Gender, Politics, Power

1-13-12
Gender, Politics and Power

GENDER
For feminism-separate gender from sex. Refers to the socio-cultural definition. Societies assign men and women social roles. Used as an analytical tool to understand social realities. Every culture has its ways of valuing girls and boys and assigning them different roles, responses and attributes. Has an identity. "Each person is a distinctive body". Iris Marion Young, political philosopher, found gender a useful social structure in policy analysis.
SOcial organization, categorizing things as masculine and feminine, suitable and expected

SEX-natural, biological. It refers to visible differences in genitalia and related differences in procreative function. Sex is constant. It cannot be changed.

STRUCTURE-system that imposes roles, attributes, expectations and perspectives on people who live here. Social structures manifest in wider social outcomes/patterns.

THREE axes of Gender Structuring
Sexual Division of Labor-"pink collar" work. Separation brings privilege and disadvantage
Normative Heterosexuality- heterosexual relations are the standard and ideal
Institutionalized Violence or Gendered Hierarchies of Power-assymetrical power disadvantages women and privileges men
--Third axis focuses on "institutionalized and organized violence" associated with masculinity
--Power is associated with masculinity and victimization with femininity
--"gendered hierarchies of power reproduce a sense of entitlement of men to women's service.

----Essentialism: attributing a basic foundations or core to a category. When power obscures difference
---Gender essentialism: a unitary monolithic women's experience can be isolated and described of race class and sexual orientation western feminism: privileged upper/middle class white women asserting that their theory or experience speaks for all women without acknowledging differences

Private (women)- Reproductive labor:raising kids, cooking, cleaning
Public (men)- $$$

1-18-12
Confluence of institutional rules and interactive routines, mobilizations of resources, and physical structures, which constitute the historical givens in relation to which individuals act and which are relatively stable over time
Structures also connote the wider social outcomes that result from the confluence of many individual actions

2 kinda os structure
-Macro
-Micro
How do structures affect human beings?

Position individuals in relations of
-labor and production
-power and subordination
-desire and sexuality
-prestige and status

The way a person is positioned in structures is as much a function of how other people treat him or her within various institutional settings as it is the attitude a person takes to himself or herself.

GIves an account of the constitution and causes of social inequality
-Some people encounter relative constraints in their freedom and material well being as the cumulative effect of the possibilities of their social positions as compared with other who in ther social positions have more option or easier access to benefits.

Social groups are defined by
-class
-caste
-race
-age
-ethnicity
-gender
-Structural accounts offer a way of understanding inequality of opportunity, oppression and domination, that does not seek individualized perpetrators
Strucures of constraints
-sets of asset distributions-time and money
-rules-laws
-norms-cultural norms, stereotypes
-preferences

Gender-particular form of the social positioning of lived bodies in relation to one another within historically and socially specific institutions and processes that have material effects on the environment

2 Basic Axes of Gender Structure
-Sexual division of labor:structuring of work and occupations by gender
----private and public work
----people collectively do not wish to organize broadly funded public services that take more collective responsibility for acre work
----women work longer hours
-----women arrange their public lives in relation to caring duties, only a small # of occupations welcome them, keep wages low in those occupations
-----the structuring of both private and public work along these lines exhibits gendered hierarchies of states and power, not to mention financial reward
_How this bleeds into policy_ government policies and policies of internationals organizations rely on the assumption that unpaid domestic labor is expandable and household caretakers are available to take up the slack in meeting the needs of their family members when food subsidies are slashed and school fees go up
-Normative Heterosexuality
-----form and implications of many legal institutions
-----many rules and policies of private organizations in allocating positions and benefits
-----structuring of schooling and mainstream media to accord with there institutions
---assumptions many people make in their everyday interactions with other

