Factors Influencing Career Choice Among the Senior High School Students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF
VOLTA REGION, GHANA

DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA

JULY, 2011

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF
VOLTA REGION, GHANA

DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA
(B.ED BUSINESS EDUCATION, ACCOUNTING OPTION)

A Thesis in the Department of Psychology and Education, Faculty of EDUCATIONAL STUDIES Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, University of Education, Winneba, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for award of the Master of Philosophy (M. Phil Guidance & Counselling) degree

JULY, 2011
DECLARATION

STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA declare that this Thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all being identified and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhere

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DATE: .........................................................................................

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised by me in accordance with the guidelines for the supervision of Thesis laid down by the University of Education, Winneba.

NAME OF SUPERVISOR: ..............................................................

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my dearest wife Rose and children: Albert, Elikplim and Herbert.

ABSTRACT

The researcher set out to investigate factors that influence career choice among the senior high school students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana, and the extent to which those factors influence students’ choice. Survey design was used. The main instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. Simple random sample techniques was used to select 200 students, and convenient sampling techniques used to select three administrators and three guidance and counselling coordinators for the study from the three public second cycle institutions in the District. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analysing data. The construct validity was established using factor analysis and reliability using Cronbach’s alpha. The results of the main hypothesis and the research questions postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are controlled for. This helps students learn about and explore careers that ultimately lead to career choice. This played a critical role in shaping students career choice. It was recommended that Career Education and Guidance should be introduced in the primary school to enable children to explore the world of work as young people need to make a smooth transition from primary school to the initial years of senior high school and the Ministry of Education should allocate fund for a Guidance and Counselling activities in all basic and second cycle schools. This will enable the guidance coordinators to function effectively at their various levels of work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am most grateful to the Almighty God for His loving care and mercy which has made it possible for me to complete this work. I also wish to acknowledge with gratitude, the encouragement, corrections and guidance given to me by Mrs. Mary A. Ackummey and Professor M. F. Alonge, my supervisor and co-supervisor respectively for this work to be completed. I am also grateful to Professor J. K. Aboagye, the Head of Department and Dr. Richard Ofori, the Director for research at the National Centre for Research into Basic Education (NCRIBE) for their immerse assistance. He also became my final supervisor to make this work complete. I wish to express my appreciation to Messrs K. T. Agor and C. F. K. Nyadudzi, the Headmasters of Sogakope Senior High School and Dabala Senior High Technical. And also Rev. Father Gbordzoe, the Principal of Comboni Technical Vocational Institute for their assistance in allowing me to administer my questionnaires in their schools. I am grateful to Mr. C.Y. Ablana who allowed me to use his office during the period. Finally I wish to express my gratitude to all those who help in diverse ways throughout the entire work for their criticism, encouragement and corrections. Special thanks go to Dr. Asare Amoah of Department of Psychology and Education who takes his time to see to it that the necessary corrections were carried out.

TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE
Title Page
Declaration i
Dedication ii
Abstract iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Content v
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Purpose of the Study 5
1.4 Hypotheses 6
1.5 Research Questions 6
1.6 The Significance of the Study 6
1.7 Delimitation 7
1.8 Definition of Terms 7
1.9 Organisation of the Study 8

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice 9
2.3 Career Decision Making 17
2.3.1 Trait-and-Factor Theory/ Actuarial Theory of Career Development 20
2.3.2 Holland’s Personality Type Theory 23
2.3.3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory 28
2.3.4 The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 31
2.3.5 Super’s Self-concept Theory 32
2.3.6 Four-Humors Theory 35
2.3.7 Social Cognitive Theory 39
2.4 Types of Career 41
2.5 Barriers to career choice 43
2.6 The Role of Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in Career Choice and Development 45
2.7 The Implications of the Study 48
2.8 Theoretical Framework of the Study 49
2.8 Summary 57

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Research Design 59
3.3 Population 59
3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure 61
3.5 Study Area 62
3.6 Instrumentation 62
3.6.1 Assessment of Validity and Reliability of factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 63
3.7 Method of Data Collection 66
3.8 Data Analysis 66

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS 67
4.1 Analysis of Students’ Bio Data 67
4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Students 67
4.1.2 Age Distribution of Students 68
4.1.3 Programme Pursue by Students 69
4.1.4 Intended Careers of Students 70
4.2 Testing of Main Hypothesis 71
4.3 Testing of Auxiliary Hypotheses 73
4.3.1 Sex Differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 73
4.3.2 Age Differences on Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 74
4.4 Analysis of Qualitative Data 76
4.4.1 Analysis of Bio Data collected from Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 76
4.4.2 Sex Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77
4.4.3 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77
4.4.4 Position of Respondents 78
4.4.5 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in their various institutions 78
4.5 Qualitative Analysis of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data 79

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 88
5.1 Discussion 88
5.1.1 The Extent to which Intrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 88
5.1.2 The Extent to which Extrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 90
5.1.3 The Extent to which Interpersonal Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 91
5.1.4 Problems Students face in making their Career Choice 92
5.2 Summary of the Findings 93
5.3 Conclusion 95
5.4 Recommendations 95
5.5 Suggestions for Further Studies 97
References 98 Appendix “A”- Factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 105
Appendix “B”- Validated version of factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 109
Appendix “C”- Open ended questionnaire for Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 113
Appendix “D”- Population of final year students in the three public second cycle institutions for 2010/2011 Academic Year. 117
Appendix “E”- Letter of Introduction 119

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks 34
2.2 Jobs suitable and jobs to be avoided by each personality type 39 3.1 Population of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 60
3.2 Distribution of respondents by institutions 61
3.3 Item listings and factor loadings for the four-factor principal component solution 65
4.1 Distribution of students by intended choice 71
4.2 Logistic regression model of career choice (white-collar job & blue-collar job) as a function of Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal factors. 73
4.3 Summary statistics and Independent-samples T-test on their influence on the two sex groups 74
4.4 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Extrinsic factors 75
4.5 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Intrinsic factors 75
4.6 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Interpersonal factors 76

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Holland hexagonal model 27
2.2 A diagram Reciprocal Causation 40
2.3 Theoretical model of Career choice 57
4.1 Sex Distribution of students. 68
4.2 Age Distribution of students 69
4.3 Distribution of the Respondents by Programme 70
4.4 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77
4.5 Position of the Respondents 78
4.6 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in their various institutions 78

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study The importance of career choice among senior high students cannot be over emphasized. Students at this level are mainly adolescents who are moving from this stage of development into adulthood. Pearson Education limited (2007) defines an adolescent as a young person, usually between the ages of twelve and eighteen, who is developing into an adult. Encarta (2009) defines adolescent as, ‘somebody in the period preceding adulthood: somebody who has reached puberty but not yet adult’. At this stage the individual is said to be going through the period of adolescence. A comprehensive study conducted in America by Remmers and Raddler (1957) cited in Horrocks (1962) indicated that one-third of teenagers after finishing high school within six months expected to be at work, though know less about how to choose a job, train for it and establish in it. “A job is a kind of work and a career is time spent in one type of job area of interest” (Kelly-Plate and Volz-Patton, 1991, p.13). Most students have very little help in developing a career direction while still in senior high school. They are often influenced by the media, peers, and with very little knowledge of what they might primarily be interested in or motivated to do. Most of them may have a level of uncertainty of where to get help on how to choose a career. Since career is a lifelong plan, students at this level should be assisted to enable them have a clear cut plan as it will be difficult for them at their age to see things clearly about themselves. Thinking or making a decision about one’s career and making a choice is vital. Fry, Stoner and Hattwick (1998) opine that it is never too early to begin thinking about careers when in high school. Some students may have clear career direction in mind while many of them will have little clue as to which career is best for them. Fry et al, further said “even if you are a freshman or sophomore, now is the time to begin thinking about your life beyond college” p.561. Various people choose jobs for various reasons. A lot of people look for jobs that will pay well since everyone needs money for the basics such as food, clothes, accommodation, education, recreation and others. For many men and women, work helps define their identity and their sense of self-worth (Thio, 1989). They see themselves as people, who are responsible, who get things done and capable enough to be paid for the services they render. People take pride in the work they do. They also like the feeling that comes with doing their work well. People enjoy using their skills, talents and working hard to improve those skills. People work to be useful, by working; people feel that they are contributing their quota to the development of the society. They may work to take care of themselves and their family or work to help other people in the society. Most people choose jobs that will enable them interact with others. For example, journalism, teaching, and selling enable one to interact with a whole lot of people. They do not like to be alone for a long period. Their job gives them the opportunity to be with others and talk to people. It is clear that work fulfils many important needs and even those who become rich overnight still work. Since no one particular job satisfies all needs, the right job can be satisfying in a very special way, and that is why it is important to think carefully about one’s own wants, needs, interests and abilities before making a choice. One needs not to joke about his choice of career. Working should not be just occupying oneself. O’Toole (1973), cited in (Thio, 1989, p.444) opines that People with satisfying jobs have better mental health than those with less satisfying work. Thus, people who are happy with their jobs also tend to have better physical health and to live longer. Although diet, exercise, medical care and genetics are all related to the incidence of heart disease, job dissatisfaction is more closely linked to the cause of death.

Each individual is faced with choosing among the large areas of occupational cluster of work. Such as agriculture, business and office, communication and media, health, hospitality and recreation, manufacturing, marine science, construction, arts, humanity and sciences, home economics, marketing and distribution, natural resources and environment, personal services, public service, and transportation. Rao (1992) cited in Kankam & Onivehu (2000) identified two factors that call for guidance and counselling services or activities in secondary schools one of which is the making of academic choice that in the end determines the vocational future. The origin of vocational guidance can be traced to the United States of America. Educational guidance originated from the development of vocational guidance services. In 1908 the Vocational Bureau of Boston was formed under the auspices of an American lawyer and educator; Frank Parsons to assist young men make vocational choices based on their occupational aptitudes and interest (Fruehling, 2008). Guidance began to spread as a result of Parsons’ ideas.

Brewer (1942) cited in Archer (1997) put across four conditions that work together to bring about the beginning and development of vocational guidance. These are: division of labour, the growth of technology, the extension of vocational education, and the spread of modern forms of democracy. The four elements listed above were however, intensified by the First World War which led to the shortage of skilled manpower. Though in Ghana vocational/technical can be traced back to the 19th century when both the Basel and Wesleyan missionaries made a shift from the initial three R’s - reading, writing and arithmetic to agricultural and technical curriculum (Hama, 2003), guidance in Ghana started in 1955 when the Ministry of Labour, Education and Social Welfare came together and established Youth Employment Department. Its aim was to cater for the needs of the unemployed middle school leavers below the age of twenty years. By 1960, there were about thirty of such centres in the country (Ackummey, 2003).

1.2 Statement of the Problem Searching for a job, career planning and deciding on what to choose play an important role in students career choices. Many students often are faced with uncertainty and stress as they make career choices. Many of them do not make adequate research on their own career nor do they receive adequate directions from their school guidance coordinators. Most of them are not aware of what goes into career choice. Many youth go into unsuitable careers due to ignorance, inexperience, peer pressure, advice from friends, parents and teachers or as a result of the prestige attached to certain jobs without adequate vocational guidance and career counselling. Lawer (2007) researched on assessing the effectiveness of career guidance in senior secondary schools in Kumasi Metropolitan District. He concluded that majority of students were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations, conditions of work, earning and other rewards of occupation, and did not have better understanding of their career interest, aptitudes and abilities. This clearly shows that majority of them were not concerned about their future career. This situation compels one to ask whether they are given the needed guidance on available careers relating to the programmes they are pursuing. Are they aware of what goes into career choice? And what specific factors influence their choice and how do those factors influence them? This study therefore seeks to find out the extent to which intrinsic, extrinsic, and interpersonal factors influence the choice of career of senior high students.

1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to identify those factors that influence students’ decision concerning choice of career in the South Tongu District and the extent to which these factors influence their choices. In addition, the study seeks to examine the differences between intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, and interpersonal factors in making career choice. It will also attempt to find out problems encountered by students in making their career choices.

4. Hypotheses The study sought to test a logistic regression model in which Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are assumed to influence students’ career (blue/white collar jobs) in the senior high schools. The following supplementary hypotheses were also tested: 1. There will be significant sex differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. 2. There will be significant age differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors.

1.5 Research Questions
The following research questions were also used to guide the researcher to carry out the study. 1. To what extent do Intrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 2. To what extent do Extrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 3. To what extent do Interpersonal factors influence students’ choice of career? 4. What problems do students face in making their career choices?

1.6 The Significance of the Study Many factors affect career choices of senior high school students. Identifying these factors would give parents, educators, and industry an idea as to where students place most of their trust in the career selection process. It will not only focus on factors influencing career choice among students in the South Tongu District, but also highlight career decision making tools that have implications for career counselling. In addition, it will equally provide an update study into how intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors influence career choice for others who wish to further research into this area of study.

1.7 Delimitation The study focuses on what goes on in the South Tongu District instead of looking at the country as a whole, hence its application to the country or larger population may not be reliable.

1.8 Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study the following operational definitions will be used:
Intrinsic factors: include interest in the job and personality that satisfies work. In the broader sense they are basic and essential features which form part of someone rather than because of his or her association.
Extrinsic factors: include availability of jobs and how well an occupation pays or brings benefit. They also include those essential features as a result of the individual’s associations or consequences.
Interpersonal factors: include the influence of parents and significant others. It is

concerned or involved relationships between people.

Career: is a pattern of work related to preparations and experiences which is carried through a person’s life.
Job: is a piece of work carried out for a pay.
Work: physical and mental effort directed towards doing something. It is a job in the broader sense.
Student: refers to a learner in a senior high school.
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1.9 Organisation of the Study The whole study was organized in five main chapters. The first chapter deals with the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, hypotheses, and the significance of the study, delimitations, and definition of terms. The second chapter reviewed related literatures that are relevant to the study. It considers the previous studies on the topic. It includes other areas like factors influencing career choice, career decision-making, types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance co-ordinators in career choice, counselling implication of the study, theoretical framework of the study, and the summary of the literature review. Chapter three focuses on the methodology, the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, instrumentation- validity, reliability and method of collecting data and its analysis. Chapter four deals with data presentation and analysis, and finally, the fifth chapter covers discussion, summary of the major findings, conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for future study.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the review of related literature. It was organized under the following sub-headings: factors influencing vocational choice, career decision-making, Types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance coordinators in vocational guidance, counselling implications of the study, and the theoretical framework of the study. It ends with the summary of the literature review done.

