French borrowings in modern English

Course paper

French borrowings in Modern English

CONTENTS

I.Introduction………………………………………………………………3
II.Borrowings as a linguistic phenomenon…………………………4
2.1.The essence of borrowings…………………………………………4
2.2.Borrowings in Modern English; theoretical survey…………………8
2.3.Conclusions………………………………………………………...13
III. Analysis of French borrowings in Modern English……………14 3.1. Structural analysis………………………………………………14 3.2.Comparative analysis……………………………………………15
3.3.Conclusions………………………………………………………...19
Conclusions………………………………………………………………..21
Bibliography………………………………………………………………24
Appendix ……………………………………………………………25

INTRODUCTION

Examination of the origin of words is of great interest in establishing the interrelations between languages and linguistic groups. Word etymology throws light on the history of the speaking community and on its contacts with other peoples.
The subject-matter of our study is French borrowings into the English language.The aim of this work is the comparative analysis of the borrowings in the Middle English and the Modern English periods and the peculiarities of word changes.
The aim being set this way requires the following tasks to be carried out:
1) to study borrowings as a linguistic phenomenon: definition, reasons, assimilation;
2) to examine the composition of the Modern English language from the point of view of the words borrowed from other languages;
3) to make a list of French borrowings into the English language;
4) to give a comparative analysis of French borrowings in the English language on the basis of the list made.
In the course of our research in order to fulfill all the above mentioned tasks we used various works of Russian and foreign scholars on the history of the English language. Our work was based on the researches of Ilyish B.A., Arakin V.D., Ivanova I.P., Rastorguyeva T.A., as well as on those of Crystal D., Freeborn D., Lerer S., Mugglestone L. and some others.

II. Borrowings as a linguistic phenomenon

2.1. The essence of borrowings in the language.

If we regard English words in the light of the present-day language we should say that the majority of words with certain exceptions (e.g. garçon Fr., kimono Jap., perestroika Rus., etc.) are English. But according to their etymology the majority of English words are taken, or borrowed, from other languages, about 70% of modern English lexicon are not English by their origin [Сунцова, 2006: 118]. From etymological point of view the English word-stock is mixed. It consists of native and borrowed, or loan words.
In linguistic literature the term native is used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes – the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, and also words coined later on their basis.
The term borrowing is used to denote the process of adopting words from other “donor” languages and also the result of this process, the language material itself (lexemes, morphemes, some word-groups) which are also called loans. In its second meaning the term borrowing is sometimes used in its wider sense including the so-called translation-loans (calques) and semantic borrowing. Translation-loans are words and word-groups formed from the material available in the language but under the influence of some foreign words and expressions. Semantic borrowing is the appearance of a new meaning due to the linguistic influence of a related word in another language: words propaganda and reaction acquired their political meanings under the influence of French, deviation and bureau – under the influence of Russian as in right and left deviations, Political bureau. [Сунцова, 2006: 118-119] Another example: English pioneer means “explorer, one who is among the first in new fields of activity” → Russian пионер – a member of the Young Pioneer’s Organization. [Николенко, 2007: 15]
According to I.V. Arnold “ a loan, borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.” [Арнольд, 1986: 252]
The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. English history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community. Nowhere, perhaps, is the influence of extra-linguistic social reality so obvious as in the etymological composition of the vocabulary. The source, the scope and the semantic sphere of the loan words are all dependent upon historical factors. The very fact that up to 70% of the English vocabulary consists of loan words, and only 30% of the words are native is due not to an inherent tolerance of foreign elements but to specific conditions of the English language development. The Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests, and, in modern times, the specific features marking the development of British colonialism and imperialism combined to cause important changes in the vocabulary. [Арнольд, 1986: 253]
Thus, the question of word borrowing partially concerns the historical circumstances which stimulate the borrowing process. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations. These latter circumstances are certainly more favourable for stimulating the borrowing process, for during invasions and occupations the natural psychological reaction of the oppressed nation is to reject and condemn the language of the oppressor. [Николенко, 2007: 15]
The question of why words are borrowed by one language from another is still unanswered.
According to G.B. Antrushina, sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary: in the contact of cultures there come new objects, and the vocabulary of the language may lack words for them. But there is also a great number of words which are borrowed for other reasons. There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, – almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. [Антрушина, 1999: 62-64]
In most cases, when words are borrowed from a different language, they adjust themselves to their new environment and get adapted to the norms of the recipient language. They undergo certain changes which gradually erase their foreign features, and, finally, they are assimilated. Sometimes the process of assimilation develops to the point when the foreign origin of a word is quite unrecognisable.
G.B. Antrushina marks out three main areas of the new language system in which borrowed words are adjusted: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic.
Phonetic adaptation has lasting nature, this process may last up to several centuries and is individual for most word groups.
Grammatical adaptation consists in a complete change of the former paradigm of the borrowed word (i.e. system of the grammatical forms peculiar to it as a part of speech). If it is a noun, it is certain to adopt, sooner or later, a new system of declension; if it is a verb, it will be conjugated according to the rules of the recipient language. Yet, this is also a lasting process. Semantic adaptation means adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary. It has been mentioned that borrowings are generally caused either by the necessity to fill a gap in the vocabulary or by a chance to add a synonym conveying an old concept in a new way. Yet, as the researcher states, the process of borrowing is not always so purposeful, logical and efficient as it might seem at first sight. Sometimes a word may be borrowed “blindly”, so to speak, for no obvious reason, to find that it is not wanted because there is no gap in the vocabulary nor in the group of synonyms which it could conveniently fill. Quite a number of such “accidental” borrowings are very soon rejected by the vocabulary and forgotten. But there are others which manage to take root by the process of semantic adaptation. [Антрушина, 1999: 64-65]
R.S. Ginzburg considers that borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is active mainly in the field of scientific terminology. It should be noted that many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages, e.g. penicillin, oscilloscope, metaprogram, paralinguistics, etc. which are made up of morphemes of Latin and Greek origin. But though these words consist of borrowed morphemes they cannot be regarded as true borrowings because these words did not exist either in the Greek or in the Latin word-stock. [Ginzburg, 1979: 191]