Structural SOcial group-group of people grouped together by broader society

"disadvantage"-denied the access to th tools needed for self-suffiecieny
-barriers for self sufficiency
-tools for self-suffiecieny
---autonomy
---incentive for development
---decision making responsibility
---community of support
---health
----educaiton
----information
---employment
---capital
---responsive support system
GROUPS have historically been discriminated against in some arena
-they are systematically worse off across socially, economically, politically
REVIEW SLIDES ON BB

Why women/girls matter 1-23-12
-1 in every 8 is a girl or young woman age 10-24
-fastest growing segment of the population in developing countries..peaked size in 10 years
-private sector:the numbers, changes in the population
-girls' welafre in fundamental in determining economic and social outcomes -macroeconomic level--size and competitiveness of tomorrow's labor market -future economic growth--take advantage of the bulge in the pop of productive age -under the right conditions, increase in female education--decrease in fertility, decrease economic dependents per person--economic growth
-girls and young women are generally less educated, less healthy, and less free than male peers
-various primitive cultural norms--forced or brainwashed to marry and young ages, vulnerable to HIV, sexual violence, and physical exploitation
-lack full range of economic opportunities and devalued because of gender bias, many girls are seen as unworthy of investment or protections by their families
-"youth bulge"-the poorest, least developed countries tend to have the largest shares of young people
-1/6 of the world live off $2/day
-"shadow economy"= lowskilled jobs, minimal pay, long hours, unequal power relations
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs intellectual-social, political

basic

-There are more men than women generally in the world. But in Western countries there are more women.
-It depends on the quality of healthcare and treatment causing the longevity of men's or women's lives.
Why?
-inefficient and medical care for women
-insufficient nutrition
-lack of social services

TWO explanations for the neglect of women
-East vs West:western civilization is less sexist than eastern.
-Economic development:unequal nutrition and health care provided for women as a feature
Loopholes of the E vs W argument
-Japan:m/f ratio is not very different from EU of NA
-CHaracteristics of the East: low sex ratios but higher #s of women in political leadership
LOOPholes in the economic development argument
-all countries with large deficits of women are more or less poor
-the worsening of women's position largely stems form unequal sharing in the advantages of medical and social progress

What explains female deprivation of social well-being
-Examine the complex ways in which economic, social and cultural factors influence regional differences
-status and power of women in the family is greatly dependent on the economic role and independence of women
-"cooperative conflicts", division of benefits
-productive work vs reproductive work

THe division of family benefits is likely to be less favorable to men if
-they can earn outside the home their work is recognized as productive
-they own economic resources and rights
-clear understanding of what ways in which women are deprived
CHINA
-traditional bias against women

1-27-12
Women , Empowerment, and Economic Development
What is development power?
-survey of world economic and social trends
-study the challenged of economic catchup and structural change
-institutional development and growth
-poverty reduction, human development and equality
-social and economic insecurity

What are development goals?
-end poverty and hunger
-universal education
-gender equality
-children's health
-maternal health
-global partnership
MDG-Millenium Development Goals

Poverty alleviation
-recent trend-macroeconomic reform and growth is increasingly the need to address basic human needs and to adopt more participatory approaches to achieve development goals
--As a result, we see an increase in nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that work at the grass roots level with low-income people

Improvements and existing problems
--Four decades of development have yielded important benefits for women
-increased life expectancy
-increased enrollment of girls in primary school
-decrease in total fertility rates
-increased access to contraception
--However, drastic inequality still persists
-Twice as many women as men are still illiterate
-girls represent majority of the children without access to primary school
-twice as many women as men suffer from nutrition deficiencies

-Empowerment
--expansion of choices for women and an increase in women;s ability to exercise choice
--improvements in women's access to economic opportunities such as credit and employment expand choices, while health services and education improve women's capabilities to take advantage of those choices
-Policy interventions can target these two elements of empowerment
-----capability-giving a person access to acquire a skill
-----choice-
-Empirical data shoes that is has been easier to expand women's capabilities than their opportunities
--only about 30% of women are economically active worldwide
--global average wage-discrepancy:women;s wages are about 2/3 men's wages
--similar lags in political participation about 19% of women are in political leadership;roughly about 5% in cabinet positions