2.2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice Adolescent occupational choice is influenced by many factors, including intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors. Kankam & Onivehu (2000) indicate intellectual ability, aptitudes, the school, family, personality, self-esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences as factors that influence people’s choice of career. In the same year, Bedu-Addo (2000) states the following as factors influencing career choice: intellectual ability, aptitudes, the school, family, personality, self concept and self esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences. Similarly, Taylor and Buku (2006) also state abilities, needs and interests, stereotype/prestige, values, the school/educational attainment, family/parental, placement, and aspiration. Mankoe (2007) lists the following as factors that influence people’s choice of career: people’s interests, abilities and personalities, people’s occupational preferences, life and work satisfaction, and employment variables. Jones and Larke (2001) researched on factors influencing career choice of African American and Hispanic graduates of a Land-grant College of Agriculture. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the factors that were related to African American and Hispanic graduates ' decisions to choose (or not to choose) a career in agriculture or a related field prior to or after college. The population for this study was all African American and Hispanic graduates who received a first degree in an agriculture-related field at Texas A & M University between May 1990 and December 1997. Five hundred and fifty-one questionnaires were mailed to respondents. The research design applied was Ex post facto and both descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The findings revealed that, various commonalities and differences existed among the two groups. When respondents enrolled in their first agriculture-related course did not have a major effect on their probability that they will select an agriculture-related career. However, the role of significant others and specific job-related factors is validated in this study. But having people who were not white to encourage respondents to consider an agriculture related career, increased respondents likelihood of pursuing an agriculture-related career. Respondents were more likely to pursue an agriculture-related career if their father’s occupation was agriculture-related. Parents’ level of education did not play a critical role in the respondents’ choosing an agriculture-related career. Salary was not considered to have an impact on respondents’ choice of their current career nor on their choice of agriculture as a career. But having limited job opportunities in agriculture led respondents’ to choose other careers. Likewise, retirement plan and job opportunities impacted respondents’ selection of a career. Issa and Nwalo (2005) conducted a research on factors affecting the career choice of undergraduates in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. Data were analysed for frequency and percentage using the cross-tabs sub-programme of the SPSS. The study revealed that majority did not make the course as their first choice but ended up in the Library School as a last resort. However, those who did were influenced mostly by previous library work experience. Available sources of information on the course include parents/relations and peers. There are slightly more male librarianship students than females, indicating its popularity among both sexes. That 46.9% of them were in the 22-26 age bracket showed that the younger undergraduates constitute the majority. The study concludes that despite the evidence of improved popularity of the programme among the respondents, it remains largely unpopular among prospective undergraduates in Nigeria when compared with such other courses as Accountancy, Medicine and Law. It thus recommends that public awareness about the profession and the programme be intensified by all stakeholders if it must attract some of the best brains in the country who can meet the challenges of the 21st century librarianship in Nigeria. This work was similar to that of Jones and Larke (2001) in purpose, sample and method except that while Jones and Larke focused on African American and Hispanic graduates of college of agriculture, that of Issa and Nwalo concentrated on undergraduates in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. The research design applied and instrument used would be relevant to the present study. Myburgh (2005) researched on an empirical analysis of career choice factors that influence first-year Accounting students at the University of Pretoria: a cross-racial study. This cross-cultural study examined the career choices of Asian, black and white students at the University of Pretoria to identify the factors motivating Accountancy students to become chartered accountants (CA) as only two and halve percent (609) of 24, 308 registered chartered accountants in South Africa in 2005 were black, and only six percent (1,573) were Indian. Understanding the attitudes and the perceptions of CA first-year students can help course administrators/curriculum designers to align marketing and recruiting strategies with specific personal occupational preferences of different racial groups enrolled for local CA courses. Survey design was used. Questionnaires are used in collecting data with a sample population of 550 and descriptive statistics used in analysis data collected. The finding revealed that performance in Accounting at school and the advice of parent, relatives and school teachers greatly influenced the students’ decision to become chartered accountants. All the three racial groups ranked availability of employment as the most important benefit of CA career and the employment security as the second most important. The cost of education and the difficulty of qualifying as a chartered accountant were identified as a problem. The purpose, sample and method used in data collection were similar to that of the above authors except that he focused on first year Accounting Students of the University of Pretoria. His finding on cost of education as a problem was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Borchert (2002). The methodology used here would be relevant to the current work. Trauth, Quesenberry & Huang (2008) researched into A Multicultural Analysis of Factors Influencing Career Choice for Women in the Information Technology (IT) Workforce. This article presents an analysis of cultural/actors influencing the career choices of women in the IT workforce. They employed the individual differences theory of gender and IT as a theoretical lens to analyze a qualitative data set of interviews with 200 women in different countries. The themes that emerged from this analysis speak to the influence of cultural attitudes about maternity, childcare, parental care and working outside the home on a woman’s choice of an IT career. In addition, several additional socio-cultural factors served to add further variation to gendered cultural influences: gendered career norms, social class; economic opportunity, and gender stereotypes about aptitude. These results lend further empirical support to the emergent individual differences theory of gender and IT that endeavours to theorize within-gender variation with respect to issues related to gender and IT. They also point to areas where educational and workplace interventions can be enacted. This work was similar to others as far as purpose is concerned; however, it focused just on women in the Information Technology Workforce. Borchert (2002) researched on career choice factors of high School Students. It aimed at finding out how influential were factors of personality, environment and opportunities in making career choice. The purpose of the study was to identify the most important factor within these three factors that 2002 Germantown High School senior students used in deciding upon career choices. A survey was the selected instrument device with a sample population of 325 and both descriptive statistics were used in analysing data collected. The finding revealed that, personality factors were identified as most important in choosing career. Environmental factors were not significant in making their choice, though they did not show outright disregard for them. There are opportunities for educational facilities and industries where students find themselves intellectually qualified for certain areas but lacked money needed to complete their training. His finding on lack of money to complete their training was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Myburgh (2005). The research design used, data collection procedure, and areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Ferry (2006) researched into Factors Influencing Career Choices of Adolescents and Young Adults in Rural Pennsylvania. The qualitative study reported here explored factors that play key roles in rural high school seniors and young adults career choice process. Interview was used in collecting data from 12 focus groups from 11-county rural areas in the central Pennsylvania using purposeful sampling. The cultural and social context of family and community were found to be instrumental in how youth learn about careers and influential in the choice process. The economic and social circumstances of the broader community coloured and influenced the youth perceptions of appropriate career choice. Extension strategies that target parents and community to increase their involvement in youth career selection can promote sound career decisions. This work was similar to that of Borchert (2002). However, it used interview and concentrated on a focus group. The areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Adjin (2004) researched into career choice in senior secondary schools: a case study of Sogakope Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools in the Volta Region of Ghana and used descriptive research design. He focused on factors that influence career choice, how proficient are the counsellors in handling students’ vocational problems in making career choice and ways of improving career/vocational education. He made use of stratified sampling with a sample population of 200 respondents and descriptive statistics was used in analysis of data. The result of the study showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. Also majority of the students of Sogakope and Dabala second cycle schools received help from their parents/guardians in choosing career and some gave no reason for making their choices. Responses collected also indicated that there were guidance coordinators in the schools who organised talks on career choice, decision making and good study habits. However, other areas like problem solving, field trips/visit, group guidance/counselling, individual counselling were not all effective. His work was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method and target group. By contrast previous research by Amedzor (2003) and subsequent researches by Annan (2006) and Edwards & Quinter (2011) showed prestige, personality, and advancement opportunities and learning experiences respectively as the most important factors that influence choice. The research design, instrument used and the areas covered in this work were similar to the present study. Amedzor (2003) researched on career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils in Ho Township basic schools and used descriptive survey design. It focused on career guidance needs of adolescents in the basic schools, factors that militate against effective guidance services and factors that facilitate the delivery of guidance services in schools. She used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and descriptive statistics used in analysis of data. Her research showed that, prestige was the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. And they also need financial support for training towards their chosen careers. Most of them shared the view that they need an expert to counsel them on how to choose, train, enter and be established in a career. Majority of the coordinators were not train, and guidance activities were below average and students were not willing to approach the coordinators. Her areas of assessment are covered in the current study. Though, the researcher looked at factors that influence choice like others, it mainly focused on identifying career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils. The sampling procedure, research design and instrument used were similar to the present study. Annan (2006) examined factors affecting career choice among senior secondary school students in Shama Ahanta East Metropolis and used descriptive survey design. He used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and also used descriptive statistics in analysis of data. This study revealed that personality was most influential factor that influenced career choice among senior secondary students in Ahanta East Metropolis and significant others as the least factor taking into consideration (ability, personality, material benefit, home background, gender factors, and significant others). Adolescents have difficulties in how to choose a career and there was adolescent male gender biased in career choice as compared to female counterparts. It was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Adjin (2004), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method, and target group. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work. Edwards and Quinter (2011) researched on Factors Influencing Students Career Choices among Secondary School students in Kisumu Municipality, Kenya. The purpose of this study was to examine factors influencing career choice among form four secondary school students in Kisumu municipality, Kenya. The study was conducted using descriptive survey design with a population of 332 students. The data for this study was collected using questionnaire and interview schedules. The findings of this study indicate that availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences are the most influential factors affecting career choices among students. While males reported learning experiences and career flexibility as the most influential factors, females however reported availability of advancement opportunity and opportunity to apply skills as the most influential factors. However, no variance was reported for persons influencing career choice by gender. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work. Despite the fact that much has been written about the individual variables influencing career choice, the literature review however, revealed that very little empirical studies on this subject matter exist especially regarding the factors influencing career choice among senior high students in the South Tongu District of the Volta Region, Ghana and the differences that exist among these factors. This study will, therefore, serve to fill up the missing gap in this aspect of the literature.

2.3 Career Decision Making Decision making can defined as “an act of choice by which an executive selects one particular course of action from among possible alternatives for the attainment of a desired end or as a solution to a specific problem” (Attieku, Dorkey, Marfo-Yiadom & Tekyi, 2006). It involves conscious or unconscious attempt at making a choice out of competing alternatives. It implies selecting from alternative policies, procedures, and programmes. Career decision making is vital as the country is faced with the problem of unemployment which is the result of poverty and other social vices in the country. The previous Government introduced the Youth Employment Programme to address the situation. It aimed at facilitating job creation and placement of youth in the various economic ventures as well as social services in all districts throughout the country. The programme consists of ten modules out of the JHS/SHS graduates qualify to undertake: 1. Youth in Agri-Business 2. Community Protection System 3. Waste and Sanitation Management Corps 4. Auxiliary Health Care Workers’ Assistants (Micah, 2007).

However was this able to eradicate the problem of unemployment? For the child to make a better decision about choice of career he must be helped in the areas below: - Self awareness - Educational awareness - Career awareness - Career exploration, and - Career planning and decision making (Gibson & Mitchell, 1995).

Self awareness: Each child must be aware of and respect his/her uniqueness at an early age as human beings. Knowledge about ones aptitude, interests, values, personality traits, abilities and others is very essential in the development of concepts related to self and the use of these concepts in career exploration (value clarification, group guidance films and video tapes written assignments and standardized test). Puplampu (1998) posit that for one to make good choices, he needs career guidance or career counselling, needs to be aware of him/her self, and to have knowledge of occupations and options available.
Educational awareness: It is very essential in career planning for one to be aware of the relationship between self, educational opportunities and the world of work (group guidance, games related to hobbies and recreation, guided activities).
Career awareness: Students at all levels of education should be assisted to have a continuous expansion of knowledge and awareness about the world of work. At each level students’ should be assisted to develop recognition of the relationships between values, life styles and careers (through films, career days, interest inventory). They are to be aware of relationships between desirable school habit– responsibility, punctuality, efforts, positive human relationships and good worker traits.
Career exploration: This represents a well designed, planned inquiry and analysis of career that are of interest. Comparisons, reality testing, and standardised testing, and computerised programmes may be useful.
Career planning and decision making: Students at this level are to be helped to take control of their life and become an active agent for shaping their own future. They need to narrow down their career possibility and then move on to examine and test these options as critically as possible. Students need to be aware of the process of decision making and choosing between competitive alternatives, examining the consequences of specific choices, the value of compromise, and implementing a decision. Students are to recognise the impact of their current plan and decision making on their future. Knowledge about the above helps students to make informed decision and enable then to cope with career development tasks posed by the society during their school period. Students at this level are influenced by what they see around them- family, friends, neighbours, televisions or in movies. That is why experts suggest that students need to be aware of themselves, and the world around them in order to fully understand and make use of information about their individual interests and what exist beyond their immediate world. It is helping them to explore their likes and dislikes, expand their understanding of the world at large, and enhance their knowledge of how business works. The whole aim is to provide students with the broadest opportunity to learn and grow. In addition to the above, the following theories will also help the individual to be equipped with personality factors, environmental factors and other factors that influences choice of career. 1. Trait-and-factor Theory 2. John Holland Career Choice Typology 3. Anne Roe Personality/Need Theory 4. The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 5. Donald Super’s Developmental/self-concept Theory 6. Four- Humors Theory 7. Social-Cognitive Theory

2.3.1 Trait and Factor/Actuarial Theory of Career Development It is also called matching or actuarial approach. It is referred to as the oldest theoretical approach to career development and Parsons as the originator (Kankam & Onivehu, 2000). It is based on the measurement of individual characteristics denoted as traits and factors. Traits refer to characteristics typical of the individual over time, relatively stable, consistent in situations and provide a basis for measuring, describing and predicting behaviour. Factor refers to a construct which represents a group of traits that correlate with each other. Williamson (1939, 1949) cited in Zunker (1990) was one of the prominent advocate of trait-and-factor counselling. Utilization of Williamson’s counselling procedures maintained the early impetus of trait-and-factor approach evolving from the works of Parsons. Even when integrated into other theories of career guidance, the trait-and factor approach plays a very important role. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie the trait-and-factor theory are: 1) Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potential 2) Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile 3) It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process. 4) The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction.
Some assumptions of this theory by Miller, and Klein and Wiener are below:
Miller
a) Vocational development is a cognitive process b) Occupation is a single event; choice is greatly stressed over development c) There is a single ‘right’ occupation for everyone; there is no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations. d) Single person works in each job; one person- one job relationship e) Everyone has an occupational choice (http://faculty.tamu.commerce.educ/crrobinson/512/tandf.htm)

Klein & Wiener a) Each individual has a unique set of traits that can be measured reliably and validly. b) Occupation require that workers possess certain traits for success c) Choice of occupation is straight forward process and matching is possible d) The closer the match between personal characteristics and job requirements, the greater the likelihood for success-productivity and satisfaction (http://faculty.tamu.commerce.educ/crrobinson/512/tandf.htm)

It called for clear understanding of oneself. Knowledge of job requirements, conditions of success, and true reasoning in relation to these two groups of facts. This theory is used by many career practitioners in one form or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest tests and information materials that emerged from this approach have involved and remain in use up to now e.g. General Aptitude Test Battery, occupational profiles and ever expanding computer-based career guidance programmes. Trait-and- factor theory is criticised as not able to produce a perfect match between people and jobs (Walsh, 1990) and became increasingly unpopular in the 1970s, describe as going into ‘incipient decline’ (Crites, 1981). In essence, the trait-and-factor approach is far too narrow in scope to be considered as a major theory of career development. However, we should recognize that standardized assessment and occupational analysis procedures stressed in trait-and-factor approaches are useful in career counselling (Zunker, 1990). In addition to the above, trait-and-factor theory focuses on personality factors without considering the influence of environmental factor like availability of jobs to match the individuals’ trait and interpersonal factors in career choice. And can not provide enough bases for the current studies.