2.2. Borrowings in Modern English; theoretical survey.

Now that some theoretical grounds have been laid, the word-stock of Modern English from the point of view of borrowings will be presented. The basic work for our research in this part will be that of G.B. Antrushina because this researcher gives a short description but deep understanding of historical processes that influenced the formation of the English language vocabulary. At the same time we will use the material from the works on the history of the language by V.D. Arakin, T.A. Rastorgueva.
In order to have a better understanding of the problem, it will be necessary to go through a brief survey of certain historical facts, relating to different epochs.
The first century В.С. Most of the territory now, known to us as Europe is occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent there are Germanic tribes, who are at a rather primitive stage of development, if compared with the high civilisation and refinement of Rome. They are primitive cattle-breeders and know almost nothing about land cultivation. Their tribal languages contain only Indo-European and Germanic elements. The latter fact is of some importance for the purposes of our survey. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans these two opposing peoples come into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new and useful things. The first among them are new things to eat. Since Germanic cattle-breeding was on a primitive scale, its only products known to the Germanic tribes were meat and milk. It is from the Romans that they learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are naturally no words for these foodstuffs in their tribal languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them (Lat. butyrum, caseus). It is also to the Romans that the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables of which they had no idea before, and the Latin names of these fruits and vegetables enter their vocabularies reflecting this new knowledge: cherry (Lat. cerasum), pear (Lat. pirum), plum (Lat. prunus), pea (Lat. pisum), beet (Lat. beta), pepper (Lat. piper). It is interesting to note that the word plant is also a Latin borrowing of this period (Lat. planta). Here are some more examples of Latin borrowings of this period: cup (Lat. cuppa), kitchen (Lat. coquina), mill (Lat. molina), port (Lat. portus), wine (Lat. vinum). The fact that all these borrowings occurred is in itself significant. It was certainly important that the Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched. What was even more significant was that all these Latin words were destined to become the earliest group of borrowings in the future English language which was – much later – built on the basis of the Germanic tribal languages. Which brings us to another epoch, much closer to the English language as we know it, both in geographical and chronological terms. [Антрушина, 1999: 44-46]
The fifth century A.D. Several of the Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but then they retreated to the North and South-West (modern Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). [Антрушина, 1999: 46] Since the Celts’ cultural development was close to that of Anglo-Saxons’, they could not influence significantly of Anglo-Saxons, that is why there are only distinct Celtic words, such as assa (modern ass), dunn (modern dun), etc. [Аракин, 2003: 106] Though in some parts of the island the Celts population was not exterminated during the invasion, linguistic evidence of Celtic influence is meager. [Расторгуева, 2003: 134] However, through their contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod.E. bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, hills, etc. The Germanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and features of their territory remained Celtic. For instance, the names of the rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning "river" and "water". Ironically, even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn + dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for "river" and dun stands for "a fortified hill", the meaning of the whole being "fortress on the hill over the river". Some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, among them such widely-used words as street (Lat. strata via) and wall (Lat. vallum). [Антрушина, 1999: 46]