UNeven progress in women's well-being?
-inefficiencies in development policy!
--gender bias in policy
-focus on women's reproductive roles(mainly fertility reduction
-even investments in health and education were rationalized in terms of their impact on lowering birth rates and improving the well-being of children
-seldom were they justifies in terms of improving
--fertility reduction:women centered contraceptive technologies and approaches
--promotion of women"s warfare:health and education
Can policy be biased?
-assumption about male-female gender roles
--assumed that women were not responsible for the economic support of their households
--development program staff interpreted women;s need for incomes as supplementary and temporary
--"welfare approach" rather than development

1-30-12
(cont)
rural development scheme in Bolivia
-increase wool productio by modernizing herd management and shearing practices of highland peasants
-"women's production unit"-assigned to a government welfare agency rather than the Ministry of Agriculture
-empowering women SHOULD NOT be looked upon as charity

dangers of welfare approach
-lack of long term sustainability
-lack of attention to income generation
-no emphasis on marketability of products
-limited investments
Regards women as recipients of benefits such as healthcare, literacy, social services, and family planning rather than as independent economic actors in their own right

women's work in the informal sector
-much of the work women do goes unrecorded because it take place in the shadow economy
-high percentage of women in the informal sector is due to the difficulty in obtaining access to employment b/c of low rates of literacy, low level of education, lack of job skills

the development support women need is outside the formal economy where they engage in petty trade, household help, food processing, garment manufacturing and agriculture

Women's enterprises face numerous constraints
-women may not be able to own resources and property and may have limited access to
--credit
--skills training
--extension services
-institutional barriers
--police harassment
-unlike men, they are often unable to obtain licenses to sell their goods in regulated marketplaces

SEWA
-trade union of self-employed women

away form the welfare approach
-responding to womens priorities to obtain employment and income

responsive and participatory

2-6-12
Domestic work becomes labor when:
-worker is forced to stay in the job against her will
-worker is physically confined
-worker's identity papers are witheld
-debt bondage

Occupational segregation
-vertical segregation:low level operators
-horizontal: different occupations with either one or the other gender

Theories of Occupational Segregation by sex
-what is it?
-segmentation of occupations on the basis of workers' sex
---it is the concentration of a similar of people

In the US
-high level of gender stereotyping in the US labor market
-progress in the reduction in occupational segregation since 1970 has been unusually rapid in the US

-we don't use our labor force efficiently if we segregate jobs
-detrimental to women: it had been important implications for self-perception and also men's perceptions of women's capabilities and confidence to do a job
-perpetuates gender stereotypes and negative effects on education and training

Theories that address occupatioal segregation by sex
-neo-classical and human capital theory
-institutional and labor market segmentation theory
-feminist and gender theory do not conflate occupational segregation with female-male pay differentials
Neoclassical/human capital model assumption:workers and employers are rational and that labor markets function efficiently occupational segregation can be explained by looking at both the labor supply and demand they emphasize that women are exclusively responsible for housework and childcare
-women rationally choose occupations with relatively high starting pay, relatively low returns to experience, and relatively low penalties for temporary withdrawal from the labor force problems with the theory:women's labor force commitment has increased recently
-amount of household and family labor has decreased
-increased number of female headed households
-male dominated occupations do not require more experience or continuity of employment than many female dominated ones
---this shows that women are gaining labor market experience and this theory should lead to major changes and occupational segregation should decrease

policy implications
-focus on non labor market variables
-education
-family policy
-family planning equal sharing between sexes of childcare and housework
-labor market should
-increase women's human capital

labor supply explanations
-why are women segregated in lower-level jobs?
-b/c they bring less education and less relevant fields of study that is useful to the labor market, and they acquire less experience after entering the labor force-gaps(child birth) verdict: women rightfully receive lower pay than men because of their lower productivity labor demand
-employers preferences
--jobs with a high level of education are offered to men than to women
--jobs where on the job training are important they are also offered to men than to women
--women are considered high cost workers by employers
---absenteeism
---late to work frequently
---higher labor turnover rates
---women require separate toilet facilities
---women are less flexible than men