2.3.2 John Holland’s Vocational Personality John Holland’s theory shows that there is a match between an individual’s career choice and his or her personality and numerous variables that form their background (Zunker, 1990). According to this theorist, once individuals find a career that fits their personality, they are more likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time than individuals whose work do not suit their personality. He groups individuals into six basic personality types. Holland’s theory rests on four assumptions: 1. In our culture, persons can be categorized as one of the following: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. 2. There are six modal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. 3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. 4. Behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment (Bedu-Addo, 2000).

According to Holland, realistic personality types are practical, stable, self-controlled, independent and down to earth. They enjoy working with their hands, especially in projects which allow one to be physically active, they may be a doer. These individuals are physically strong and have very little social know-how. They are oriented towards practical careers such as labour, farmer, truck driver, mechanic, construction work, engineer or surveyor, landscape architect, aircraft mechanic, dental technician, electrician, athletic trainer, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, archaeologist, hairdresser, physical therapist, dressmaker, fire fighter, caterer, plumber, x-ray technician, etc. According to him, the investigative personality types are conceptually and theoretically oriented. Investigators are observant and curious about things around them. Typically they are inquisitive and intellectually self-confident as well as quite logical. They delight in situations that call for creative or analytical approach. They are thinkers rather than doers. They enjoy working on their own. They are best suited for careers that offer clearly defined procedures, research and the chance to explore a wide range of ideas are the best choices for investigating people, e.g. practical nursing, medical lab assistant, pharmacist, ecologist, math teacher, medical technologist, research analyst, surgeon, dietician, physician, police detective, veterinarian, meteorologist, horticulturist, dentist, computer analyst, science teacher, technical writer, science lab technician, computer system analyst, military analyst, college professor, lawyer, consumer researcher, astronomer, computer security specialist, horticulture, emergency medical technology, respiratory therapy, surgical technology, dental assistant, water and waste technology, computer languages, computer sciences, economics, biochemistry, geology. According to Holland, artistic personality types are original, innovative, imaginative, and creative. They prefer situations that are relatively unstructured and interact with their world through artistic expression, avoiding conventional and interpersonal situations in many instances. They do well as painters, writers, or musicians, artist, English teacher, drama coach, music teacher, graphic designer, advertising manager, fashion illustrator, interior decorator, photographer, journalist, reporter, cosmetologist, librarian, museum curator, cartographer, dance instructor, entertainer, performer, architect, etc. According to theorist, social personality types are understandable, friendly and people oriented. These individuals often have good verbal skills and interpersonal relations. They are helpers and enjoy jobs that let them interact with people. They are well equipped to enter professions such as teacher, social worker, counsellor, youth services worker, recreation director, physical therapist, occupational therapist, extension agent, therapist, teacher, personnel director, funeral director, minister, chamber of commerce executive, athletic coach, claims adjuster, parole officer, attorney, sales representative, fitness instructor, cosmetologist, paramedic, mental health specialist, social worker, nurse, dietician, information clerk, child care worker, travel agent, airline personnel, receptionist, waiter/waitress, office worker, home health aide, career counsellor, etc.

According to him, enterprising personality types are gregarious, dominant and adventurous. They are generally extroverted and will often initiate projects involving many people and are good at convincing people to do things their way. They have strong interpersonal skills and enjoy work that brings them into contact with people. They are best counselled to enter career such as real estate appraiser, florist, lawyer, TV/radio announcer, branch manager, lobbyist, insurance manager, personnel recruiter, office manager, travel agent, advertising agent, advertising executive, politician, business manager. According to Holland, conventional personality type refers to those individuals who show a dislike for unstructured activities. They enjoy collecting and organizing information in effective and practical way. They are often like being part of large companies though not necessarily in leadership positions. They enjoy steady routines and following clearly defined procedures. They are best suited for jobs as subordinates, banker, file clerks, accountant, Business teacher, bookkeeper, actuary, librarian, proof reader, administrative assistant, credit manager, estimator, cad operator, reservations agent, bank manager, cartographer cost analyst, court reporter, medical secretary, auditor statistician, financial analyst, safety inspector, tax consultant, insurance underwriter , computer operator, medical lab technologist, cashier, hotel clerk, etc. It has been employed as popular assessment tools such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and Strong Interest Inventory. Dictionary of Holland occupational Code came as a result of Holland’s work. John Holland created a hexagonal model that shows the relationship between the personality types and environments.
[pic]
Figure 2.1: Holland Hexagonal Model

It could be noticed that the personality types close to each other are more alike than those farther away. We can see this most clearly when we compare the personalities opposite each other, on the hexagon. For example, read the description of the types for Realistic and Social. You will see that they are virtually the opposite of each other. On the other hand, Social and Artistic are not that far apart. Holland topology is based on the following key concepts:
Congruence: it refers to the degree of fit between an individual’s personality orientations and actual or contemplated work environment. One is believed to be more satisfied with his career and can perform better if he is in a congruent work environment.
Consistency: it refers to the degree of relationship between types or the various classifications. Types that are adjacent on the hexagon have more in common than types that are opposite. For instance, the conventional type might be more realistic and enterprising than be artistic.
Differentiation: it is the establishment of differences or a difference among two or more

things. It refers to the degree to which a person or his environment is clearly defined.

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Vocational identity: extent to which a person has a clear self perception of his or her characteristics and goals, and to the degree of stability which an occupational environment provides. Holland’s theory is criticised as basically descriptive with focus on explanation of casual basis of time period in development of hierarchies of the personal model styles. He was concerned with factors that influence career choice rather than development process that leads to career choice (Zunker, 1990). This theory focus mainly on how a personality can be matched with a career rather than how other factors like environmental and/or interpersonal factors influence the individual’s choice. It is therefore limited as far as the current research is concerned.

2.3.3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory Akinade, Sokan and Oserenren (1996) posit that this theory see one’s need as the main determinant of the nature of an individual’s interests including vocational interest. This theorist was of the view that career choice is based on childhood orientation or experience at home to satisfy needs; and that people choose occupation that satisfies important needs. This theory attempts to understand, make meaning of, and utilize individual motives, purposes and drives to support career development. She believed work can satisfy needs in different ways hence classification of occupation into eight groups. According to Roe (1956) cited in Zunker (1990), the first five can be classified as person-oriented and the last three as non-person oriented. 1. Service (something for another person); 2. Business contact (selling and supplying services); 3. Organisation (management in business, industry and government); 4. Technology (product maintenance, transportation of commodities &utilities); 5. Outdoors (cultivating, preserving &gathering natural resources); 6. Science (scientific theory and its application); 7. General culture (preserving and transmitting cultural heritage) & 8. Arts and Entertainment (creative art and entertainment)

Anne Roe’s theory was based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs stated in this order: 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Need for belongingness and love 4. Need for importance, respect, self-esteem and independence 5. Need for information 6. Need for understanding 7. Need for beauty and aesthetic 8. Need for self-actualization

According to this theory each of us is born with certain psychological predispositions and physiological and physical factors which interact with the home environmental conditions like child rearing practices, and a need hierarchy develops. The child rearing practices are associated with emotional climate. The home emotional climates are categories as:

1. Over-protecting or over-demanding parents 2. The avoidance type of parents- rejecting or neglecting parents 3. Accepting type of parents- very loving or casually loving (casual acceptance)

People from warm home will opt for people oriented jobs or services (from accepting, loving and protecting home) and the child from rejecting, neglecting and casual loving home will grow up to be interested in non-person-related career like technology, transportation and science. Roe (1972) cited in Zunker (1990) modified her theory after several studies refuted her claim that different parent-child interactions result in different vocational choices. Here is the summary: The life history of any human being in terms of occupation history can give more than any other approach can. There may be differences in the relative right carried by different factors, but the process of vocational decision and behaviour do not differ in essence from any others. The extent to which vocational decision and behaviours are under the voluntary control of the individual is variable. Occupational life affects all other aspects of the life pattern. Appropriate and satisfying vocation can be a protection against neurotic ill or refuge from them and vice versa. When vocation is adequately integrated into the total life pattern, it can be satisfying and maintain stability. Roe’s theory may be appropriate in developed countries, however, the current researcher feels it may not be relevant in Ghana where job opportunities are limited, movement from one job to the other not easy and one has to secure a job for a survival.

2.3.4 The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory Ginzberg and Associates, a team consisting of an economist, a psychiatrist, a sociologist, and a psychologist, came together to develop a theory of occupational choice (Zunker, 1990). They viewed vocational development as progressive narrowing of choices that at first reflect only fantasy but with age come to be based on reality. They earlier assumed that individuals move through the same sequence and that the process is largely irreversible. Recognizing the fact that vocational choice is influenced by certain factors: the reality factor, the influence of the educational process, the emotional factor and individual values. This theory proposes that it is a development path that leads to career choice. They posit that children and adolescents go through three career stages: fantasy, tentative and realistic. The fantasy stage lasts through childhood. During the period, the future seems to hold almost unlimited opportunities. Children imagine themselves in the roles of those with whom they identify. When asked what they want to be when they grow up, they may say ‘a doctor’, ‘a teacher’, ‘a truck pusher’, ‘a footballer’, etc. They argue that, until about the age eleven, children are in the fantasy stage of career choice. In the tentative stages (from about age eleven to seventeen) children move from the fantasy stage of childhood to the realistic decision making stage of young adulthood. Career thoughts begin to reflect personal aspect such as interests, abilities and values. They believe that adolescents progress from evaluating their interest (from eleven to twelve years of age), to evaluating their capacities (thirteen to fourteen years of age), to evaluating their values (from fifteen to sixteen years of age). They question how important it is to make a lot of money whether their work will contribute to society, or how much they value free time, independence or security. At this period, they drop certain choices in favour of others that better fit their values and abilities. The period from seventeen to eighteen years through the early twenties is referred to as realistic stage of career choice. During this period, the individuals extensively explore the tentative choices they have been considering or available career, then focus on a particular career (i.e., crystallisation) and finally select a specific job within the career. For instance, deciding to be a dentist or an orthopaedic surgeon within the career of a doctor. Critics were of the view that data is collected on middle upper-class people whose educational level is high and because of highly selective nature of the sample, the conclusions of the study have limited application (Osipow, 1983) cited in Zunker (1990). It also fails to take into account individual differences. This theory may not be fully accepted in the Ghanaian situation. Some of our youth attained age twenty-two before completing senior high school let alone gaining admission into the tertiary institutions or deciding on what to do.

2.3.5 Donald Super’s Developmental/Self-Concept Theory Super’s self-concept theory thinks of vocation in terms of self-perception (Cobb, 2001). The individuals’ self-concept plays a central role in their career choice. Super believes that it is during adolescent period that individuals first construct a career self-concept (Santrock, 2001). People choose occupations that are consistent with the way they see themselves, that reflect their interests, values, and strengths. Self-concept changes with age and people continue to discover things themselves well into adulthood. Choosing an occupation means finding a match between the self-perception that make up one’s self-concept and the actual requirement of the jobs one is considering. He emphasizes that career development consists of five different phases. It is a developmental theory. The first stage is growth stage: The adolescents discover more about themselves than about an occupation. The adolescents develop idea about work that match with already existing global concept. At this stage the individual develops a realistic self-concept. The stage lasts until fourteen or eighteen years of age. Between the age of eighteen to twenty-two years of age or even to mid-twenties, they narrow their career choices and initiate behaviour that enables them to enter some type of career. This phase is called exploration stage. Choosing course in school is part of this process. Super identifies three sub-stages in the exploration period. Adolescent move from plans that reflect only their interest (what they would like to be), to those that show a growing awareness of their abilities (and how well these match their interests), to a realistic appraisal that includes the availability and accessibility of certain jobs. In the establishment stage, the young adults complete their education or training and enter the world of work. If they change jobs, they are likely to find the same form of work in another setting or office. It typically lasts through early adulthood (i.e., twenty-one to twenty-four years of age). The fourth is maintenance stage. The decision on a specific, appropriate career is made between the age of twenty-five to thirty-five years (Santrock, 2001) and to Cobb (2001) from forty-five to sixty-five years of age. Super speaks the developmental task in the years as ‘holding one’s own against competition’ whether in the form of others who are involved in the same type of work or maintaining the same level and quality of work as in the part. Finally, the declining stage where individuals seek to advance their careers and to reach higher-status positions involve retirement for most workers and need to find other roles through which to express themselves. It occurs in late adulthood. The age range should be thought of as approximate rather than rigid. He believes that career exploration in adolescence is a key ingredient of adolescents’ career self-concept. He constructed career development inventory to assist counsellors in promoting adolescents’ career exploration. These stages of vocational development provide the bases for vocational behaviour and attitudes, which are shown through five activities called vocational developmental tasks (Zunker, 1990). This is shown on Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks
Vocational Ages General Characteristics
Developmental Task Crystallization 14- 18 A cognitive-process period of formulating a general vocational goal through awareness of resources, contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred occupation

Specification 18-21 A period of moving from tentative vocational preferences towards specific vocational preference

Implementation 21-24 A period of completing training of vocational preference and entering employment

Stabilization 24-35 A period of confirming a preferred career by actual work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as an appropriate one

Consolidation 35+ A period of establishment in a career by advancement, status, and seniority
Source: (Zunker, 1990, p. 26). Career Counselling: applied concepts of life planning. One of Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis of the role self-concept development plays. Super recognized that the self-concept changes and develops throughout people’s lives as a result of experience. People successively refine their self-concept over time and application to the world of work creates adaptation in their career choice (http://extension.psu.edu/workforce/Briefs/OverviewCareerDev (Insert)pdf.) Super’s self concept theory also appears to be of greater application to able young people than to others (Kidd, 1984a). A prior criticism of developmental theories, that they are inclined to predict a universal law and self-perpetuating set of milestones, is supported by the research. There is very little support for the ideas of adolescent turmoil, stress and identity crises (Coleman, 1992). Although the career development theory provides the bases for the professional work force its research has not consider women, people of colour and the poor. With the changing work force and nature of work the theory has been called into question (Zunker, 1990). The current researcher is of the view that, the individual consolidating their career choice at the age of thirty-five might not be relevant in Ghana as people still move from one job to another at this time.