The seventh century A.D. This century was significant for the christianisation of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin. Also, these new Latin borrowings were very different in meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals. E.g. priest (Lat. presbyter), bishop (Lat. episcopus), monk (Lat. monachus), nun (Lat. nonna), candle (Lat. candela). Additionally, in a class of their own were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowings, for the first schools in England were church schools, and the first teachers priests and monks. So, the very word school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. schola, of Greek origin) and so are such words as scholar (Lat. scholar(-is) and magister (Lat. magister). [Антрушина, 1999: 46-47] A great variety of miscellaneous borrowings came from Latin probably because they indicated new objects and new ideas, introduced into English life together with their Latin names by those who had a fair command of Latin: monks, priests, schools-masters. Some of these scholarly words became part of everyday vocabulary. They belong to different semantic spheres: names of trees and plants – elm, lily, names of illnesses and words pertaining to medical treatment – cancer, fever, plaster, names of animals – camel, elephant, tiger, names of clothes and household articles – mat, sack, sock, miscellaneous words – crisp, fan, place, spend, turn. [Расторгуева, 2003: 137]
From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, take, cast, die, law, husband, window, ill, loose, low, weak. Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination. E.g. sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root. So, the Old English bread which meant “piece” acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian brand. The Оld Еnglish dream which meant “joy” assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr. [Антрушина, 1999: 47]
1066. With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social, political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi-lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. [Антрушина, 1999: 47-48] Almost all the executive posts and positions were taken by the Normans. The French language was heard at the king’s court in London, as well as in the 13th-century born parliament, in courts and so on. Lessons at the existing schools were also in French. Thus, the English language lost its official language position and remained in use mainly among masses. [Аракин, 2003: 173] Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings. Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power. Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. [Антрушина, 1999: 48]
The Renaissance Period. In England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, there occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st с. В.С.), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (e.g. major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (e.g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete). The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant once more were French borrowings. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings. For example : regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc. (One should note that these words of French origin sound and "look" very different from their Norman predecessors.) Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e.g. piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel. [Антрушина, 1999: 48-49] In the course of time French borrowings were so deeply assimilated into the English language that they were significantly changed from the phonetic point of view under the influence of pronunciation habits of the English people. The most outstanding change in the sound structure of these words was the transfer of stress from the end of the word (which is still characteristic of the French language) to the root syllable, that is to the beginning of the word, which is characteristic of the English language during the whole history of its development. [Аракин, 2003: 178]
Thus, there have been several historical epochs during which the English language extensively borrowed words from other languages. During the first century В.С. the words denoting food, drinks and kitchen houseware were borrowed from Latin. During the fifth century A.D. words denoting geographical places and some other terms were borrowed from Celtic languages. During the seventh century A.D. words denoting Christian religious terms and education notions were borrowed from Latin. From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. some words were borrowed from Scandinavian. In 1066 England became a bi-lingual country, and for two centuries its language was influenced by French – words denoting administrative, legal, military and educational terms were borrowed from French, as well as numerous terms of everyday life. During the Renaissance Period words denoting abstract notions, artistic and scientific terms were borrowed from Latin, Greek, French (Parisian borrowings) and Italian.