Employer behavior model 1971
-a preference for discrimination because of visible characteristics

compensation differentials model
-women want these jobs b/c of good fringe benefits such as health care

Institutional and labor market segmentation theory assumption: institutions play an important role in determining who is hired, fired dual labor market theory
-primary-high level managers, ceo, promotions, predominantly male
-secondary- not good pay, treatment, predominantly female this segmentation implied relatively low wage rates in female occupation b/c women are overcrowded

statistical discrimination assumption: there are differences in productivity, skills, experience, of distinct groups of workers and high search and info costs associated with recruitment and promotion decisions less relevant in explaining discrimination in promotion

feminist/gender theory basic premise:patriarchy-women's subordinate position in society-women disadvantaged position in the labor market
-division of responsibilities+patriarchal order-less human capital of women
-the general perception is that women have a lesser need for labor market skills

Affirmative Action
Ideas came from original human rights documents
-Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1945
-Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
Deontological Perspective
-primarily deals with duties and rights
-human rights
-civil rights
-contractual rights

Utilitarian perspective serves the greater good and interests of all concerned
-an action is morally acceptable

Kalanke v City of Bremen affirmative action for women = equal treatment directive
Bremens public sector equal employment law showed that recruitment and promotion, women were unrepresented if 50% were not represented of a certain category, if she has the same qualifications as a man, she should receive preference section manager became a woman, mr. kalanke argued that he was better qualified he argued that he had to maintain 3 dependents, female had no obligations against a female having the same qualifications, women are automatically given preference even though it served affirmative action, the bremen act went beyond ensuring equality in access to careers
--dilemma between ensuring equality of opportunity and equality of result many states started to adopt this idea and favor women b/c it was legal, politically, socially, and economically advisable the decision was criticized b/c some said it simply served to exclude selection criteria like how long you have worked there, which indirectly discriminated against women women were given an absolute and unconditional right to appointment or promotion favor of the men
Marschall v Northrhine-westphalia a teacher applied for a higher position. many women were not represented and a woman of equal qualities received the job over him even if men and women are equal for this job, men tend to be promoted more b/c of stereotypes and prejudices that women and their roles at the home would disrupt their work

2-13-12
Women and Institutional Politics first country to grant limited suffrage to women-Sweden 1861
USA-1920
1902-australia, white women could vote, aboriginal 1967
Kuwait-2005 women received full political rights women's participation in areas (membership in political parties, rallies) were lower compared to men 72% to 67%

Barriers to Public Office
-Structural barriers- political development socioeconomic development even in established democracies women face monetary constraints and access to the "old boys network"
-institutional design
"rules of the game"as expressed by electoral laws
PR systems are more favorable to women; research shows that women are almost twice as likely to be elected under this system adoption of various quota regulations caveat party quotas-potential benefits can be limited if other parties do not follow; if parties choose to place women at the bottom of the list, women cannot make the cut; Germany was first 50% quota
--adoption of the zipper or zebra principle--every other person is a woman, when elected, there is an equal chance to be in a Parliament mandatory quotas for all parties legislative reservations:used in countries with limited democratic rights; could be used as a strategy to sideline women
-Culture
ideas about women's role and position in society political behavior is seen as masculine, thus women are not seen as capable of doing the job if elected when women do exhibit these traits, the electorate views them as abnormal or deviant norms about sexual division of labor (palin's decision to run) constant scrutiny (appearance, family) women choose to not come forward to run for office political violence/electoral violence-can translate into sexual violence against female candidates

