Geography Sl and Hl Study Guide Population in Transitions

Population In Transistion
Word population growth * The world’s population has been growing increasingly rapidly and most of this growth is quite recent (since the mid 19th century) * Up to 95% of population growth is taking place in developing countries * The world’s population is expected to stabalize by around 2050-80 * North and Latin America is an exception because the population is predicted to be fallin by the end of the 21st century * Now, at 1.2% a year, the increase is also well below the 2.2% annual growth seen 40 years ago * The slowdown in global population growth is linked primarily to declines in fertility and increase in the number of elderly people in the world
What are the causes of population growth? * Increase in birth rate: Lack of awareness, and education, desire for children (sons), early marriages, custom and culture and infant mortality rate * Increase in net migration (average number of emigrants – immigrations) * The death rate: high death rate, lower population growth
World population * This explosive growth came about because death rates fell faster than birth rates * Availability of immunizations, antibiotics, clean water and increased food production yielded tremendous improvements in infant and child mortality rates * Rise in average life expectancy * Fertility is the key to population growth * In order to stable population size, (TFR) of 2.1 is needed * Ex. Us has a TFR of 2.1 but US will witness population increase as children born in previous years reach adulthood and begin adult gaving offspring * Countries with low TFR; China (1.8), Cuba (1.55), Spain (1.15), Italy and Greece (below 1.3); all of these countries will evenually witness population decline if these trends continue
Fertility rates in the world * in 1990 the world’s women were giving birth to 3.3 children each * by 2010, this had dropped to 2.56 children which is slightly above the level needed to replce the world’s population * the level of fertility is projected to fall below replacement level before 2050, because of AIDS, which has killed more than 20 million people in the past 20 years and lowering average life expectancy at birth around 40 years in some countries
Birth rates and Fertility rates * In LEDCs, the fertility rates have rapidly increased * In MEDCs, birth reates and fertility rates have fallen Why do you get high birth rates? | Why do birth rates come down ? | Parents want children 1. for labour 2. to look aftern them in old age 3. to continue the family nme 4. for prestige 5. to replace other children who have died(a high infant mortality rate) 6. children are net contributors to family income | 1. children are costly 2. the government looks after people through pensions and health services 3. more women want their own career an have higher status 4. there is widespread use of family planning 5. as the infant mortality rate comes down there is less need for replacement children 6. urbanization and industriliazation are associated with social changes and a decline in traditional beliefs and customs |