2.3. Conclusions

So, the first chapter of our research concerns the phenomenon of borrowings from one language to another. As a result, the following conclusions can be made:
1. A borrowing (loan word) is usually a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.
2. The present-day English word-stock, from the point of view of etymology, is by 70% made of loan words which were borrowed during close contacts with other nation in the process of both wars and peaceful relations.
3. Words are mainly borrowed in order to 1) to fill a gap in vocabulary (to denote new objects and notions that have not been presented in the receiving culture and the language lacks words for them): 2) to express some particular concept in some new aspect (to supply a new shade of meaning or a different emotional or stylistic colouring).
4. Once being borrowed, the word from a different language adjusts itself to its new linguistic environment in three main areas of the language system – phonetic, grammatical, and semantic.
5. In the history of the English language there have been several historical epochs during which the English language extensively borrowed words from other languages, such as Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Italian, etc.
6. According to the aim of our study, French borrowings are of high interest for us. It has been figured out that in this aspect the two main historical periods 1) the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the two centuries after this date when Norman borrowings denoting administrative, legal, military and educational terms were made; and 2) the Renaissance Period when Parisian borrowings mostly denoting artistic and scientific terms were made.

III. Analysis of French borrowings in Modern English

3.1.Structural analysis.
First, outer sings of a word being a borrowing from the French language are to be considered. G.B. Antrushina gives the following most typical and frequent structural elements of French borrowings:
Noun suffixes: ance: arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc. ence: consequence, intelligence, patience, etc. ment: appointment, development, etc. age: courage, marriage, passage, village, etc. ess: tigress, lioness, actress, adventuress, etc.
Adjective suffixes: ous: curious, dangerous, joyous, serious, etc.
Verb prefixes: en: enable, endear, enact, enfold, enslave, etc.
Though all the affixes represented in the tables are French borrowings, some of the examples given are later formations derived from native roots and borrowed affixes (e.g. eatable, lovable). [Антрушина, 1999: 51] However, not all the borrowed words have specific French affixes, so in some cases one can never say whether the word is borrowed or not, R.S.Ginsburg names such words “hybride words”. Here, the only way to figure it out is to use the materials gathered by the branch of linguistics called the history of the language.
The list of French borrowings that is presented in the Appendix is made on the basis of works on the history of the language, such as “The history of the English language” by V.D. Arakin, “The history of the English language” by T.A. Rasotrgueva, “The history of the English language” by B.A. Ilyish. However, it is difficult to find the pronunciation of every loan-word of every historical period, so this research studies the graphic form of words. From this point of view all the borrowings in question can be divided into those that changed their spelling and those that did not.
3.2. Comparative analysis.
The amount of words that did not change their graphic form is not so big – only around 30%. Let us give 21 examples:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Government
Government
Правительство
2.Justice
Justice
Юстиция, справедливость
3.Crime
Crime
Преступление
4.Regiment
Regiment
Полк
5.General
General
Генерал
6.Lieutenant
Lieutenant
Лейтенант
7.Temple
Temple
Храм
8.Chapel
Chapel
Часовня
9.Chamber
Chamber
Палата, комната
10.Art
Art
Искусство
11.Ornament
Ornament
Украшение
12.Carpenter
Carpenter
Плотник
13.Plate
Plate
Тарелка
14.Table
Table
Стол
15.Market
Market
Рынок
16.Mercer
Mercer
Торговец шелком и бархатом
17.Pleasure
Pleasure
Удовольствие
18.Large
Large
Широкий, большой
19.Chapter
Chapter
Глава
20.Round
Round
Круглый
21.Humour
Humour
Настроение
Though the spelling of the words is the same in both Middle English and Modern English periods, their pronunciation could be different, but it is out of the field of our research.
Now, let us consider the words that have differences in spelling. There are certain features that can be distinguished in a number of words and that can be regarded as a tendency.