Paths to Power
-Political family path-not unique to women, women take it more often than men
-temporarily assuming office as a surrogate for a father, husband, or brother who recently died
-insider path-informal network within community, political parties (margaret thatcher), females have to prove themselves as one of the boys
-outsider path-different alternatives, motives
KEY TYPES OF REPRESENTATION
Descriptive:rep by an individual who in his/her own person and life is in some sense typical of the larger class of people he or she represents
Substansive: rep by an individual who advocates a particular groups interests though he or she may no descriptively rep that group

In industrial democracies, womens presence has a significant impact:
-more likely to take the lead in advocating for womens issues
-more likely to sponsor feminist legislation than male legislators
-gender of the legislator becomes more important if the bill directly deals with issues that concern women-reproductive policy, health, education
**rape shield law-limits defendants rights to pass accusations from victims
-distinct issue priorities and are more active on women;s rights legislation than makes
-different, more collaborative, consensus-oriented leadership styles
-more likely, than males to bring the citizen into the process by advocation for greater levels of public scrutiny in the legislative process and greater levels of access to underrepresented segments of society

Developing World
-Latin America: despite conservatism, there has been an increase in the number of laws passed that support women's equality as well as changes to the political structures
-: franchise, quota laws, wome's ministries
-:attaining the position of the speaker of the Parliament
-:In latin america, female legislators are more likely to get laws passed than make counterparts

-Middle East: women are trying to penetrate into the political system
-:Iran in 1996, open their election these females legislators were active on gender issues
-: In 1999 local elections, women won elections in 25 provinces
-:1996 elections-women's support for Mohammed Khatami

Representation of Politicians in the Media
"Symbolic Annihilation"
-The media's condemnation, trivialization and exclusion of women
-According to Tuchman changes in society would eventually result also in more and better representation of women although a period of cultural lag would first need to be endured
Current Situation in EU
-No longer extraordinary for women to seek public office or a career in politics
-Only Finland, Ireland, Switzerland have female presidents and Germany a female Chancellor

Gender biases disseminated by the media are significant because
-they can have electoral consequences
Has the media's treatment of female politicians changed in response to the growing role of women?
-Lack of longitudinal quantitative research in any country; most studies are qualitative
-studies on the coverage of the 1990s US elections
--no significant difference in the coverage in terms of quantity
--but in terms of quality, female candidates receive less

Media images of male and female politicians male politician--politician female--women, wife, mother female--talk about soft issues male--talk about hard issues

Hillary Clinton: when she was performing supportive and soft news oriented roles-adjusting to proper female behavior- she was rewarded with positive coverage

Mediatized politics
-performance and individual capacities of politicians are emphasized at the expense of ideas and debates about issues
-the current symbiotic relationship between politics and media--a new type of politician who used media cultural model of politician--masculinity; makes successful performance difficult for women
-women-others
-nice--weak
-female politicians who combine power with femininity have more acceptance form voters

Feminization of masculine emotionality
-traditionally in western societies has been considered inappropriate for men to show emotion in public
-but appearing moved in public no longer stigmatizes men of power as week

-public disclosure of emotions by men and women does not necessarily carry the same symbolic value
-tears--men in power; sign of sensibility and strength
-tears--women in power; sign of weakness

Self-trivialization
-playing bimbo may hinder progress toward equality in media representations

media identifies women of marital or family status, men by occupation or position in society
-preoccupation with maternal and familial status of women.. "neglected children"

Style over substance--appearances mean a lot

Gendered SPeech
-journalists are more likely to paraphrase women's statements more than mens

General themes women in general, are represented in the media in stereotypical ways

2-20-12
Women and Noninstitutional Politics
-Regardless of their different agendas or the times, women policy entrepreneurs have historically promoted causes that most of society and politicians were not quite ready to handle
Social Movement: a group of people with a common interest who work together to change a policy of goverment and or to change how society perceives something
-made up of various organizations all working on the same topic, but often on different issues within the topic , within the environmental movement, some groups focus on clean air, others clean water
-groups that make up a social movement-Social Movement Organizations (SMOs)