2.3.6 Four-Humors Theory According to Engler (2006), and Zimbardo and Weber (1994) this type of typology is one of the earliest. Type or topologies imply distinct and discrete, and separate categories into which individuals can be placed. It was proposed in the fifth century B.C (460-377 B.C) by a Greek physician called Hippocrates. Sikorski & Peters (2008) refers to Hippocrates as a father of medicine. Hippocrates suggested that personalities could be classified according to predominance of certain body fluids, or humors; each associated with a particular temperament. ❖ Blood-sanguine temperament; cheerful and active ❖ Phlegm-phlegmatic temperament; apathetic or sluggish ❖ Black bile-melancholy temperament; sad and brooding ❖ Yellow bile-choleric temperament; irritable and excitable

It was popular for centuries, although, today we know it is baseless: personality and moods are not driven by bodily fluids and since the middle ages to now no barber-surgeons or other professional’s treated-afflicted patient with surgical bloodletting and leeches to remove the ‘bad blood’ (Zimbardo and Weber, 1994). According to Engler (2006) it was updated and popularized by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher (1724-1804). It was later combined with Eyseneck’s trait theory: extroversion-introversion and neuroticism (stability- instability).
Melancholic: feeling of causing sadness or making somebody feel thoughtful or gentle sadness. They are generally: ❖ Rigid- firm, strict, harsh, unhappy ❖ Sober- self control, not drank ❖ Pessimistic- belief that worse is likely to happen ❖ Reserved- slow to show feeling, opinion, shy, and lacking cordiality ❖ Quiet- gentle, not rough

They have psychological and emotional problem (first order neurotic disorder). They are full of emotions, fear, anxiety, depression, etc. They have unstable personalities and also perfectionism. They are introverts.

Phlegmatic: they are slow to act or show feeling or interest. They are unemotional and difficult to arouse. They are ❖ Passive-unresisting, submissive, inactive ❖ Careful- anxious, attentive ❖ Thoughtful- considerate, showing careful thought ❖ Peaceful- undisturbed ❖ Control- regulate, direct, check, even tempered ❖ Calm-still, quiet, tranquil They have the same problem as melancholic but they have little or no emotional problem. The have stable personality and are introverts.
Choleric: they are bad tempered- showing or tending to show anger or irritation.
They show the following traits: ❖ Restless- impatient, resisting control ❖ Aggressive- unprovoked attack, hostile activity ❖ Excitable- easily excited ❖ Impulsive- acting on impulse; without thinking about consequences ❖ Changeable- able to change ❖ Optimistic- expecting the best ❖ Active- energetic

They have problem with conduct or character (second order problem). In the extreme they can be moral imbeciles, criminal tendencies, truants, sexual perverts, or juvenile delinquents. They love power and status and have stable personalities. They are extroverts.
Sanguine: they are confident, optimistic, cheerful, hopeful, courageous, and romantic. They are generally ❖ Sociable- friendly, convivial ❖ Outgoing- deporting, friendly sociable ❖ Talkative- fond of talking ❖ Responsive- readily reacting to some influence ❖ Easy going- not fussy, indolent ❖ Lively- brisk, active, vivid ❖ Leadership- eager to lead ❖ Carefree- not anxious

They are like the choleric but normally an egocentric individual. They have stable personality and are extroverts. The table below shows the works that will be suitable for each personality type and works that will not be suitable for each.

Table 2.2: Jobs suitable and Jobs to be avoided by each Personality Type

Personality Type Jobs to Avoid Probable Jobs
Melancholic Medical Technician Social worker Nursing Banker Religious minister Computer scientist Teaching Physician specialist Secretary Philosopher Choleric Medicine Reporter Airline pilot Public relations Architect Musical Accountant Politician Pharmacist Athletics coach
Phlegmatic Musician Research scientist Advertising executive Radiologist Public administrator Guidance counsellor Politician Surgeon Restaurant manager Airline pilot
Sanguine Biochemist Insurance agent Airline pilot Public relations Administrator Musician Dentist Aeronautical engineer Marketing executive Psychology Photographer
Source: Bedu-Addo (2000, pp. 297-298).

The Four- Humors theory focus only on the development aspect of the individual and may not be all that relevant to the study.

2.3.7 Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory is ‘the theory that behaviour, environment, and person/cognitive factors are important in understanding development’ (Santrock, 2001, p. 47). It is believed to be developed by Bandura in 1986. He postulates a triadic reciprocal causation that involves cognitive, behaviour, and environmental factors. All the three operate interactively as determinants of one another. Thus people do not simply react to environmental events; they create their own environments and do well to change them. Cognitive events determine which environmental events will be perceived and how they will be interpreted, organised, and acted on. Either positive or negative feedback from behaviour in turn, influences people’s thinking and the ways in which they act to change the environment (Ryckman, 1997). This is illustrated below as in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: A diagram Reciprocal Causation

Adolescents observe themselves and note how well their skills, interests and values match the requirements of the situation. These observations have consequences for the type of work they might be good at. They are also related to what they are interested in and what they value. People attempt to understand the consequences of their actions and use this understanding in ways that change their environments to better meet their needs. However, it fails to acknowledge emotion as an important component of personality, and has little to say about the developmental origins of adult personality (Zimbardo and Weber, 1994). Despite its weakness it is the most appropriate theory to serve the basis for this research because it focuses on behaviour, thinking, environment and the interaction between these factors.

2.4 Types of Career Career refers to “the activities and positions involved in vocations, occupations and jobs as well as related activities associated with an individual’s lifetime of work” (Zunker, 1990, p. 3). It can be refers a job or profession that you have been trained for, and which you undertake for a long period of your life. In my background to the study, a mention is made of clusters of career such as agriculture, business and office, communication and media, health, hospitality and recreation, manufacturing, marine science, construction, arts, humanity and sciences, home economics, marketing and distribution, natural resources and environment, personal services, public service, and transportation. For this study career is grouped into blue-collar and white-collar jobs. A blue-collar job refers to all forms of manual work or workers. It relate to workers who do manual or industrial work that often requires special work clothes or protective clothing. It involves physical work rather than working in offices. A blue-collar work may involve skilled or unskilled manufacturing, mining, construction, mechanical, maintenance. They are generally for people without college education and normally worked for longer hours and paid wages although some professionals may be paid by project or salaried. Examples of blue-collar workers are hunters, trappers, farm labourers, truck drivers, hairdressers, dressmakers, plumbers, caterers, construction workers, electricians, fishermen, industrial workers like pottery, mat, distillery of local gin, etc. A white-collar job refers to non-manual works. It relate to work done or people who work in office or other professional environment rather than jobs working in factories, building things, etc. They often carried out by people with college education. It relate to jobs that are usually salaried and do not involved manual labour. Example of white-collar jobs are senior civil servants, business and office workers, doctors, nurses, politicians, clerical staffs, accountants, lawyers, journalists, teachers, cashiers, social workers, secretaries, public administrators, and restaurant managers, etc. The blue collar/white collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt and tie. In addition, work task have blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour and the relative increase in low-paying white collar jobs, which may expect white-collar employees to perform blue-collar task. An example would be a restaurant manager who may put on more formal attire but still help with coking food or taking customers orders or a mining worker who also performs desk work. With the information revolution Western nations have moved towards a service and white collar economy. Many manufacturing jobs have been outsourced to developing countries which pay their workers lower wages. This outsourcing of jobs pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of blue collar jobs in developed countries. According to oral tradition, the people of the South Tongu District were predominantly fishermen and farmers. Other vocations like pottery and distillery of local gin were carried on in a small scale even up to now. However, after the construction of the Akosombo Dam in 1965 fishing activities began to decline and at the same time unprofitably. The creation of the dam resulted in an artificial lake behind the dam. This resulted in the exodus of the people to Afram plains area and other places for greener pastures. Those who are left behind have to look for other means of survival. After independence, more schools were built, and this gave a lot of people the opportunity enrol their wards in school and also encourages them further their education. During this time those who engage in a white-collar jobs were better paid and the importance attached to those who worked there were higher than that of a blue-collar jobs and this is resulting in the decline for blue collar jobs.

2.5 Barriers to Career Choice
Unavailability of jobs: this is the situation where the available jobs are not enough to cater for the large number of job seekers. Daily Graphic (2011, March 17) stated that the National Youth Employment Programme was established as part of the short-term solution to youth unemployment in the country. Various modules were introduced to offer jobs in community policing, education, health, dressmaking, agriculture road maintenance and ICT.
Job discrimination: this may be in two forms. The first is where employers may discriminate against an employee on the ground of sex, tribe or race rather than on the bases of his or her abilities. The other is where school leavers would not like to work in certain organisations because of poor working condition and others. Ayertey, 2002 states that, graduates seem to be selective in the type of job they want. Most of them refuse to work in certain places at the going market rate because they do not want such jobs. Teaching and farming are for instance, not attractive to graduates and some will prefer to remain unemployed than to work in such areas.
Unawareness of job: when people are not aware of how and where to get job, they end-up jobless or dissatisfied with what they are doing. Often the unemployed are not aware of the opportunities available in other parts of the country or in other occupations. This situation lead to structural unemployment – is caused by a mismatch between labour skills and jobs. Lawer (2007) researched on assessing the effectiveness of career guidance in senior secondary schools in Kumasi Metropolitan and used descriptive survey design. She used both questionnaire and interview. The findings of this research were as follows: Majority of senior secondary students in Kumasi Metropolis agreed that career talks were given in the school. Majority of them were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations, conditions of work, earning and other rewards of occupation, and did not have better understanding of their career interest, aptitudes and abilities.
Financial support: this is very common in areas where most parents are not gainfully employed or where income of most parents’ are so low that they cannot provide money for the training or continuous education of their children. Shertzer and Stone (1976) posit that there are at least two major ways in which family background can act as barrier to further education. First is family ability to finance extensive schooling. Second is psychological rather than economical and rests on the valuing of schooling by families at different socio-economic levels. Finally they point out that the occupation of a high school student’s father is a relatively good predictor of whether the student would enter college or not. Amedzor (2003) researched on career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils in Ho township basic schools. The researcher used simple random sampling and sample population 200 respondents. Research evidence shows that most students of junior secondary schools in Ho Township said they need financial support for training towards their chosen career.
Inadequate marketable skills: for our students to get job they wish to engage in, there is also the need to have the ability to perform well in those areas. This calls for the right form of training and education. Lack of the right training or education needed for those jobs will render our school leavers unmarketable in the job market.

2.6 The Role of Guidance and Counselling Co-ordinator in Career Choice and Development Gibson and Mitchell (1995) postulate career counselling, career assessment, resource person and consultant, and linkage agent as the role of school counsellor in student’s career development. It is clear that most of our students are having problem with their choice of school programme and some are not certain about what they will do after school. For the educational goal of students to be achieved the counsellor has a career guidance role to play. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and European Communities (2004, p.10) define career guidance as: the services and activities intended to assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools, universities and colleges, in training institutions, in public employment services, in the workplace, in the voluntary or community sector and in the private sector. The activities may take place on an individual or group basis, and may be face-to-face or at a distance (including help lines and web-based services). They include: career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other forms), assessment and self-assessment tools, counselling interviews, career education programmes (to help individuals develop their self awareness, opportunity awareness, and career management skills), taster programmes (to sample options before choosing them), work search programmes, and transition services.

Career guidance which is a guidance activity is a form of helping relationship. Rogers (1961) cited in Kankam and Onivehu (2000, p.20) Defines a helping relationship as ‘a relationship in which at least one of the parties has the intent of promoting the growth, development, maturity, improved functioning with life of others. It is also a relationship in which one of the participants intends that there should come about, in one or both parties, more appreciation of, more expression of, more functional use of the latent inner resources of the individual’.

York and Cooper (2001, p.19) explain helping relationship as involving two likelihoods: helping client or patient learn patterns of behaviour that allow that individual to cope more effectively with his/her surrounding environment, or culture, and aiding the client or patient to reach his/her ultimate potential as a human being even if such a process will inevitably lead to conflicts with his or her surroundings, environment, or culture.

Career counselling: Since many students cannot make critical decision about career planning and decision making on their own. Professional counsellors are to come out with programmes of career education which are designed to equip students for eventual selection of a career. This can be achieved through group counselling, group guidance activities, and parental counselling.
Career assessment: Here students are equipped through career education programme to assess their personal characteristics in relation to career planning and decision making. The counsellor as a monitor of career programmes has the responsibility of assessing student’s needs and evaluating programmes. Students need can be defined as s discrepancy between ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’. The counsellor has to make a significant contribution to the development of appropriate self-understanding of youth through the use of standardised and non-standardised test techniques. These tests are to be free of gender or cultural biases. Some examples of these tests are intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and personality tests.
Resource person and consultant: Traditionally, the counsellor is to be active in acquiring materials appropriate to career decision making and planning. He is expected to be aware of the sources from which source materials may be obtained. He is to serve as a resource person to the individual teachers involved in the career education programme. He should be aware of computerised information programme and media aids such as films, papers, audio and videotapes. The career counsellor primarily functions as a leader and coordinator of programmes. In this role, the career counsellor serves as a resource person who provides and integrates relevant materials into instructional programmes and interprets objectives and goals of programmes.
The counsellor as consultant to the individual teachers in the career education programme, making use of his understanding of the student’s population and career development resources and opportunities to complement the career education programmes. Teachers and other members of the community will periodically find it necessary to refer students for individual assistance or for special group programme.
Linkage agent: The counsellor has to make efforts to collaborate with community agencies and employers in order to link students. For example, the counsellor’s ability to make on-site visits to local industries and business organisations, to have speakers from the community, and to contract sponsors of cooperative programmes all depend on a liaison between the school and the community. This will help in implementing and strengthening career education programme.