The tendency for borrowing of verbs is very clear. Here are 11 examples:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Condemnen
Condemn
Осуждать
2.Cacchen
Catch
Ловить
3.Chaungen
Change
Менять
4.Deceyven
Deceive
Обманывать
5.Conseillen
Counsel
Давать совет
6.Chargen
Charge
Поручать
7.Counten
Count
Считать
8.Receiven
Receive
Получать
9.Perceiven
Perceive
Ощущать, осознавать
10.Acheven
Achieve
Достигать
11.Grieven, greven
Grieve
Горевать
It is clearly seen from this table that there is a constant tendency of changing a word from Middle English to Modern English period – the flexion en is omitted. Looking at English verbs of Middle English period it can be noted that they have the flexion –en as in many Germanic languages, so this flexion was added to the borrowed verb in Middle English period according to the rule of grammatical assimilation – a regular English language flexion of verbs was added to the borrowed verb. Thus, in Norman French the words had the following spelling: cunter, charger, grever, receivre, perceivre, etc. – the traditional French verb flexions er and re take place in the original, but in the process of borrowing into the English language these flexions were replaced by the traditional English verb flexion en, since the verbs were assimilated in the grammatical system of the English language. It is also noticeable that the change of flexion and its later omission is not the only change in the loan-words, there are also some root changes. For example, in cacchen > catch, chaungen > change, deceyven > deceive, conseillen > counsel, acheven > achieve.
Another tendency in spelling changes in French borrowings into the English language is the omission of u in combinations oun and aun. Let us look at the following 7 examples:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Baroun
Baron
Барон
2.Prisoun
Prison
Тюрьма
3.Sergeaunt
Sergeant
Сержант
4.Religioun
Religion
Религия
5.Lessoun
Lesson
Урок
6.Labor
Labour
Труд
7.Taillour
Tailor
Портной
The tendency is clear, but the last examples show one more change which is not so noticeable since it takes different forms, for example:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Counseil
Counsel
Совет
2.Counseiller
Counselor
Советник
3.Bataille
Battle
Сражение
To understand the nature of this change it is necessary to know the pronunciation rules of French. In the French language the combination of i and l gives the sound [ij], so [l] is not pronounced, and it is quite common for French – not to pronounce some of the letters written. However, for the English language it is not common – overwhelmingly, all the consonants are pronounced. It is only our suggestion – because we have not found any analysis of this change in the scientific literature – but we suppose that i was taken out from the word in order to pronounce the following l in the word.
Another tendency in the process of assimilation of French borrowings in the English language is omission of the final e in Modern English, which took place in the Middle English period. Let us consider 7 examples:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Chaire
Chair
Стул
2.Moneye
Money
Деньги
3.Joye
Joy
Радость
4.Montaine
Mountain
Гора
5.Houre
Hour
Час
6.Penne
Pen
Перо
7.Pupille
Pupil
Ученик
In the last two examples of the above table not only the final e is omitted, but also the consonant before it. There are also borrowings that have more changes – mostly in their roots.
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Capitaine
Captain
Капитан
2.Parische
Parish
Приход
3.Preyere
Prayer
Молитва
4.Feire
Fair
Ярмарка
5.Feste
Feast
Празднество
As it is seen from the table, some words have omissions in their roots, e.g. capitaine > captain, parische > parish; some words have replacements, e.g. preyere > prayer, feire > fair; some words have additions, e.g. feste > feast.
One more tendency in the process of assimilation of French borrowings is replacement of final ie by y. For example:
Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1.Victorie
Victory
Победа
2.Clergie
Clergy
Духовенство
This change can also be explained by the systematic rules of the English language: it is common for English words to end with the letter y if the word ends with the sound [i].
The rest of the words from our list have no systematic character, at least as far as we can judge. Here is their list:
1.Estat
State
Государство
2.Paisant
Peasant
Крестьянин
3.Frère
Friar
Монах
4.Paleis
Palace
Дворец
5.Feble
Feeble
Слабый
6.Esy
Easy
Легкий
7.Gardin
Garden
Сад