It is difficult to define a women's movement:
-women's activism is not always feminist in nature
--feminist organizations explicitly challenge patriarchy; but not all women's groups go so far as to challenge broader societal or structural issues
--sometimes women organize collectively against other women-abortion debate

ISsues that are common to most women's movements
-to be seen as a human being, not as property
-desire for fair employment opportunities
-the right to reproductive choice
-widened access to health care and education
-right to vote and participation

Why do women organize
-psychological model: women organize or become part due to disruption of society and they respond to return society to normal; limitations:blames everything on drastic disruptions for women to respond and make these groups
-resource mobilization: targets the role of monetary and human resources as well as elite allies; post WWII economy was expanding, individuals had excess resources and money., working women had experienced discrimination in the work place; limitation: leaves out the political situation at home
-political/ process: the role of the larger political context; US women's movement and the country's political setup-allows citizen pressure

WHy do women join movements?
-trauma and disaster
-desire to do good
-pursuit of material gain
-subtext: the role that women's gendered identities play in informing their activism

Strategies and tactics
-conventional tactics: writing letters, meeting with public officials
-civil disobedience: nigerian women occupying Chevron, Iranian women defying gender discrimination
-violent tactics: abduction, beatings
-tactics depend on the level of representation/authoriantarianism of the state, resources of the group, culture of the country; organizational structure of the group
-using gender as a tactic

How do women rebel in repressive states?
-movements rarely use tactics as lobbying or even amrches
-prevalence of underground movements
--use of gendered expectations about their behavior
--women are not seen as a threat
--"women are able to be invisible simply by being women"
--the use of female suicide bombers
-silence protests: madres de le plaza de Mayo (argentina)-utilizing motherhood as a tactic
-but, not all women's movements in developing countries emphasize their "femaleness"

Extremist nationalist and religious fundamentalist
Nationalist movements
-often concerned with women's issues as independence from their oppressor
-they can morph into extreme right wing, xenophobic movements
-women are portrayed as the symbolic and physical reproducer of the nation
-women's mission is to return to a traditional and subordinate role in the household. moral decay; regeneration of society

Fundamentalist
-in response to moral decay in society
-emphasis on traditional female virtues and morality

2-24-12
THe Indian women's movement
-constituted by a number of different organizations
--urban and rural
--upper , middle, and lower-income segments
-there is no central organization
-political commitments and language are distinctly more leftist than liberal
-the movement is multi-associational, ideologically diverse, regionally broad, and concerned with a wide array of issues

Different types of organizations eithing the women;s movement
-connections to political parties
-All India women's conference connected to the congress party; Mahila Dakshata Samithi connected to the Janatha party
-Autonomous women's groups: independent of party affiliation
--urban base
--use of media to reach out to the masses-print publication, documentaries, adult education, feminist literature, street plays about dowry murders, rape and eve teasing (harassment)
-legal help

Grassroots organizations: at the local level
-Chipko movement that protested deforestation in Uttarkhand
-Maharashtra: Bhil women's activism against wife beating, excessive alcohol consumption and harassment

Women's research institutions
Development Groups

Consequences of Women's Rights Movement
-legal reform
-support system for low-income and middle class women who are under the threat of violence
-putting pressure on courts and legislators to being to take VAW seriously
-capturing public attention
-surge in newspaper attention towards VAW

