G-Protein Coupled Receptors

G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are cell surface proteins that relay extracellular signals to the nucleus. These signals can be in the form of light, peptides, lipids, and sugars. Once activated by a ligand at the outer cell surface, GPCRs activate their cognate G-proteins that reside on the inner cell membrane. The activated G-proteins then slide along the inside of the cell membrane to activate a cascade of proteins and enzymes that in turn amplify the original message received by the GPCR.
Protein scaffolds are members of the signaling cascade downstream of GPCRs. Scaffold proteins help relay the message faster by serving as a docking site for multiple protein partners in the cascade to be near each other. This proximity cuts down the time required for one protein in the cascade to find its partner. Some protein scaffolds remain unloaded until a message from an activated GPCR reaches them, after which they are docked by several proteins in the cascade. Other protein scaffolds are docked by proteins in the cascade even before an activated GPCR sends a message to them, increasing the efficiency in which the message is relayed from GPCR to nucleus.
The complexity of intracellular signaling is that the proteins in a signaling cascade have varying states of activity (i.e off, partially active, fully active). These states depend on
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