 30 million by age three compared to only 3 million spoken by welfare families. Subsequently, they argued that the more parents spoke to their children the faster their vocabularies and IQ developed by aged three. Facilitating parents in providing a sound basis for their children’s development is therefore paramount in ameliorating disadvantage. Again this is a very complex area with no cure all solutions. For instance, within families there are many obstacles in dealing with such a sensitive area. We have already looked at the different types of capital that might constrain disadvantaged individuals. There are also issues such as addictions, mental and emotional problems and abuse that make dealing with educational disadvantage difficult. However, important developments in recent times such as the ‘Home school community Liaison’ scheme and the ‘National Educational Welfare Board’ have facilitated in bridging the gap between parents and children and the school in Ireland. The HSCL was established in 1990 with the aim of breaking the cycle of disadvantage. According to Keane (2013) the ethos is not telling parents what you think they need to know but rather on how they want you to help. This scheme takes a Freirean approach, with a genuine trust put in people, believing in their creative power (Mulkerrins, 2007). This scheme addresses cultural discontinuity at home by helping to increase educational resources such as books, and in the school by involving parents (Keane, 2013). The HSCL scheme works at promoting change in children’s attitudes and behaviours in school so that teachers and pupils can work in partnership. It also works at raising awareness of parent’s capacity to be a prime educator in their child’s life. Some of the results of this scheme include; an improvement in children’s retention and participation in school, and higher expectations by parents for children. Keane (2013) relates how in a school in Cork encouraged parents to work on a project based on the titanic with their children. The results were reassuring, in that the children were very proud of the parent, and the parents in turn felt useful and empowered. The HSCL Scheme is one way of ameliorating disadvantage because it helps children develop social capital by building and developing relationships between schools, parents and communities. (Kellaghan, 2001). Another beneficial initiative that works at bridging the gap between home/community and school is the National Education Welfare Board. The NEWB aims to achieve greater coordination between home and the school in order to gain better outcomes for children and families. The NEWB aims to increase attendance in school by way of partnership with other providers, to develop solutions for children and families (O’ Shea, 2013). They look at social factors that might cause discontinuity between home and school. These include areas such as; alienation from school; anger and resentment about school; teaching methodologies and attitudes and expectations of staff. Home visits are an important aspect of this initiative because it helps to create an understanding of home life. Other areas that would be very beneficial are “parent education programmes, which concentrate on the role of parents as partners in their children’s education” (Kellaghan et al, 1993). Incredible years are one such programme. It facilitates parents to create better relationships with their children through cooperative behaviour which in turn helps build the child’s self-esteem. Nevertheless, the fact remains that Ireland has an unacceptable level of educational disadvantage. Downes and Gilligan (2007) comment that the OECD puts Ireland at the bottom of the International league for the amount of money they spend in relation to our economic wealth. They maintain that educational disadvantage could be tackled by well thought out programmes and money should be spent on providing a more holistic system of education. Finally, I would agree with O’ Brien and Flynn (2007) that there is an urgent need to recognise the different intelligences, emotions and care within school. They state that there are generally narrow views of intelligence in schools where the focus is on ‘performativity’ at an expense of disadvantaged students being left behind. Therefore, the main focus of schools should not only include linguistic intelligences but should cater for all intelligences. Focussing only literacy and numeracy “will do little to change the new low our society is experiencing in terms of violent crime, robbery, and assault, which leaves many people living in fear particularly the elderly” (Flynn, 2007, p.99)

Conclusion
In this essay, we have discussed how a neo-liberal mind-set has to a large extent failed to recognise cultural difference in education. Discontinuities have been recognised in a broad context, from parenting and culture in the home as well as structural barriers that prevent individuals achieving adequate education. The home should be the foundation for children in enabling them to develop socially, culturally and educationally, policy intervention aimed at homes and schools can facilitate this. I believe that more investment in education and a cultural shift in the way we view education should happen if results are to be progressed speedily. While there is promising change happening, I believe that as a society we have failed in responding to the requirements of the disadvantaged. We can learn a lot from countries like Finland. Tackling literacy can be the key to ameliorating disadvantage. Taking a humanistic approach to education can enable individuals to become conscious of their part in the world. Most humans are more or less innately intellectual, so there is so much potential wasted. Every effort needs to be made provide for those that have not had a lucky break in education.