2-27-12
Gender, Development, and International Organizations
Early Traces
-Post WWII era organizations such as the League of Nations or the Pan AMerican Union
-Independence movements in many of the colonized areas of the world-->formation of new countries--> establishing functioning political and economic systems
-these trends created a set of norms to help foster a sense of global governance
CEDAW: international bill of rights
-countries that commit to a treaty do not always make efforts to implement those policies in the domestic arena
-int'l law can help to change norms slowly over time by putting pressure on governments to honor their commitments "setting the bar"
-boomerang effect: locals/activist-->int'l pressure-->local/domestic govt acts
-policy diffusion: learn from each other
--if US has good education system, Canada can copy to improve their situation transnational networks
-power of ideas when studying int'l norms
-persuasion and/or socialization of nations
-some tactics within human rights campaigns
--information politics: strategic framing; dramatic and timely info
--leverage politics: donors give to states willing to work toward donor's goals
--accountability politics: monitoring; with CEDAW, women's movements can report at the UN on their country's progress for women's rights
--symbolic politics: Madres de la Plaza de Mayo

Funding Development Projects--Designing Policy
-The initial 'gender-neutral" nature of development policies
-1970s: policies were targeted with assumptions about women's roles as mothers and wives
-emphasis on economic development
-The "women in development" 1970: integrate women into economic development to increase efficiency
-income-genereating projects especially for women
-limitation of WID? Focus on roles of wives and mothers ignored other roles
-The "gender and development" approach:
-gender mainstreaming approach: don't have women only project, both voices are heard
-gender responsive budgets: women's concerns across all expenditures, don't ignore what they need, incluu,de both in projects

REVIEW FOR EXAM
-readings
1-john campbell ideas, politics, and public policy-jan 11th explain how world views of policy makers can affect policies (examples of gender)
3-more than 100 million women missing
3-women empowerment and economic development
4-***capabilities approach-martha nassaubaum **** 5-occupational segregation richard anker
6-political participation-chapter 1
7-women in noninstutional politics-chapter 2
7-organizing against violence-indian movements, types of organizations and how they tie into the larger movement gender developemnt intl organizations 7? -empowerment (what does it mean, choices & capabilities), capabilities approach, occupational segregetion by men and women (why is it harmful to women empowerment, why the current development paradime fail to improve women's empowerment-getting jobs that pay well and they can organize groups and change policy instead of just giving them money to get by (mehera), neoclassical theories, explain occupational segregations (feminist/gender theory), understand type of quotas (what are they) *reservations(why are they good or bad), how institute politics (tactics to influence domestic or intl) explain strategies, JOh Campbel, nomrative framwork policies--sees women as morthely, how do the views affect how they are seen

MC-10, 1 pt, 3 choices each, best according to readings
-millenium development goals, dual strategy of SEWA, CEDAW, zebra principle, theories of occupational segregation by sex, women in noninstitutional (Why women organize), extremist, nationalist, religious fundamentalist
Short Essay-1 (3 questions in 1) 6pts (1/2-3/4pg)
--Why has the rate of women in political office historically been so low? (developing and developed countries)
--Cross national research on this questions has produced 3 explanations for the persistent lack of women in political office, women worldwide run into some common obstacles or barriers, please discuss 2 of these barriers to public office (what they are). to elaborate each theoretical explanation, please provide examples
(money, networking, education),
Short Answer-7, 2pts, 4-5 sentences
**CAGE OF OPPRESSION

MC
-explain the axis of disadvantaged or oppression? Iris Marion Young. Heteronormativity, sexual division labor
How are gender of hierarchies constructed? How does structure shape social issues and interaction
-creates policy benefiting people in groups over others. CAGE OF OPPRESSION

Why is it difficult to conduct research in social sciences

3 model for economic development for women psychological model-few variance, disruptions in society leads to confusion and alienation, bring things back to the norm resource mobilization model- movements emerge when, communication that is shared among people of the same group when resources are available political process with political opportunity- political system isnt working how they want, so they reform to make it better

capabilities approach- allow women to be capable to do things in society, you help your own country physical health and allow them to development skills, independent doing stuff, and being able to enjoy it environment supports
--moral framewor, suggest social arragements should be primarily evaulaed accoriding to the exten of freedom people have to promote or acheive functional value