final draft MAC 811 assignment

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY: BLENDING POST-POSITIVISM AND HERMENEUTICS

BY
EUNICE O. AMOKA
08BE07309

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE ALPHA SEMESTER REQUIREMENTS IN THE COURSE MAC 811
COURSE COORDINATOR: PROF. O. NWUNELI
MARCH 2014

Introduction
This report studies Information - Processing Theory as a Communication Theory linked to the Post Positivism and Hermeneutics group of Theories via its goals, ontology, epistemology and axiology. It takes a look at how this theory expresses itself both as a post positivist theory and also a hermeneutics theory; its strengths and weaknesses and its functionality in different aspects of mass Communication.

Conceptualizing Communication
In the most basic way, communication depends on our capacity to comprehend one another. Although our communication can be unclear (‘I never thought you’d say that of her’), one principal and critical goal in communicating is understanding.

Figure 1: Key Terms in Defining Communication
Source: West and Turner (2010:5)
Communication is a social process involving people and interactions (senders and receivers). The communication process is ongoing and unending; it is active, multifaceted and continually changing with no definable beginning or end.
Communication entails symbols (random labels or representations of phenomena) and meanings people extract from the communicated message. Communication occurs in situations or contexts inclusive of, time, place, historical period, relationships, and speaker’s versus listener’s cultural background.

Defining theory
A theory according to West and Turner (2010) is an abstract system of concepts and their relationships that help us understand an occurrence. While Baran and Davis (2012) define a theory as any organized set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience.
Categorizing theories
Researchers () have identified four major categories of communication theory.
1. Post- Positivism
2. Hermeneutic theory
3. Critical theory
4. Normative theory
These theories are known to differ in their goals, their view of the nature of reality that is, what is knowable (their ontology), their view of how knowledge is created and expanded (their epistemology); and their view of the proper role of values in research and theory building (their axiology).
Post - positivist theory
This theory is based on empirical observation guided by the scientific method, but it recognizes that humans and human behavior are not as constant as elements of the physical world. The goals of post - positivist theory and its theorists are explanation, prediction, and control. The post-positivist’s view of nature and reality accepts that the world, even the social world exists apart from our perception of it; but they do however, believe that the social world does have more variations than the natural or physical world. Knowledge here is advanced through the systematic, logical search for regularities and causal relationships employing the scientific method. Expansions come when there is inter - subjective concurrence among scientists studying a given phenomenon. That is, post - positivists find assurance in the community of social scholars not in any individual social scientist. Cautious dependence on the scientific methods is what defines post positivism axiology. This theory is lso known as the empirical approach to social research.
Hermeneutic theory: is the study of understanding, especially through the systematic interpretation of actions or texts. Hermeneutic theory is sometimes referred to as interpretive theory.
The interpretive approach views truth as subjective and co-created by the participants with the researcher clearly one of the participant. There is less emphasis on objectivity in this approach than in the empirical approach because complete objectivity is seen as impossible. The interpretive researcher believes that values are relevant in the study of communication and that researchers need to be aware of their own values and to state them clearly for readers because values will naturally permeate the research
These researchers are not concerned with control and the ability to generalize across many people as much as they are interested in rich description about people that study. For interpretive researchers, theory is best induced from the observations and experiences the researcher shares with the respondents.
Critical theory: theory seeking emancipation and change in a dominant social order. They start from the assumption that some aspects of the social world are deeply flawed and in need of transformation. Their aim is to gain knowledge of that social world so they can change it.
In the critical approach there is a search for the understanding of knowledge as it relates to power. Critical researchers believe that those in power shape knowledge in ways that work to perpetuate the status quo. Thus, powerful people work at keeping themselves in power, which requires silencing minority voices.
Normative theory: also known as normative media theory: explains how a media system should operate in order to conform to or realize a set of ideal social values.

Understanding Information Processing Theory

Post positivism +Hermeneutic theory

Meaning making theories

Contemporary mass communication theory
Figure 2: Contemporary Mass Communication Theory: From Active- Audience to Meaning-making theories