3.3.Conclusions

So, in the second chapter of our research the peculiarities of assimilation of French borrowings in the English language were examined. As a material for this work, 93 borrowings were taken – the whole list of them can be found in the Appendix to the current paper. Two variants of borrowings were considered – one from Middle English, and the other from Modern English. As a result of the study, the following conclusions can be made:
1. In some cases French borrowings can be known by their graphic form, mostly by affixes: noun suffixes (ance, ence, ment, age, ess), adjective suffixes (ous), verb prefixes (en).However, not all borrowed words have specific French affixes, in these cases the history of the language helps researchers to trace the origin of words.
2. In the list that was made for our study, only 30% had no changes in spelling and were the same both in Middle English and the Modern English periods.
3. Almost all of the rest 70% of the list has certain tendencies in their spelling changes:
a)the verbs borrowed from French in Middle English period adopted the en flexion characteristic of English verbs, and later, in Modern English, the flexion was omitted;
b)the omission of u in combinations oun and aun at the end of the loan-word;
c)the omission of the final e in the Modern English, which took place in the Middle English period;
d)the replacement of final ie by y;
e)the rest of the words from our list have no systematic character, as far as we can judge.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, from the etymological point of view, the present-day English word-stock mainly consists of borrowed words, which are in most cases words taken over from another language and somehow modified. Word borrowing usually takes place during close contacts between two nations, and the nature of the contact may be different – from violent wars, invasions and conquests to peaceful trade and international cultural relations, the latter circumstances more favourable for stimulating the borrowing process.
There are several reasons for borrowing a word from another language: 1) to fill a gap in vocabulary (to denote new objects and notions that have not been presented in the receiving culture and the language lacks words for them): 2) to express some particular concept in some new aspect (to supply a new shade of meaning or a different emotional or stylistic colouring). In most cases, when words are borrowed from a different language, they adjust themselves to their new environment. Borrowed words are adjusted in the three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic.
In the course of the research presented in this work we have investigated the peculiarities of changes of French borrowings into the English language. As the result, we can make the following conclusions:
1. A borrowing (loan word) is usually a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.
2. The present-day English word-stock, from the point of view of etymology, is by 70% made of loan words which were borrowed during close contacts with other nations in the process of both wars and peaceful relations.
3. Words are mainly borrowed in order to 1) to fill a gap in vocabulary (to denote new objects and notions that have not been presented in the receiving culture and the language lacks words for them): 2) to express some particular concept in some new aspect (to supply a new shade of meaning or a different emotional or stylistic colouring).
4. Once being borrowed, the word from a different language adjusts itself to its new linguistic environment in three main areas of the language system – phonetic, grammatical, and semantic.
5. In the history of the English language there have been several historical epochs during which the English language extensively borrowed words from other languages, such as Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Italian, etc.
6. It has been figured out that the two main historical periods in this sense are 1) the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the two centuries after this date when Norman French borrowings denoting administrative, legal, military and educational terms were made; and 2) the Renaissance Period when Parisian borrowings mostly denoting artistic and scientific terms were made.
7. In some cases French borrowings can be known by their graphic form, mostly by affixes: noun suffixes (ance, ence, ment, age, ess), adjective suffixes (ous), verb prefixes (en). However, not all borrowed words have specific French affixes, in these cases the history of the language helps researchers.
8. In the list that was made for our study, only 30% of borrowed words had no changes in spelling and were the same both in Middle English and Modern English periods.
9. Almost all of the rest 70% of the list have certain tendencies in their spelling changes:
a)the verbs borrowed from French in the Middle English period adopted the en flexion characteristic of English verbs, and later, in Modern English, the flexion was omitted;
b)the omission of u in combinations oun and aun at the end of the loan-word;
c)the omission of the final e in Modern English, which took place in Middle English period;
d)the replacement of final ie by y;
e)the rest of the words from our list have no systematic character, as far as we can judge.
Thus, we have achieved the aim that we set in the beginning of our research.
Probably, in future we will go on carrying out research on this topic. In this case the amount of the borrowings for analysis will be enlarged, so that more reliable conclusions could be made.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка. М.: Дрофа, 1999. - 288 с.
2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка. М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2003. - 272 с.
3. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. М.: Высшая школа, 1986. - 295 с.
4. Р.З. Гинзбург, С.С. Хидекель, Г.Ю. Князева, А.А. Санкин. Лексикология английского языка. Учебник для ин-тов и фак.иностр.яз. / М.: Высшая школа, 1979. - 269 с.
5. Николенко А.Г. Лексикологiя англiйскоï мови – теорiя i практика. – Вiнниця: Нова Книга, 2007. – 528 с.
6. Расторгуева Т.А. История английского языка. М.: АСТ, 2003. - 348 с.
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APPENDIX