2.7 The Implications of the Study The study of factors that influence choice of career, the theories underlying them, the process that lead to decision making, and environmental constraints on the careers have certain implications for the counsellor in counselling clients with career development or adjustment needs. A good understanding of the process and characteristics of human development, stages at which the individual is ready to make certain decisions are essential to the counsellor. He has to understand basic human needs as well as special needs of the persons and their relationship to career development and career decision making. He has to assess and interpret individual traits and characteristics and apply these to a variety of counselee’s career-related needs. A counsellor has to recognize and help clients to be aware that unforeseen or chance factors may on occasion bring about change in career planning. He is to be aware of the rapid changes constantly taking place in the way people work and live in the present technological era which demand a constant review of the counselling theories for him to effectively assist the clients.
2.8 Theoretical Framework of the Study

We can note from the review of the literature that the perceptions about factors that influence people’s choice of career vary across the globe.This study will be based on social-cognitive theory which is developed by Bandura in 1986. The social cognitive theory as earlier discussed believes that human behaviour is due to a reciprocal determinism that involves three interacting factors: personal/cognitive, behavioural, and environmental factors. Though there are several theories of choice and various factors that influence choice, this researcher sees the reciprocal action of intrinsic, extrinsic, and interpersonal factors as the main determinants of an effective choice of a career. And a combination of these factors will bring the expected satisfaction in the individual’s career. A skill to lead one’s career, to set career related goals, to develop necessary knowledge and acquire work experiences, is becoming one of the most important strategic skills. The gap between knowledge acquired in general education and vocational schools, between skills and competencies and knowledge required at the work market has broadened. The skill to manage one’s educational path is even more important than professional training: to set goals and to make the right decisions, several personal characteristics become decisive, especially motivation and attitudes. The reason why students are not actively participating in planning their educational path is that they lack sufficient knowledge, skills, and confidence. There is often a lack of information about options that would assure a precise idea about the potentially wide range possibilities before making a decision. Throughout one’s life, a person receives new ideas and acquires insights both about oneself and about possibilities. life, and the chaotic experiences it offers, change human’s understanding about oneself and one’s possibilities, but the task of career counsellors is to make learners more aware of the fact that they will acquire certain information and experiences automatically through time when moving from one life event to another. Intrinsic factors include interest in the job and personality that satisfies work. In the broader sense they are basic and essential features which form part of someone rather than because of his or her association (Encarta, 2009). Choosing a career calls for identifying one’s personal interest as choice will also be influenced by individual’s interests. Most students would like an ‘interesting’ job. Interests are of course, very personal, and two people may be interested in the same activity for quite different reasons. A football player might relish the company, the intellectual challenge, the competition, and the elements of psychological warfare. An interest may be significant in itself and be vital to career choice. An interest can also point to jobs where similar satisfactions can be had e.g. the football player. Occupations can be grouped together where they have a common interest element. Remember you do not need to satisfy all your interests in a job. Many will be achieved through outside activities and for the individual to succeed in his choice of career he or she needs to have interest in his intended choice of career. One needs to have the needed desire or liking for his job. Nothing great can be achieved without enthusiasm. Enthusiasm inspires one to be serious with whatever he is doing and excel in what he does. The result of the study of Adjin (2004) showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. Work is expected to improve upon the individuals’ quality of life, and bring honour and respect, so one needs to pay attention to his aptitude, and attitude towards work. It is true that certain families are noted for a particular job because they value that particular job and assume it may give them the respect they need in the society. The research by Amedzor (2003) showed that, prestige was the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. Values and aspirations need to be considered as the individual makes a choice since the importance or usefulness one attached to his job and individual’s desire or ambition to achieve inspires him to excel in his job. The individual’s scale of values is based on his/her attitudes and beliefs about what is important in life. If one’s values match closely those of his work or colleagues he/she is likely to feel a sense of pride in what you are doing and be happy to devote time and energy to your job. Value systems do change over time - so what is right for you now may not be so appropriate in 5 or 10 years time. Values do become more important as we get older. Examples of values include autonomy (making your own decisions, independence of action), authority (having influence over others), variety (change and diversity in tasks, places, people), service (helping or caring for others), economic reward (high salary, property), prestige (having achievements recognized), social interaction (having pleasant, friendly contacts), creativity (being original, developing new concepts). This, however, cannot bring the expected satisfaction without other required intrinsic factors. Inborn talents need to be developed. These talents when developed will influence the individual’s choice of career, and for one to be fully developed and attain self-actualisation, he has to pay the needed attention to inborn talents. The abilities and skills- either innate or acquired needs to be suitable for the job one intends to do or is doing. The individual’s aptitude or special ability has great influence on the vocational level and performance at work. Individuals’ aptitude has a powerful influence on the vocational level they are likely to attain or the training they are likely to be enrolled in. People with special abilities are better trained. The individual’s intellectual ability is very important in education and occupational choice. This is an important factor since individuals may enter into occupations that require considerable educational preparation as compare with occupations that which might not require so much educational preparation. For one to cope effectively at workplace his/her intellectual ability has to match with the occupation chosen. The individual’s ability to use or showing use of the imagination to create new ideas or things, or making imaginative use of the limited resources available is very important. Creative people are catalysts for new ideas that challenge the existing system and the accepted of doing things. Temperament is the aspect of your personality expressed by the style in which you deal with people or approach tasks. It also influences your feelings and emotions and determines how you react in various situations. Personality factors were identified as most important in choosing career among high school students (Borchert, 2002). Also the study of Annan (2006) revealed that personality was most influential factor that influenced career choice among senior secondary students in Ahanta East Metropolis taking into consideration (ability, personality, material benefit, home background, gender factors, and significant others). Career choices motivated by intrinsic factors are also intellectually stimulating. A choice is intrinsically motivated if one is free in making career decision based on innate tendency rather than environmental or interpersonal factors. Extrinsic factors include availability of jobs and how well an occupation pays or brings benefit. They also include those essential features as a result of the individual’s associations or consequences. People choose those jobs that are easy to access. For instance, in a community where the people are predominantly farmers or fishermen, some people may choose to become farmers or fishermen because that is what is available and they can easily get. To some, because of lack of access to other jobs that they cherish, they go in for any job that is available. There are others that go in for jobs that come their way or due to circumstances. There are jobs that provide quicker opportunities for promotion. The study of Edwards and Quinter (2011) indicate that availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences are the most influential factors affecting career choices among students. While males reported learning experiences and career flexibility as the most influential factors, females however reported availability of advancement opportunity and opportunity to apply skills as the most influential factors. Though the initial salaries attached to those jobs may not be attractive, some may go in for them due to promotion opportunities attached to them. Financial rewards as usually said, motivate the youth to make their choices, that is, they go in for jobs that go with attractive salaries. Each individual would like to work at a place where there is effective machinery for negotiating pay increases or conditions for employment, where selection of most appropriate methods of calculating the wages or salaries which are important for cooperation and high morale, and department for the setting of wages and salary scales and the procedure to be followed are clearly defined. For the worker to be satisfied with his job or to achieve target the following conditions are to be present: health and safety measures, ventilation, motivation, precaution against fire, office equipment and recreational facilities and everything that an employer puts in place to ensure a congenial working environment. There are others that consider the work environment before making their choice and those that are influenced by the success story of friends or/and family members. Again, others go in for jobs they feel may offer them further opportunity for education or training. While there are jobs that offer little or no opportunity for further training and education, jobs in Health and Education sector offer ample opportunity for further training and education. Education or training enables the worker to acquire skills, knowledge, attitudes and abilities that help him to do his present work effectively and also prepare him for higher level (Attieku et al, 2005). The school the individual attends goes a long way to influence one’s occupation. The level of the individual’s educational attainment also counts. It is true that one who enrols and studies in a medical school will become a medical doctor and one who attends school of journalism is likely to be a journalist. Again, education or training is considered when it comes to promotion in most areas of work. There are those that look for jobs that can assure them regular income to cater for not just their present needs but also for the future as seasonal jobs can not ensure regular pay and temporal jobs may be disturbing as one is faced with the problem of looking for another job. Also jobs that are of permanent nature provides one with a regular income which enables him plan his life well hereby improving his status in the society. This situation means more than the regular provision of job and wage. It includes situation where workers are not unjustly dismissed or suspended. Interpersonal factors include the influence of parents and significant others. Choices of students are influenced by parents - father, mother, and guardians. They provide the basic needs of the students and support them in their education or training to achieve their aims. They have the greatest opportunity to rehab the minds of students from early stages of their life. The work of Ferry (2006) revealed that the cultural and social context of family and community were found to be instrumental in how youth learn about careers and were influential in the choice process. Adjin (2004) showed that majority of students of Sogakope and Dabala second cycle schools received help from their parents/guardians in choosing career, though some gave no reason for making their choices. Fellow students or friends who are close associates also influence the individual students in making their choices. They are made up of people who share something in common: age, social level, academic level, values and beliefs, and considered as equals. They also influence the choice of programme leading to their choices. Teachers also influence students’ choice of career. They serve as mentors, coaches, provide students with career information and help them to clear their doubts and equip them with many skills. They empower students with infinite wisdom, help the individual to wipe out the stain of ignorance and get serious with everything he is doing as he grows. The school counsellor, usually an expert, helps students to be aware of themselves and their environment and how to acquire decision making skills to make informed choices. The counsellor also may influence students’ choice of career. Other members of the family may also in one way or the other influence students’ choice of career. The media is another source that influences students’ choice of career. The media here means those people involved in the production of the various means of mass communication. In the course of choosing a career, students may face one of the following problems: The need for skills that will help them to work in the present high technological era accompanied with competition for the few jobs available. Those without marketable skills will find it difficult getting the job of their choice. For them to make informed choice, attention should be paid to skill development. The inability of a parent to raise fund to support the education or training of his children may also be a problem. A student with a desire to be a medical doctor or petroleum engineer may end up in areas like Arts or Business where parents feel the cost of education is bearable. Such individuals are likely to have problem in the situation where there is a high competition for such jobs. Job discrimination among the youth is another problem of making a choice. They tend to prefer one job to others. To some, employment means having jobs that pay monthly salary and most of them prefer training programmes and courses that prepare them for white-collar jobs. There are students who are not aware of where jobs are available for them to apply. This makes it difficult for them to acquire a job. There are those that may have interest in a particular job but lack the ability to cope with the desired job. The list can not be complete without including inadequate job opportunity. In Ghana, at present jobs that are easy to access are most temporal or seasonal. Farming and fishing activities are mainly seasonal and do not ensure regular income. Work in the constructional sector and that of Youth Employment sector are also temporal in nature. Lack of career counsellors in our schools and unavailability of career guidance centres to cater for those who are not in school and are unemployed is also a problem. Career choice is a complicated process. The concept of ‘career’ is changing. It is anticipated that most graduates are likely to have major career changes in their working life. The individual’s task at this stage is to determine what range of job opportunities are appropriate for the next few years, recognising not only that his/her values, skills and interests may change, but also the types of work available may alter in an unpredictable way. For this study the individual’s occupation is seen to be influenced by the three main factors discussed above and each of the factors influences one another. Figure 2.3 below shows the theoretical model of the study.

Figure 2.3: Theoretical Model of a Career Choice

2.9 Summary of Related Literature Reviewed This chapter is concerned with the review of related literature. It covered areas like factors influencing career choice. It also dealt with career decision making tools such as self awareness, educational awareness, career awareness, career exploration, career planning and decision making, and some theories of vocational choice and development, and types of career. In addition, it cover barriers to career choice, e.g. unavailability of job, job discrimination, unawareness of availability of job, financial support, and the role of guidance coordinators in vocational guidance as career counsellors, resource person and consultants, linkage agent, etc. It also included the implication of the study to the counsellor and the theoretical model of the study.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the methodology used for the research. It presents the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, the Study Area, instrumentation and data analysis.

3.2 Research Design A survey research design was used, employing both the quantitative and qualitative approach. Agyedu, Donkor and Obeng (1998, p. 8) ‘define survey as use of cross-sectional, longitudinal and pooled studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection with the intent of generalizing from sample to a population’. According to Cobb (2001, p.569) ‘survey allows one to study large numbers of people through self report measures supplied by interviews or questionnaires’. It is a technique of descriptive research that seeks to determine present opinions of a specified population. This design enabled the investigator to reach large number of respondents to obtain the desired representative sample of the target population to deduce the perception of the entire population.

3.3 Population The investigator conducted this research in the three public second cycle institutions in the South Tongu District namely: Sogakope Senior High School, Comboni Technical/Vocational Institute, and Dabala Senior High Technical School. The final year students were the target group from whom the information was sought. The final year students were 787 in all. This population consisted of 469 boys and 318 girls. Besides, three Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and three Administrators were selected from the three schools. There were three Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in the schools and also eight Administrators to select from. Table 3.1 showed the population of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in the three institutions.

Table 3.1: Population of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators
Institutions Number of Administrators Number of Guidance and Counselling Coordinators
Sogakope Senior High School 3 1
Comboni Technical Vocational Institute 2 1
Dabala Senior High Technical School 3 1
Total 8 3
Source: The offices of the Administrators of the three institutions (2010/2011 academic year).

At the time this study was going on, St. Catherine Senior High School which is a girl school was just in the second year and a Vocational Institute at Torve, Agave was in the first year by then. This group of students were chosen because they were more likely to have a career in mind. They would soon complete school, and end up determining their career or choose a career without necessarily furthering their education and will be in better position to respond adequately to the questionnaire.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure In selecting sample for the study, the researcher made use of simple random sampling technique in selecting students. This is based on the quota of questionnaire allocated to each programme in the various institutions as in “Appendix D”. Simple random sampling means that each member of the sampling population has an equal chance of being selected. It called for a sufficiently large sample to ensure that the sample reflect the population (Clarke & Cooke, 1992 and Pittenger, 2003). Conceptually, simple random sampling is the simplest of the probability sampling techniques. It requires a complete sampling frame. Advantages are that it is free of classification error, and it requires minimum advance knowledge of the population other than the frame. Its simplicity also makes it relatively easy to interpret data collected via simple random sampling. A total of two hundred (200) students and three Guidance and Counselling Co-ordinators and three Administrators were selected from the three schools. Students’ questionnaires were administered in each school based on the enrolment of the final year students and their programmes offered. The number of students who participated in the study is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.2: Distribution of Respondents by Institutions
Institutions Total Number of Students Number of Sample
Sogakope Senior High School 467 119
Comboni Technical Vocational Institute 168 43
Dabala Senior High Technical School 152 38
Total 787 200
Source: The offices of the Administrators of the three institutions (2010/2011 academic year).

Convenience sampling was used in selecting the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and the Administrators. This technique was used as it is convenient and helps to get the gross estimate of the result without incurring cost or time required to select a random sample.