Information - processing theory can be categorized under the fourth era of Mass Communication Theories- Contemporary Mass Communication Theory. It is an active audience theory which is known for its characteristic of not attempting to understand what the media do to people but, rather focuses on assessing what people do with media.
It effectively illustrates the basic strengths and limitations of the effects theories developed by post positivists. Information - processing theory is a middle-range theory integrating a myriad of empirical findings (hermeneutic epistemology). It explains why most of the information provided by media is screened out. It also explains why certain bits and pieces of this information are plucked out and integrated into the cognitive maps we use to negotiate the social world.
According to Littlejohn and Foss (2009), it is the most prominent and enduring of various cognitive theories is information processing theory. It conceptualizes people as information receivers and processors. It identifies sensory limitations to the reception, filtering and retention of information. This theory helps to explain why everyday information processing by most people so often fails or produces highly unexpected results. As the theory has been developed it provided useful insight inot ways of structuring communication so that more information can be learned.
Information - Processing Theory offers fresh insight into our routine handling of information. It challenges some basic assumption about the way we take in and use sensory data.
Another useful insight from Information- Processing Theory is its recognition of the limitations of conscious awareness. The overall task of coping with information is much too complex for conscious control to be either efficient or effective. We have to depend on routine processing of information and must normally limit conscious efforts to instances when intervention is crucial.
Ontologically as explained above, it is post - positivist in nature while epistemologically it is hermeneutic in nature
One advantage of the information processing perspective is that it provides an objective perspective on learning. Information processing theory says that, we have limited cognitive resources. If more resources are directed towards one task, another task will be performed badly. Thus information processing theory provides a means of developing a more objective assessment of the mistakes we make when processing information. Information processing theory doesn’t blame audience members for making mistakes when they are using media content. Instead it attempts to predict these mistakes based on challenges posed by the content and normal limitations in people’s information-processing capacity. In some cases it links routine or common errors to break downs in information processing and suggests ways to avoid them.
For example, research has repeatedly demonstrated that poorly structured news stories will routinely be misinterpreted even if journalists who write them are well intentioned and news consumers try hard to understand them. (Looking into and interpreting texts- interpretive theory) Rather than retraining people to cope with badly structured stories, it is more efficient to change the structure of the stories so more people can use them without making mistakes.
Information- Processing Theory has been used most extensively in mass communication research to guide and interpret research on how people decode and learn from television news broadcasts.
The Audience/ Consumers’ processing of television news
Audience members have developed many information processing skills and strategies for watching television that serves them well in making sense of entertainment content but that interfere with effective interpretation and recall of news. We approach televised news passively and typically are engaging in several different activities while viewing. But although we have many failings as an audience, news broadcasters also bear part of the blame. The average newscast is often so difficult to make sense of that it might fairly be called “biased against understanding.” The typical broadcast contains too many stories, each of which tries to condense too much information into too little time.
Information - Processing Theory: Functionality in Mass Communication
Promotion of health: scholars who study the ways communication influences the adoption of recommended health behaviors for prevention, early detection, and treatment of health problems are part of the health promotion tradition of health communication research. These scholars examine both the persuasive strategies that are used for developing and implementing health communication campaigns and the many ways that relevant health information is disseminated to key publics through a variety of communication channels.
There are a number of theories of mass communication that have been used to guide health promotion research. Some of the mass communication theories that have been adopted in health communication research include information processing theory (which illustrates how attention, comprehension, and acceptance of messages influence persuasion).
New Information Technologies (E-Health): e- Health is a relatively new area of health communication inquiry that examines the ways that computers and other digital information technologies can be used to enhance the delivery of health care and the promotion of public health.
Information – Processing Theory: a variant
A variant of Information - Processing Theory is the Social Information Processing Theory describes how online support group participants portray themselves in favorable ways to foster future interactions.
The social information processing theory (SIP) explains how communicators who meet through text-based computer mediated communication (CMC) develop interpersonal impressions and relationships. Introduced in 1992 by Joseph Walther, SIP provides an explanation for how aspects of the communication process interact with technological features of media to foster development of affinity and attraction in online environments.
Since then, the theory has been utilize to explain online impression- and relationship formation processes across a variety of social and tasks contexts including international workgroups, dating sites, and networking venues.
Under certain circumstances, the lack of temporal constraints may lead to relationships that exceed the affiliation and intimacy levels typically achieved in person. These hyper-personal relationships are the result of
A sender selectively presenting themselves to create a positive impression
A receiver interpreting messages in a biased manner that over attributes positive characteristics
Mediated channels allowing for greater control over message creation (e.g. e-mail)
Feedback that produces a self fulfilling prophecy of positivity

Why is it both a hermeneutic and a post positivist theory?
What is your question? What is your approach? What is the best way to answer the question or questions you find most interesting? What if you want to understand the kind of exchanges that occur between social networking friends, but you want to compare different age groups, or people at different stages of their relationship, haven’t you blended post positivism and hermeneutics?
Evaluating Information Processing Theory as both a post positivist theory and a hermeneutic theory
When evaluating it as a post- positivist theory one needs to ask certain questions:
How well does it explain the event behavior, or relationship of interest?
How well does it predict future events, behaviors or relationships?
How testable is it?
How parsimonious is it?
How practical or useful is it?
When evaluating it as a hermeneutic theory, one needs to ask certain questions:
How much new or fresh insight into the event, behavior, or relationship of interest does it offer?
How well does it clarify the values inherent in the interpretation, not only those embedded in the phenomenon of interest, but those of the researcher?
How much support does it generate among members of the scholarly community also investigating the phenomenon of interest?
How much aesthetic appeal does it have? In other words does it enthuse or inspire its adherents?
Putting a face behind an abstract concept
Sample studies that have used information processing theory Here the duality of agenda –setting processes is a result of different types of information processing (with high or low cognitive effort)