Middle English
Modern English
Meaning
1
Counseil
Counsel
Совет
2
Counseiller
Counselor
Советник
3
Chaunceler
Chancellor
Канцлер
4
Estat
State
Государство
5
Government
Government
Правительство
6
Parlement
Parliament
Парламент
7
Maner
Manor
Манор, поместье
8
Vil(l)ein, vil(l)ain
Villain
Крепостной крестьянин, виллан, позднее негодяй
9
Paisant
Peasant
Крестьянин
10
Baroun
Baron
Барон
11
Court, cort
Court
Суд
12
Juge
Judge
Судья
13
Justice
Justice
Юстиция, справедливость
14
Crime
Crime
Преступление
15
Prisoun
Prison
Тюрьма
16
Condemnen
Condemn
Осуждать
17
Werre
War
Война
18
Bataille
Battle
Сражение
19
Army
Army
Армия
20
Regiment
Regiment
Полк
21
Sege
Siege
Осада
22
Victorie
Victory
Победа
23
Cannon
Cannon
Пушка
24
Maille
Mail
Кольчуга
25
General
General
Генерал
26
Capitaine
Captain
Капитан
27
Lieutenant
Lieutenant
Лейтенант
28
Sergeaunt
Sergeant
Сержант
29
Religioun
Religion
Религия
30
Clergie
Clergy
Духовенство
31
Parische
Parish
Приход
32
Frère
Friar
Монах
33
Preyere
Prayer
Молитва
34
Temple
Temple
Храм
35
Paleis
Palace
Дворец
36
Piler
Pillar
Столб, колонна
37
Chapel
Chapel
Часовня
38
Chamber
Chamber
Палата, комната
39
Bocher
Butcher
Мясник
40
Carpenter
Carpenter
Плотник
41
Painter
Painter
Художник, маляр
42
Taillour
Tailor
Портной
43
Art
Art
Искусство
44
Culour
Colour
Краска, цвет
45
Ornament
Ornament
Украшение
46
Lessoun
Lesson
Урок
47
Penne
Pen
Перо
48
Pencil (кисть)
Pencil
Карандаш
49
Pupille
Pupil
Ученик
50
Plate
Plate
Тарелка
51
Table
Table
Стол
52
Chaire
Chair
Стул
53
Feire
Fair
Ярмарка
54
Market
Market
Рынок
55
Moneye
Money
Деньги
56
Mercer
Mercer
Торговец шелком и бархатом
57
Leyser(e), leisire
Leisure
Досуг
58
Feste
Feast
Празднество
59
Joye
Joy
Радость
60
Journee (однодневная работа, поездка)
Journey
Поездка, путешествие
61
Pleasure
Pleasure
Удовольствие
62
Feble
Feeble
Слабый
63
Povre
Poor
Бедный
64
Large
Large
Широкий, большой
65
Esy (умеренный, свободный)
Easy
Легкий
66
Cacchen
Catch
Ловить
67
Chaungen
Change
Менять
68
Deceyven
Deceive
Обманывать
69
Conseillen
Counsel
Давать совет
70
Chanel
Channel
Канал
71
Chapter
Chapter
Глава
72
Chargen
Charge
Поручать
73
Chief, chef chief Глава, руководитель
74
Gardin
Garden
Сад
75
Gayole
Jail
Тюрьма
76
Wage
Wages
Жалование
77
Counten
Count
Считать
78
Montaine
Mountain
Гора
79
Round
Round
Круглый
80
Flour
Flower
Цветок
81
Houre
Hour
Час
82
Labor
Labour
Труд
83
Humour
Humour
Настроение
84
Feith, faith
Faith
Верность, вера
85
Conveyer
Convey
Проводить (мысль и т.д.)
86
Eir, eyr, heire
Heir
Наследник
87
Receiven
Receive
Получать
88
Perceiven
Perceive
Ощущать, осознавать
89
Acheven
Achieve
Достигать
90
Grief, gref
Grief
Горе, печаль
91
Grieven, greven
Grieve
Горевать
92
Nece (внучка)
Niece
Племянница
93
Pece, piece
Piece
Кусок