3.5 Study Area This survey was conducted in the South Tongu District. The District can be located in the Volta Region with Sogakope as its capital. The District is situated along the southern part of the Volta River. The Volta River runs to the west of the District. Its name ‘Tongu’’ came out of the geographical position of the District, that is located along a river. There are many streams in the District. The prominent ones are Tordzi and Adordzi. It shares boundaries with Akatsi District to the northeast, Keta District to the south, North Tongu District to the north (which was formally part of the District) and the Dangme East District of the Greater Accra Region to the west. The three second cycle institutions can be found in the District. They are: Sogakope Senior High- established in 1961, Comboni Technical Vocational Institute-established in 1990 by the Catholic Church and currently government assisted school, and Dabala Senior High Technical School- established in 1991.

3.6 Instrumentation
1. Factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire was used for collecting data from students. It was a researcher developed factor analytically derived questionnaire. It was a five-point Likert scale type. It consisted of three sections. Section A deals with bio data and section B with the three main factors that influence students’ choice of career namely Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal with the options of “Very great extent”, “Great extent”, “Moderate extent”, “Low extent”, and “No extent”. Section C deals with the problems that affect students’ choice of career. The options for section C are “Very serious problem”, “Serious problem”, “Moderate problem”, “Minor problem” and “No problem”. Both are scored 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively for each statement (see Appendix “A” for the questionnaire).
2. Open-ended questionnaire for Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators. The questionnaire for Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators were open ended questions which aimed at bridging any gap that may exist in students’ data. It consists of two sections. Section A deals with bio data and Section B with the open ended questions.

3.6.1 Assessment of Validity and Reliability of Factors Influencing Students’ Choice of Career Questionnaire The face validity of the instrument was established by making sure it contains items which were appropriate for measuring the attribute to be measured. The content validity was established by two experts in test and measurement at the University of Education, Winneba. The construct validity of students’ questionnaire was established using factor analysis. Construct validity refers to the degree to which test or questionnaire scores based on specific characteristic correlate well with other measures of the same characteristic or tap the concept you are trying to measure. In conducting the factor analysis the items were subjected to principal component with varimax rotation using SPSS, to ascertain the appropriateness of the hypothesized four- factor model. Factors were accepted based on the content of the items with loadings exceeding .30. Examining the anti-image correlation matrix after the initial run showed that items 8,9,16 and 19 had a KMO value of .493, .497, .475 and .499 respectively which was below the .50 cut-off suggesting that the construct validity of these statements are questionable. The statements were eliminated from the questionnaire and the analysis re-run with 24 statements left. Rotation converged in this run after 9 iterations with the extraction of eight components with eigenvalues above 1.0. It shows that item 1-3 loaded highly on factor five, items 15 loaded highly on factor eight, item 21 loaded highly on factor seven, and problems 1, 2 and 7 loaded highly on factor six. They were also eliminated from the pool of statements that formed the validated questionnaire. The final 16 items are shown in Table 3.2 with its loading and reliability (see Appendix “B” for the validated questionnaire). The reliability of the questionnaire for students was ensured using the Cronbach’s alpha which is a technique commonly used in measuring the internal consistency for items in a questionnaire. The Cronbach alpha produced were Extrinsic (alpha = .695), Intrinsic (alpha =.565), Interpersonal (alpha =.546) and Problems (alpha=.702).

Table 3.3: Item Listings and Factor Loadings for the Four-Factor Principal Component Solution Factor Loading 1 2 3 4
Factor 1 -Extrinsic (alpha = .695) 5. Good salary influences my choice, .635 6. An attractive working conditions will Influence my choice. .664 7. An opportunity for further education/training influences my choice. .661 8. Having stable and secure future influences my choice. .707 9. Having an improved social status influences my choice. .610

Factor 2 - Problems (alpha = .702)
|Inadequate marketable skills | | |.747 | | |
| | | |.702 | | |
|Job discrimination | | |.711 | | |
| | | |.652 | | |
|Unavailability of jobs | | | | | |
|Unawareness of jobs | | | | | |

Factor 3 - Intrinsic (alpha =.565)
|The chance to be original and creative influences my choice. | | .629| |
|My intellectual ability will influence my choice. | |.630 | |
|My values and aspirations influence my choice. | |.637 | |
|The feeling of importance will influence | | | |
|my choice. | |.477 | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
|Factor 4 -Interpersonal (alpha =.546) | | | |
|My friends or fellow students influence | | | |
|my choice. | | | |
|Teachers also influence my choice. | | |.743 |
|Other relatives influence my choice. | | |.579 |
| | | |.652 |

However, the construct validity was not established for the open-ended questionnaire for the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators as data collected can not be measured using interval/ratio measurement.
3.7 Method of Data Collection The investigator was at the schools to administer the questionnaires personally to ensure maximum response. The investigator explained the instructions and the various items to the students. This helped to obtain desired responses. Forty-five minutes was given for them to respond to the questionnaires. Answered questionnaires were retrieved on the same day. The questionnaire for the administrators and guidance and counselling coordinators were collected within one week.

3.8 Data Analysis Data collected were summarised using descriptive and inferential statistics. The theoretical model was assessed using logistic regression analysis. Logistic regression may be regarded as an extension of multiple regression with the exception that the dependent or outcome variable must be categorical and dichotomous- i.e. should have only two levels such as Yes/No, Male/Female, Pass/Fail. It can be used to make a distinction between two groups based on certain factors (Ofori & Dampson, 2011). They were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Analyses and discussion of the data collected from the respondents from the three public second cycle institutions in the South Tongu District of the Volta Region was presented in this chapter. It first focused on the preliminary analysis which dealt with bio data of the students. It proceeded to test hypotheses postulated for the study. It also death with a qualitative analysis of data collected from the guidance and counselling coordinators and administrators on the extent to which Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Interpersonal factors influence students’ choice of career. The analysis of the qualitative data was preceded by the bio data of the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and the Administrators. Again, it also analysed information on problems that students faced in making decision concerning choice of career. Data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.

4.1 Analysis of Students’ Bio Data The Sex distribution, age distribution, programmes pursued by students, and the intended careers of the 200 students were analysed.

4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Students Data on the sex of respondents were collected as shown in Figure 4.1 indicates that out of the total sample size of 200 students, 104 were males representing 52% of the total number of respondents, while the rest 96 representing 48% were females. Looking at the population of the final year students in the District as in Appendix ‘D’, female enrolment represented 40.6% of the population. It suggests that female students were fairly represented as far as this study was concerned.
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Figure 4.1: Sex Distribution of Students

4.1.2 Age Distribution of the Students The students were requested to tick the age range that applied to them as showed in Figure 4.2. With regard to the age of students, six of them fell within 14-16 range representing three percent (3%), 116 of them were in the range 17-19 representing 58%, and 78 were in the 20 and above range representing 39% of the respondents. Three percent (3%) of the respondents were below the prescribe age for the senior high schools. Thirty-nine percent (39%) of the respondents were also above the prescribed age for the senior high school students. The age range 17-19 years represents those students within the prescribed age for senior high students and they were in the majority. It implies that majority of the students in the South Tongu District enrolled in school at the prescribed age.

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Figure 4.2: Age Distribution of the Students

4.1.3 Programme Pursued by Students

Question three in the bio data sought to find out the programmes pursued by the respondents in the second cycle institutions. The responses are shown in Figure 4.3. Data collected as showed above indicates that 23 respondents representing 11.5% of the sample size were offering Science, 44 respondents representing 22% were offering General Arts, 54 respondents representing 27% were pursuing Vocational programme, 14 of them representing seven percent (7%) offering Agricultural Science, 16 of them representing eight percent (8%) were pursuing Technical, and 49 of the respondents representing 24.5% were pursuing Business. The number of students offering Agricultural and Technical programmes were very low; which implies that low proportion of school leavers will go in for jobs in the Technical and manufacturing, and Agricultural sectors.
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Figure 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Programme

4.1.4 Intended Careers of Students Items four of the bio data requested the respondents to state their intended choice of career. The responses were grouped as in Table 4.1 below. Table 4.1 indicates that 41 of the respondents representing 20.5% were of the intention to work in the Health Care sector, 48 of them representing 24% intended to serve in the Administrative, Managerial, and Administrative support sector, 43 of them representing 21.5% had the intention of working in the Technical and Manufacturing sector, 24 respondents representing 12%, intended to work in Communication and Legal Sector, 41 of them representing 20.5% intended to work in the Education and Other Services, three of the respondents representing one and half percent (1.5%) intended to work in the Agricultural related Areas. Twenty-one and half percent (21.5%) of the respondents with the intention to work in the manufacturing sector and the one and half percent (1.5%) to work in the agricultural sector showed that majority of the students are aiming at the service sector and very few at the manufacturing and agricultural sector. Previous study by Adjin (2004) indicates that six out of 150 respondents representing four percent (4%) were interested in engineering/architecture/survey section and two representing 1.3% in agronomy. This six categories of career choices of students is further reduced to two categories- white-collar and blue-collar jobs. It forms part of Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Distribution of Students by Intended Choice of Career
Careers Frequency Percent White Collar Blue Collar
Health Care 41 20.5 41 -
Administrative, managerial
& Adm. Support 48 24.0 48 -
Technical & Manufacturing 43 21.5 - 43
Communication & Legal 24 12.0 24 -
Education & Other Services 41 20.5 41 -
Agricultural related 3 1.5 - 3
Total 200 100.0 154 46

2. Testing of Main Hypothesis The study tested the logistic regression model in which Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are hypothesized to influence students’ career in the senior high schools. Logistic regression as earlier explained requires that the dependent variable must be categorical and dichotomous (i.e. to be in two levels). Data collected on career choice were on six categories (i.e. Health Care 1, Administrative, Managerial & Administrative Support 2, Technical & Manufacturing 3, Communication & Legal 4, Education & Other Services 5, Agricultural related 6). In order to meet the requirements for logistic regression, the six categories on career choice had to be regrouped into two categories. To solve this problem the six categories of career choice were classified under blue and white collar jobs (see Table 4.1 for details). A direct logistic regression analysis was performed through SPSS BINARY LOGISTIC to assess prediction of students into blue-collar jobs or white-collar jobs at the end of their education or in the future on the basis of Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal influences. Forty-six students who intended to pursue blue-collar job and 154 students who intended to pursue white–collar job (a total of 200 students) provided data suitable for analysis. A test of full model with three predictors against a constant only was statistically not reliable (x=4.764, df=1, p=0.190), indicating that the predictors as a set do not reliably distinguished between students who intended to pursue a blue-collar job and those who intended to pursue a white-collar job. The variance accounted for by the three predictors in career choice was low (Nagelkerke R-square =0.037), indicating 3.7% of shared variance between intended career and set of predictors. This gain in prediction is low. Table 4.2 shows the result of direct regression analysis predicting career choice (blue-collar job and white-collar job) from Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. According to the Wald test, Intrinsic factors (x=4.180, df=1, p=0.041) reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors (x=0.622, df=1, p=0.430) and Interpersonal factors (x=0.346, df=1, p=0.556) are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are controlled for. Hosmer and Lemeshow’s goodness-of-fit test which compared observed with predicted number of cases for two categories of career choice, using all the predictors in the model did not show a good fit with x=10.625, df=8, p=0.556. Table 4.2 also shows that the most reliable predictor of students intended choice is Intrinsic factors. Additionally, the odds ratio values of (0.574) in Table 4.9 indicates that as Intrinsic factors increases by a unit, the odds of them influencing the ability of students to make career choice also increases by almost 60%. This result shows that Intrinsic factors are more important than Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in influencing students’ career choice.

Table 4.2: Logistic Regression Model of Career Choice (White-Collar Job & Blue- Collar Job) as a Function of Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors Odds Ratio 95.0% C.I. for EXP(B)
Variable B Wald Sig. Exp (B) Lower Upper
Extrinsic .213 .622 .43 1.237 .729 2.098
Intrinsic -.555 4.180 .04 .574 .337 .977
Interpersonal -.117 .346 .56 .889 .602 1.314
Constant 2.790

4.3 Testing of Auxiliary Hypotheses
4.3.1 There will be Significant Sex Differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors Table 4.3 presents the result of the independent-samples T-test performed to assess whether there are differences in Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Interpersonal factors with regard to career influence. As can be seen in the table below, comparison of mean influence of the three factors on the two sex groups: Extrinsic (M= 3.3442, F= 3.4854), Intrinsic (M= 3.4894, F= 3.5104), Interpersonal (M= 2.7423, F= 2.7750) suggest that the factors have more influence on females’ choice of career than that of males. To test whether the difference in mean influence among the three factors was statistically significant, independent-samples T-test was performed. The result shown in Table 4.3 revealed that there were no statistically significant sex differences among the factors as the p-values are greater than .05: Extrinsic (t= -1.463. df =198, p= 0.145), Intrinsic (t= -0.206, df= 198, p= 0.837), Interpersonal (t= 0.782, df = 198, p= 0.782).

| |Mean |SD |N |Mean |t |Df |
| | | | |Difference | | |
|Combined |14- 16 |3.4000 | | | | |
| |17-19 |3.3862 | | | | |
| |20 and above |3.4513 |0.211 | |2 |0.810 |
|Linear |14- 16 | | | | | |
| |17-19 | | | | | |
| |20 and above | |0.359 | |1 |0.550 |
|Planned |14-16 vrs 17-19 + 20 | | | | | |
|Comparisons |and above | | | | | |
| |17-19 vrs 20 and | | |-0.356 |197 |0.722 |
| |above | | |-0.647 |197 |0.518 |
| | | | | | | |

Table 4.4: ANOVA showing the Effect of Age on Extrinsic Factors

One-way independent ANOVA was conducted to investigate whether there were age differences in Intrinsic influences on career choice. As shown in Table 4.5, the result of the ANOVA showed there were no significant effects of age on Intrinsic factors in terms of career influences as the p-values are greater than .05.

Table 4.5: ANOVA showing the Effect of Age on Intrinsic Factors
|Intrinsic |Groups |Mean |F |t |Df |Sig, |
| | | | | | |2-tailed |
|Combined |14- 16 |3.6500 | | | | |
| |17-19 |3.4871 | | | | |
| |20 and above |3.5064 |0.152 | |2 |0.855 |
|Linear |14- 16 | | | | | |
| |17-19 | | | | | |
| |20 and above | |0.004 | |1 |0.947 |
|Planned |14-16 vrs 17-19 + 20 | | | | | |
|Comparisons |and above | | | | | |
| |17-19 vrs 20 and | | |0.362 |197 |0.717 |
| |above | | |-0.183 |197 |0.855 |
| | | | | | | |

One-way independent ANOVA was conducted to investigate whether there were age differences in Interpersonal influences on career choice. As shown in Table 4.6, the result of the ANOVA showed there were no significant effects of age on Interpersonal factors in terms of career influences as the p-values are greater than .05.