in this research to assess information processing, subjects were asked immediately after watching the video to list all thoughts and feelings that came to mind while viewing. Three coders coded the responses into discrete thoughts on the basis of subject/verb units and each thought was classified as being focused on either the source (i.e. related to the program or host) or the message (i.e. related to the substantive content of the news story)
Results: effects on information processing: the main effect of news condition on source thought direction was significant.
In particular, this research has important implications for theories of information processing. Contrary to models of motivated reasoning, we learn that even when confronted with the strong partisan cues in opinionated news- or perhaps because of these cues- partisans do not always behave as biased processors. The evidence for direct persuasion indicates that the arguments in opinionated news are powerful enough to win over even opposition partisans.
: This article presented a hypothesis that either high or low confidence can increase or decrease information processing on the basis of how information is construed. Theoretical contribution: for the information processing literature, we provide a new revelation about the psychological consequences of being in a state of high versus low confidence for subsequent information processing. Here message framing had a role to play in information processing more than the level of confidence.
: Social information processing theory (SIPT) offers a perspective regarding online interactions by exploring what happens in Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) environments that allows for interpersonal and relational development. SIPT argues that communicators in online interactions are as equally motivated to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships as those involved in Face to Face (FtF) interactions (Walther, 1992). This desire is satisfied in spite of absence of non verbal communication through the substitution of messages that carry impression formation and expression delivery information with those suitable for and available through CMC. Furthermore, SIPT puts forth a hyper-personal perspective that states that communicators in CMC have the opportunity to be selective in how they can present themselves online by taking time to carefully choose which areas to disclose and which to withhold. This self-selective presentation leads to a more intimate (i.e. hyper-personal) level in comparison to the FtF communication. The contention is that communicators do not have to worry about how they look, or how to get others to like them, and the sender has the opportunity to “stop and think” about what he/she wants others to know. This creates an opportunity for a friendlier atmosphere in an online interaction, which consequently leads to a development of a stronger relational bond.
Limitations of SIPT
SIPT focuses explicitly on relationships developed in online environments, it does not explain what happens to relationships once they are carried over from one medium (CMC) to another (FtF). Another limitation might be encounter in familiarity with the content. If the audience is unfamiliar with the content it might be more difficult for them to process the information.
Others include and
Why I chose this theory
I chose this theory because of my interest in social media and health communication and how this theory is applicable to certain aspects in these fields. Also, during the cause of my readings and research on this paper, I developed an affinity for post positivism and hermeneutics.
My mum is a health care practitioner who is interested in health communication and through whom I derived a fondness for health communication.
Conclusion
Information processing theory has great potential to permit exploration of a wide variety of media content. Researchers apply it to such diverse topics as advertising, televised political content and children’s programming. This research is rapidly revealing how we tailor our innate cognitive skills to make sense of and use media content.
Any question

References
Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2012). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Bulkow, K., Urban, J., & Schweiger, W. (2013). The Duality of Agenda-Setting: The Role of Information Processing. International Journal of Public Opinion Research , 25 (1), 43- 63.
Feldman, L. (2011). The Opinion Factor: the Effects of Opinionated News on Information Processing and Attitude Change. Political Communication , 28, 163-181.
Heinemann, D. S. (2011). Using You 've Got Mail to Teach Social Information Processing Theory and Hyperpersonl Perspective in online Interactions. Communication Teacher , 25 (4), 183-188.
Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication T. Carlifornia: Sage Publications Inc.
Thompson, B. (2008). Applying Social Information Processing Theory to Parent-Yeacher Relationships. RCA Vestnik (Russian Communication Association) , 45-65.
Wan, E. W., & Rucker, D. D. (2013). Confidence and Construal Faming: When Confidence Increases versus Decreases Information Processing. Journal of Consumer Research , 39, 977-992.
West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2010). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Westerman, D., & Tamborini, R. (2008). Uncertainty Reduction OVer Time in Initial Stranger Interactions: A Social Information Processing Theory Approach. International Communication Association (pp. 1-35). Ipswich, MA: Communication and Mass Media Complete.

References: Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2012). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Bulkow, K., Urban, J., & Schweiger, W. (2013). The Duality of Agenda-Setting: The Role of Information Processing. International Journal of Public Opinion Research , 25 (1), 43- 63. Feldman, L. (2011). The Opinion Factor: the Effects of Opinionated News on Information Processing and Attitude Change. Political Communication , 28, 163-181. Heinemann, D. S. (2011). Using You 've Got Mail to Teach Social Information Processing Theory and Hyperpersonl Perspective in online Interactions. Communication Teacher , 25 (4), 183-188. Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication T. Carlifornia: Sage Publications Inc. Thompson, B. (2008). Applying Social Information Processing Theory to Parent-Yeacher Relationships. RCA Vestnik (Russian Communication Association) , 45-65. Wan, E. W., & Rucker, D. D. (2013). Confidence and Construal Faming: When Confidence Increases versus Decreases Information Processing. Journal of Consumer Research , 39, 977-992. West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2010). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Westerman, D., & Tamborini, R. (2008). Uncertainty Reduction OVer Time in Initial Stranger Interactions: A Social Information Processing Theory Approach. International Communication Association (pp. 1-35). Ipswich, MA: Communication and Mass Media Complete.