Table 4.6: ANOVA showing the Effect of Age on Interpersonal Factors
|Interpersonal |Groups |Mean |F |t |Df |Sig, |
| | | | | | |2-tailed |
|Combined |14- 16 |2.9833 | | | | |
| |17-19 |2.7310 | | | | |
| |20 and above |2.7808 |0.309 | |2 |0.734 |
|Linear |14- 16 | | | | | |
| |17-19 | | | | | |
| |20 and above | |0.004 | |1 |0.947 |
|Planned |14-16 vrs 17-19 + 20 | | | | | |
|Comparisons |and above | | | | | |
| |17-19 vrs 20 and | | |0.385 |197 |0.700 |
| |above | | |-0.408 |197 |0.684 |
| | | | | | | |

4.4 Analysis of Qualitative Data
4.4.1 Analysis of Bio Data Collected from Guidance and Counselling Co-ordinators and Administrators The sex distribution, age distribution, position of respondents, and the number of years served by the three Administrators and the three Guidance and Counselling Coordinators from the various institutions are reported below.

4.4.2 Sex Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data collected showed that, all the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators in the three institutions were males. This implies that females were either not interested in administrative positions or were not given a plain level to compete for those positions.

4.4.3 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators The respondents were requested to tick the age range that applied to them as shown in Table 4.8. Item three of the bio data showed that, 67% of the respondents fell within the age range 41-55. And the rest between the age range of 26 – 40 and the age range above 55years.
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Figure 4.4: Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators

4.4.4 Position of Respondents Data on the position of respondents were collected as shown in Figure 4.4. Item four showed that, 50% of the respondents were Guidance and Counselling Co-ordinators and 50% Administrators.
[pic]

Figure 4.5: Position of Respondents

4.4.5 Number of years Served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in their Various Institutions Item five in the bio data sought to find out how long the respondents served in their various institutions. The responses were shown in Figure 4.5. With regard to number of years served by the respondents in their various institutions, 16% served within the year range 1-5, 67% within the range 6-10, and !7% above 11 years.
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Figure 4.6: Number of years Served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in their Various Institutions

4.5 Analysis of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data The data collected enable the researcher to assess the extent to which Intrinsic factors, Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors influence students’ choice of career and the problems they face in making their career choices.

What Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators think inform students’ choice of career? Data collected from the three Administrators showed that interest, prestige/value for job, monetary values, Job satisfaction, family background, pressure from Parents, Peers influence, job opportunities, guidance education, and industrial attachment inform students’ choice of career. For example the Administrator of Dabala Senior High School (DASTECH) stated that “interest, prestige, job satisfaction, monetary, and family background” were factors that influence choice of students’ career. Also, data collected from Guidance and Counselling Coordinators showed: interest, passion for the job, value for the job, parental influence, peer influence, parent occupations, attractive salary, availability of job, prestige for job/profession, and choice by accident as factors that influence students’ choice of career. In all, interest, passion for job, prestige and value for job were identified as intrinsic factors that influence students’ choice of career. Job opportunities, job satisfaction, attractive salary/monetary value were identified as extrinsic factors that influence students’ choice, and parents influence, parents’ occupation/background, and peers influence as interpersonal factors that influence choice.

Respondents’ views about students’ awareness of the various occupational groups and job requirements in the country The view point of the Administrator of DASTECH was that students were given books that show the various opportunities that goes with the various programmes and that of the Vice Principal of Comboni Technical Vocational Institute (COMBOTECH) indicated that students were educated on career opportunities. However, the Administrator of Sogakope Senior High (SOGASCO) differs from theirs. According to him “there has not be any detailed and officially organised guidance activity on job requirements”. Again, the Counsellor from DASTECH was of the view that students were aware of the occupational groups and requirements in the country, however, that of SOGASCO and COMBOTECH disagreed. They were of the view that students do not have any fair guidance on job requirements and occupational groups. For example, the Counsellor from COMBOTECH said “most of them do not have any fair guidance on job requirement and occupational groups”. It was clear that though some students may have knowledge about the various occupational groups, the majority may not have knowledge about the various occupational groups because they do not have any fair guidance on job requirement and occupational groups.

Respondents’ views on how often career choice seminars or activities are organised in their institutions Data collected from the Administrators showed that career guidance activities are organized once a term in COMBOTECH, that of SOGASCO once in a year and that of DASTECH is said to be organised when possible. For example an administrator from DASTECH said “this is hardly done, because there is only one professional career guidance and counsellor in the District”. According to data collected from Guidance and Counselling Coordinators, career guidance activities are organised once a year for the final year students only in DASTECH, once a year for all students in SOGASCO, and once a term for students in COMBOTECH. Though guidance activities are going on, we can say students were not given sufficient seminars on career guidance due to lack of trained counsellors as reported by the Administrator from DASTECH.

Respondents’ views on the need for equipping teachers in the basic schools to help students to choose their careers All the Administrators agreed that there is the need for equipping teachers in the basic schools because it will give them knowledge to identify pupils’ talents and problems they face in their formative years, understand them and help them get solutions to these problems. The Administrator from DASTECH said “there is the need because the teachers will be able to identify briefly talents exhibited by these students in their formative years”. In addition to this, all the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators agreed that there is the need for equipping teachers in the basic schools with the knowledge about career guidance and counselling to enable them guide students in the selection of programmes or courses for their senior high education in respect of their career and also much their intended jobs with their potentials. For example the Counsellor from SOGASCO said, If teachers in the basic schools are equipped with the knowledge about career counselling and guidance, they will guide students in the selection of programmes or courses for their senior secondary education in respect of their career.

All the respondents saw the need for equipping teachers in the basic schools with the knowledge about career guidance and counselling to enable them guide students.

Data collected on how other teachers are doing well in career guidance activities in the various institutions All the Administrators agreed that teachers are doing well in helping students to solve their academic, social and emotional problems. They also help them to know how beneficial the subject taught will be of help in their future career. An administrator from DASTECH said “teachers usually help in solving students academic, social and emotional problems”. Also, the counsellor from DASTECH agreed that teachers are doing well in career guidance activities. On the other hand, the one from SOGASCO said, No, teachers underrate students who do not perform well in certain subject areas without considering their individual abilities, capabilities and talents. These attitudes discourage students of their future programme.

The counsellor of COMBOTECH was of the view that only few teachers are doing well in career guidance activities, because most of them feel it is not their duty to be concerned about students’ welfare. The majority of the respondents were of the view that teachers were doing well in career guidance activities. However, the attitudes of some teachers in respect of career guidance activities in their institution were discouraging.

Respondents’ opinions on parents/guardians involvement in career choice of their wards Information gathered from Administrators on the involvement of parents in their wards career choice revealed that, the involvement of parents in the choice of their ward’s career is not to expectation. The Administrator from DASTECH said, “parents/guardians will want their wards to choose a job of their taste”. According to the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators, the involvements of parents/guardian in career choice of their wards are considered appropriate. However, parents imposing career on their wards without considering their interests and abilities is not in place. Most of the parents do not have time for their wards career plans, but are so much interested in their personal careers. And a few who try to do this do it unprofessionally. For example the Counsellor of COMBOTECH said, “most parents do not have much time for their children’s career programmes but they are so much interested in their personal careers. A few who do this do it unprofessionally”. Parents were expected to involve in career choice of their wards. However, this can meet the needed expectation if parents seek professional advice in doing this.

Data collected on whether the various programmes being offered by students in the various Schools will provide students with requisite skills to cope in jobs relating to those programmes All the Administrators agreed that the various programmes pursue by students will provide them with the skills needed to cope with jobs related to those programmes pursue by students. For example an Administrator from COMBOTECH said “most of them have practical knowledge which helps them to cope” in jobs relating to the programmes they offering in the school. Also, the Counsellors of DASTECH and COMBOTECH agreed that the programmes offered at the various schools will equip them with the requisite skills to cope in jobs relating to those programmes pursue by students. On the other hand, the one of SOGASCO disagreed with the reason that, “the various programmes do not have room for practical or job experience in their content. They are therefore mostly theoretical and leave students without job skills”. The majority of respondents were of the view that the various programmes pursue by students will provide them with the skills needed to cope with jobs related to those programmes pursue by students.

Data collected on whether students would be discriminated against in the job market The administrators were of the view that students will not be discriminated against in the job market as the programme pursue provide them with the needed knowledge and skills. For example an administrator of DASTECH said: No, because they will have knowledge about various jobs and they will work hard for their employers to meet set targets. In view of their performance, employers will not discriminate against them.

Both Counsellors of COMBOTECH and DASTECH disagreed with the viewpoint that students would be discriminated against in the job market. For example the Counsellor of DASTECH said “no, because they have needed skills which would make them fit into the job market”. However, the one of SOGASCO was with the view that students will be discriminated in the job market as the “job market need people with readily acquired skills to avoid wasting of resources on training sessions” Majority of the respondents were of the view that students will not be discriminated against in the job market as the programme pursue provide them with the needed knowledge and skills.

Respondents’ views on problems students encounter in making their choices The following were what the Administrators stated as problems faced by students in making their choice of career: Peer influence, Family influence, Lack of career guidance services, and unawareness of the requirements relating to their choices of career and unavailability of jobs. For example an Administrator of SOGASCO said “the challenges of not knowing into details the requirements relating to their choices. Lack of proper guidance, counselling and mentoring” were problems students faced in making a choice. The following problems were identified by Guidance and Counselling Coordinators as barriers to students’ choice of career: the problem of identifying and knowing themselves, unawareness of the various job requirements, parent and peer pressure, lack of marketable skills, and unavailability of jobs. A counsellor of SOGASCO for example said “the problem of identifying or knowing themselves, problem of identifying various jobs factors or requirements, and parental influence”. To sum up, the following were identified by the respondents as problems faced by students in making choice: peer influence, family influence, lack of career guidance services, and unawareness of the requirements relating to their choices of career and unavailability of jobs, problem of identifying and knowing themselves, and lack of marketable skills, .

Data collected on how to improve and sustain career guidance in institutions The following were suggested by the Administrators in order to improve and sustain career guidance in schools. Having Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in the institutions to educate pupils/students and organising career guidance programmes in the schools from time to time.
The following were also suggested by the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators to improve and sustain career guidance programme in schools: - There should be a form or year group based career guidance at least once a year - The school should support counsellors’ activities financially to enable them organise career activities - The school should involve the school counsellors in decisions relating to career guidance - The school should motivate the counsellors.

In summary, the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators identify the following as a means to improve and sustain career guidance in institutions. • Having Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in the institutions to educate pupils/students. • Organising career guidance programmes in the schools from time to time. • There should be a form or year group based career guidance at least once a year • The school should support counsellors’ activities financially to enable them organise career activities • The school should involve the school counsellors in decisions relating to career guidance • The school should motivate the counsellors.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

In the previous chapter, the data analyses were dealt with. This chapter deals with discussion, summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It also suggests areas of further research on the study carried out to find out factors that influence students’ choice of career in the senior high schools in the South Tongu District.

5.1 Discussion In this study, the discussion of the result is presented according to the hypotheses, factors that influence students’ choice and problems they faced in making choice.

1. The Extent to which Intrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career The result of the hypothesis postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are controlled for. This suggests that Intrinsic factors are more important than Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in influencing student career choices. This finding is in consonance with the theories of Donald Super and John Holland. Super’s self-concept theory thinks of vocation in terms of self-perception cited in (Cobb, 2001). The individuals’ self-concept plays a central role in their career choice. Super believes that it is during adolescent period that individuals first construct a career self-concept (Santrock, 2001). People choose occupations that are consistent with the way they see themselves, that reflect their interests, values, and strengths. Self-concept changes with age and people continue to discover things themselves well into adulthood. John Holland’s theory shows that there is a match between an individual’s career choice and his or her personality and numerous variables that form their background (Zunker, 1990). According to this theorist, once individuals find a career that fits their personality, they are more likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time than individuals whose work do not suit their personality The independent-samples T-test was performed to test whether the difference in mean influence among the three factor. It revealed that there were no statistically significant sex differences among the factors. This is in consonance with the work of Edwards and Quinter (2011) which showed that no variance was reported for persons influencing career choice by gender. One-way independent ANOVA was conducted to investigate whether there were age differences in Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Interpersonal influences on career choice. It showed that, there were no significant effects of age on Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in terms of career influences. This suggests that as students moved from one age group to another there were no proportionate change in the influence of Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors on their choice of career. This might be so because majority of the students were in the age range 14-18, and were in the same level of thinking as postulated by Donald Super as in Zunker (1990). It is a cognitive-process period of formulating a general vocational goal through awareness of resources, contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred occupation. Data collected from the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators revealed that, interest and values of students will influence their choice of career. This finding is similar to the study of Adjin (2004) which showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. However, the higher their values could lead to a form of job discrimination as in Ayertey (2002) that, graduates seem to be selective in the type of job they want. Most of them refuse to work in certain places at the going market rate because they do not want such jobs.
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In addition to the above, it also revealed that, the intended choice of students is influenced by the feeling of importance. It agrees with the finding by Amedzor (2003) which shows that prestige is the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. It suggests that prestige as a factor is not limited to the South Tongu District alone but other areas.

5.1.2 The Extent to which Extrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career as reported by Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data collected from the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators also revealed that good salary will influence students’ choice of career. This is in line with the viewpoint of Attieku et al (2005) that each individual would like to work at a place where there is effective machinery for negotiating pay increases or conditions for employment, where selection of most appropriate methods of calculating the wages or salaries which are important for cooperation and high morale, and department for the setting of wages and salary scales and the procedure to be followed should be clearly defined. The information gathered also revealed that the choice of students will be influenced by the conditions attached to work - job satisfaction. This agrees with the general statement made by Attieku et al (2005) that for the worker to be satisfied with his job or to achieve target the following conditions are to present: health and safety measures, ventilation, motivation, precaution against fire, office equipment and recreational facilities and everything that an employer puts in place to ensure a congenial working environment. Besides these, it also revealed that, students’ future choice of career will be influenced by having an improved social status. Almost in all parts of Ghana, a stigma is attached to laziness. Work is regarded as a means through which an adult gains respect and recognition in the society. The Ghanaian society has less respect for those not working or can not support others and have regard for those who are working and can support others financially.

5.1.3 The Extent to which Interpersonal Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career as reported by Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data collected from the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators also revealed that parents do influence students’ choice of career. However, more often, due to the flexible manner in which peers relate, their views are most easily acceptable than the view of parents. The current finding agrees with the findings of Lawer (2007) that students’ choice of programmes of study and career were mostly influenced by children themselves or their parents. Very few of them were influenced by the teachers or the counsellors. It suggests that career decisions taken by students are mainly influence by students themselves or their parents with little influence from others. The finding also showed that the choice of careers of students are been influenced by teachers. All the respondents agreed that teachers’ need to be equipped to enable them participated in career guidance activities of the school. This situation implies that teachers have a lot to do in the form of guidance activities to equip students to make informed decision as far as the choice of their career is concerned. The view that career education and guidance are often considered to be the sole responsibility of the specialist career guidance staff, rather than the joint responsibility of all members of the teaching staff has to be discarded.

5.1.4 Problems Students face in Making their Career Choice as reported by Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators The findings also revealed that students are faced with unavailability of jobs. That is, the students are anticipating serious problems so far as job opportunities are concerned. This agrees with the publication in the Daily Graphic (2011, March 17) which stated that the National Youth Employment Programme was established as part of the short-term solution to youth unemployment in the country. Unfortunately, this programme is not yet on its feet as it was not able to pay the salaries of its employees regularly. This calls for the involvement of other stakeholders in the establishment of employment avenues. Findings in respect of unawareness of jobs revealed that the final year students are envisaging the problem of unawareness of jobs to some extent. This is in consonance with the findings made by Lawer (2007) that majority of them were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations, conditions of work, earning and other rewards of occupation, and did not have better understanding of their career interest, aptitudes and abilities. Most of them were not concerned about their future career and were of the view that there was inadequate career guidance in the school.

5.2 Summary of Findings The study investigated those factors that influence students choice of career in the three public second cycle institutions in the South Tongu District of the Volta Region of Ghana. Two hundred questionnaires were administered to the final year students, and three Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and three Administrators were selected from the three schools. The data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The main findings were summarised below: 1. The result of the main hypothesis postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors are more important than Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in influencing student career choices. 2. The independent-sample T-test showed that there were no statistically significant sex differences among the factors with regard to their influence on students’ career choice. 3. According to the one-way ANOVA performed, there were no significant effects of age on Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in terms of career influences. This suggests that as students moved from one age group to another there were no proportionate change in the influence of Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors on their choice of career. 4. The Administrators and Guidance and Coordinators views showed that individual’s values and aspirations and interest were highly considered among intrinsic factors that influence choice of students’ career. 5. The perception of Administrators and Guidance and Coordinators showed that students’ choice of job will be influenced by having an improved social status was considered among extrinsic factors. Others were attractive working conditions, and good salary. 6. The Administrators and Guidance and Coordinators views showed that teachers, parents and peers were considered as interpersonal factors that mostly influenced career choice of students among others in making students aware about the world of work and the process of decision making. It also suggests that teachers’ need, to be equipped to enable them participated in career guidance activities of the school. 7. According to Administrators and Guidance and Coordinators, jobs are not available for students to access and some were not aware of the job opportunities available to access.

5.3 Conclusion
The present study, though limited in scope, clearly shows that: 1. The facts that students’ choice of career was mostly influenced by Intrinsic factors suggest that their choice of career will be effective if their internal values are well shaped. 2. The fact that there were no statistically significant sex and age differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal factors suggest that counsellors will not be compelled to develop different counselling programmes for both sex groups or different age groups in the second cycle institutions in the South Tongu District 3. Both teachers and parents have a role to play in influencing students’ choice of career as educators and providers of students’ need respectively if they are to make an informed judgement as far effective career choice is concerned. 4. The individual choose a career based on the regard he has for his job as important and useful, ones strong desire of wanting to be successful in life and achieve great things and the acceptable principles of a person, a group or a family he belongs to.

5.4 Recommendations The responses gathered in the research indicated that the choice of students in the three public second cycle institutions in the South Tongu District were influenced by the three interacting factors: Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. This was based on the findings and the conclusions drawn. The following recommendations were made: • The fact that students’ choice of career was mostly influence by intrinsic factors, it suggests that career education and guidance should be introduced by the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in the basic schools to shape emotions and values of students in the formative years to make a smooth transition from primary school to the initial years of senior high school. • Career Guidance and Counselling activities can be developed and carried out by the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators with little or without paying attention to the various sex and age groups as there were no statistically significant sex and age differences among factors with regard to their influence on students’ career choice. • All teachers are to be equipped with counselling skills by the Ghana Education Service to enable them involve in career guidance activities of the school. The view that career education and guidance are often considered being the sole responsibility of the specialist career guidance staff, rather than the joint responsibility of all members of the teaching staff has to be discarded. • Government as a matter of urgency has to enter into partnership with NGO’S and other donor agencies to raise adequate fund to create job opportunities in the country to solve the problem of inadequate jobs reported by the guidance and counselling co-ordinators. It should also create enabling environment to encourage the private sector to create jobs to have lasting solution to unemployment problems. • Guidance and Counselling Coordinators are to become full time staff. This will give them ample time to help students solve their problems or make informed decision because most of them are classroom teachers.

5.5 Suggestions for Further Studies The researcher conducted the study in the three public second cycle institutions in the district namely Sogakope Senior High School, Comboni Technical Vocational Institute, and Dabala Senior High Technical School. It is being suggested that a similar study be carried out in all Senior High Schools in the country so that a comprehensive research document would be presented. Again, a follow up survey should be conducted bi-annually to check the changes in the factors that influenced students’ choice of career in the senior high schools. The training of Guidance and Counselling Coordinators in each school or the appointment of qualified Guidance and Counselling Coordinators, especially in the basic schools, is very important and would help to solve students’ career needs.

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APPENDIX “A”

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ CHOICE OF CAREER QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Respondent,
I am an M. Phil student of University of Education, Winneba undertaking a study on the factors that influence Career Choice of Students in Senior High Schools.

The study is for educational purpose and your readiness to respond appropriately will make its outcome beneficial to other students. I wish to assure you that your identity and whatever information you provide will not be disclosed to anyone.

Thank you for your cooperation and assistance.

DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA

SECTION A: Bio Data
1. Sex: Male Female
2. Please tick the age range that applies to you. 14-16 17-19 20 and above
3. What programme are you offering? Please tick. Science (Gen.) General Arts Vocational Agricultural Technical Business
4. Which occupation or profession would you like most to engage in when you complete your education? ....................................................................................................................

SECTION B:
Read carefully and decide the extent to which the following determine your intended choice of career or occupation. Circle your response for each.
| |Very Great |Great Extent|Moderate Extent |Low Extent |No Extent |
| |Extent | | | | |
|INTRINSIC FACTORS | | | | | |
|I have interest in my intended occupation. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|My choice of career will give me a prestige. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|I have the skill and ability to pursue my choice of career. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|The chance to be original and creative influences my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | |1 |
|My intellectual ability will influence my choice. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|My values and aspirations influence my choice. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|The feeling of importance will influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|EXTRINSIC FACTORS | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|The job is easy to access. |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | | |
|There is opportunity for promotion. | | | | | |
| | | | | |1 |
|Good salary influences my choice. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|An attractive working conditions will | | | | | |
|influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|An opportunity for further | | | | |1 |
|education/training influences my choice | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|Having stable and secure future influences my choice. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|14. Having an improved social status | | | | | |
|influences my choice. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|INTERPERSONAL FACTORS |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
|My choice is influenced by my father? | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|My mother does influence my choice? |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | | |
|My friends or fellow students influence my choice. | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
|Teachers also influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|School guidance coordinators also influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | |1 |
|Other relatives influence my choice. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|The media do influence my choice? | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |
| | | | | |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 | |

SECTION C:
To what extent does each of the following problems affect students’ choice of career?
| |Very Serious |Serious |Moderate Problem |Minor Problem |Not Problem |
| |Problem |Problem | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Unavailability of trained counsellors. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|Lack of financial support for education/training | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Inadequate marketable skills. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|Job discrimination | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|Unavailability of jobs | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|Unawareness of jobs | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|Difficulty of matching interest and ability with | | | | | |
|jobs |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |

APPENDIX “B”

VALIDATED VERSION OF FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ CHOICE OF CAREER QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Respondent,

I am an M. Phil student of University of Education, Winneba undertaking a study into the factors that influence Career Choice of Students in Senior High Schools.

The study is for educational purpose and your readiness to respond appropriately will make its outcome beneficial to other students. I wish to assure you that your identity and whatever information you provide will not be disclosed to anyone.
Thank you for your cooperation and assistance.

DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA

SECTION A: Bio Data
1. Sex: Male Female
2. Please tick the age range that applies to you. 14-16 17-19 20 and above
3. What programme are you offering? Please tick. Science (Gen.) General Arts Vocational Agricultural Technical Business 4. Which occupation or profession would you like most to engage in when you complete your education? ......................................................................................................................

SECTION B:
Read carefully and decide the extent to which the following determine your intended choice of career or occupation. Circle your response for each.
| |Very Great |Great Extent|Moderate Extent |Low Extent |No Extent |
| |Extent | | | | |
|INTRINSIC FACTORS | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|The chance to be original and creative influences my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|My intellectual ability will influence my choice. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|My values and aspirations influence my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|The feeling of importance will influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|EXTRINSIC FACTORS | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Good salary influences my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|An attractive working conditions will | | | | | |
|influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|An opportunity for further | | | | | |
|education/training influences my choice. | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|Having stable and secure future influences my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|9. Having an improved social status |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|influence my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|INTERPERSONAL FACTORS |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
|10. My friends or fellow students influence my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Teachers also influence my choice. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Other relatives influence my choice. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
| |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |

SECTION C:
To what extent does each of the following problems affect students’ choice of career?
| |Very Serious |Serious |Moderate Problem |Minor Problem |Not Problem |
| |Problem |Problem | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Inadequate marketable skills. |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|Job discrimination |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|Unavailability of jobs |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |
|Unawareness of jobs |5 |4 |3 |2 |1 |
| | | | | | |

APPENDIX “C”

OPEN ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING COORDINATORS AND ADMIMINISTRATORS

Dear Respondent,

I am an M. Phil student of University of Education, Winneba undertaking a study into the factors that influence Career Choice of Students in Senior High Schools.

The study is for educational purpose and your readiness to respond appropriately will make its outcome beneficial to students.
Thank you for your cooperation and assistance.

DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA

SECTION A: Bio Data
1. Sex: Male Female
2. Please tick the age range that applies to you. Under 25 25-40 41- 55 Above 55
3. Respondent’s position in the School: ............................................................................
4. Number of years served in the current school: .............................................................

SECTION B:
Read carefully and state your candid opinion on the following questions.
1. In your opinion, what do you think inform students’ choice of career? a)........................................................................................................................................b).......................................................................................................................................c).......................................................................................................................................d)................................................................................................................................
2. Do you think current SSS four students are aware of the various occupational groups and job requirements in the country? Give reason. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. How often do your institution organised career choice seminars or activities and for which group of students? ......................................................................................................................................
4. Is there any need for equipping teachers in the basic schools to help students to choose there careers. Explain why? .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5. Do you think other teachers are doing well in career guidance activities in your institution. Why? .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
6. How do you consider parents/guardians involvement in career choice of their wards? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
7. Do you feel the various programmes being offered by students in the various Schools will provide students with requisite skills to cope in jobs relating to those programmes? Why? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
8. Do you think students would be discriminated against in the job market? Why? .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
9. In your opinion, what problems do students encounter in making their choices? a)................................................................................................................................b)................................................................................................................................c)................................................................................................................................ d)................................................................................................................................ 10. How do you think the school can improve and sustain career guidance in your institution? .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

APPENDIX “D”

POPULATION OF FINAL YEAR STUDENTS IN THE THREE PUBLIC SECOND CYCLE INSTITUTIONS FOR 2010/2011 ACADEMIC YEAR

SOGAKOPE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
|Programme | Boys | Girls |Population |Distribution of |
| | | | |Questionnaire |
|General Arts |66 |56 |122 |31 |
| | | | | |
|Business |71 |34 |105 |27 |
| | | | | |
|General science |73 |17 |90 |23 |
| | | | | |
|Vocational -Visual Arts |85 |21 |106 |27 |
| | | | | |
|-Home Economics |1 |43 |44 |11 |
|Total |296 |171 | 467 | 119 |

DABALA SENIOR HIGH TECHNICAL SCHOOL

|Programme |Boys |Girls |Total |Distribution of |
| | | |Population |Questionnaire |
|General Arts |30 |24 |54 |13 |
| | | | | |
|Agricultural Science |36 |8 |44 |12 |
| | | | | |
|Business |27 |14 |41 |10 |
| | | | | |
|Vocational- Home Economics |9 |1 |10 |2 |
| | | | | |
|Technical |3 |- |3 |1 |
|Total | 105 |47 |152 |38 |

COMBONI TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL INSTITUTE
|Programme |Boys |Girls |Population |Distribution of |
| | | | |Questionnaire |
| | | | | |
|Technical – Building &Construction |13 |- |13 |3 |
| | | | | |
|Carpentry & Joinery |9 |- |9 |2 |
| | | | | |
|Electrical |18 |- |18 |5 |
| | | | | |
|Printing |6 |11 |17 |4 |
| | | | | |
|Vocational- Catering |2 |45 |47 |12 |
| | | | | |
|Fashion |- |10 |10 |3 |
| | | | | |
|Business |15 |30 |45 |12 |
| | | | | |
|Agricultural |5 |4 |9 |2 |
|Total | 68 | 100 |168 |43 |

SUMMARY
|Institution |Boys |Girls |Total Population |Total Questionnaire |
| | | | |Allocated |
|Sogakope Senior High School |296 |171 |467 |119 |
| | | | | |
|Comboni Technical Vocational Institute |68 |100 |168 |43 |
| | | | | |
|Dabala Senior High Technical School |105 |47 |152 |38 |
|Total |469 |318 |787 |200 |
| | | | | |
|Percentage |59.6 |40.6 |100 |100 |

APPENDIX “E”

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Tel.: [phone] EXT. 123
Email: [e-mail],gh

10th November, 2010

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
The bearer of this letter, Mr. Daniel Kwasi Gameli Avugla is a student of the Department of Psychology and Education of the University of Education, Winneba pursuing an M Phil programme in Guidance and Counselling.

He is undertaking a research in partial fulfilment of the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Guidance and Counselling and he is required to administer questionnaires to enable-him gather information.

We shall be grateful if your institution gives him the necessary assistance he may require.

Thank you.

[pic]

Prof. J. K. Aboagye
Head of Department
-----------------------

Personal (cognitive, affective & biological) determinants

Behavioural determinants

Environmental determinants

Extrinsic factors Intrinsic

factors

Career

Interpersonal
factors

References: Rao (1992) cited in Kankam & Onivehu (2000) identified two factors that call for guidance and counselling services or activities in secondary schools one of which is the making of academic choice that in the end determines the vocational future.