* in developed countries, the decline in fertility and the increase in lonegvity has raised 3 concern for the future 1. decrease in the supply of labor 2. socioeconomic implication of population ageing 3. long term prospect of population decline an demise
Death rates * High death rates- lack of clean water and food, poor hygeine an sanitation, overcrowding, contagious diseases such as diarrohea and vommiting, and respiratory infections * Found highest in poor rural areas, shanty towns, refugee camps, and areas of relative and absolute poverty * Low death rates- clean water, a reliable food supply, good hygeine and sanitation, lower population densities, better vaccination and health care (rising standards of living) * The crude death rate is a poor indicator of mortality trends * Population with large number of aged people (most developed countries) will have higher CDR than countries with more youthful populations * For 2005- 2010 the world CDR was 8.7% * Countries with larger younger population will have lower death rate * Population in retirement towns an especially older industriliazed countries have higher life expectanies * Other factors that influence the death rate inlude age structure, poverty, occupation, natural hazards, war and diet * Cuases of deaths are preventable * Between 1960- 2006, CMRs have declined in Latin America (50 to 25 per 1000 live births), Central Europe (50-25 per 1000 live births), West and central Africa, (210- 180 per 1000 live births) and East Asia (75- 47 per 1000 live births) fell about a hald over the past years * Causes of reduction: improvements and safe water supply, adequate sanitation and housing
Life expectancy * In MEDCs, population naturally live longer than population in LEDCs * People in MEDCs also live better because they are surviving chronic illness (cancer and heart conditions) because diagnosed earlier and get better treatment * Between 1960 an the late 1980s almost every country in the world showed continual increases in life expectancy * Until the late 1980s life expectancy increased slowly in western, central and eastern Africa and slightly faster in Southern Africa where it rose from 46 years to about 60 * Since, however, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has caused a large increase in mortality, bringing life expectancy in Southern Africa below its level in 1960 * Japan has the highest life expectancy (babies could live over 107 years ago), with the average overall life expectancy at birth at 82.6 years (men 79 years, women 86.1) * Angola has one of the lowest life expectancy (overall 31.88, male: 31.62, female: 32.15) * Countries n Southern Africa are suffering from very high rates of HIV/AIDS infection, with adult prevalence rates ranging from 10 to 38.8 percent * Ecnomics play a critical role * People in high income countries live 21 years longer than people in low inome countries * Canada and its peer countries avg. life expectancy is 80 years; Africa on aveage live to age 51 and South East Asians live to age 64 * Areas with high life expectancies have: * Higher incomes * Higher levels of education * Higher levels of employment * More equitable distribution of income * Better housing * A supportive social environment * Good opportunities for early childhood development
Population Pyramids 1. A wide base suggests a high birth rate 2. A narrowing base indicates a fallin birth rate 3. Straight or near- vertical sides show a low death rate 4. A concave slope suggests a high death rate 5. Bulges in the slope indicate high rates of in-migration a. For example, excess maleof 20-35 years could be economic migrants looking for work. An excess of both male and female cohorts (age groups) could be due to a baby boom b. Excess elderly, usually female, might indicate a community of retired people 6. Deficits in the slope show out-migration or age specific or sex specific deaths (epidemics or war)
Growth rates * Average annual percentage change in the population, resulting from surplus (or deficit) of births over deaths and the balance of migrants entering and leaving the country * The rate may be positive or negative * It is a factor in determining how great a burden would be imposed on a country by the changing needs of its people for infrastructure (schools, hospitals, housing, roads), resources (food, water, electricity) and jobs
Population Momentum * The tendency for population to grow despite a fall in birth rates * Occur in a population with high concentration of women in child bearing years * As those young population grow older and move through reproductive ages, the number of birth rates will exceed the number of death rate in the older population an so the population will continue to grow * Countries where fertility rates are relatively low, women in child bearing years can have children (even after the age of 40) which will increase in the next decades even as the population growth decline.
Dependency and Ageing ratios * In developed world, there is a high proportion of elderly * In developing world, there is a high proportion of youth Youthful population: represented by pyramids with a broad base of young children and a narrow apex of older people, while others are characterized by more uniform numbers of people in the age categories Advantages | Disadvantages | Large potential work forceLower medical costsSource to new innovation and ideasLarge potential market for selected goodsDevelopment of services like schools, crèches | Cost of schools and clinicsNeed to provide food, housing, waterHigh rates of unemploymentLarge numbers living in poor quality housingHigh rates of population growth |

Ageing population: a summary term for shifts in the age distribution of a population toward old ages * A country population is considered relatively old when 8-10% of the population = aged 65 years + Advantages | Disadvantages | 1. Skills and training 2. Preferred over young workers 3. Look after grandchildren and therefore allow parents to work (in Japan and Africa) 4. Viewed as an important market – the grey economy | 1. Inadequate nursing facilities 2. Depletion of the labour force 3. The cost of funding pensions and health care 4. New jobs needed for the elderly 5. An increase in the burden on the working population to serve the dependent population |

The older dependency ratio (ODR) * Acts as an indicator of the balance between working age people and the older population that they must support * Countries with high ODR are already suffering under the burden of funding prolonged retirement for their older population
Japanese’s ageing population * Since 1945 the age structure of Japan’s population has greatly changed, largely due to a decrease in both birth rates and death rates * The number of elderly people living alone in Japan increased from 0.8 million in 1975 to over 2.5 million in 2000 * At present under 15% of the Japanese population are aged over 65 whereas by 2020, the figure will be over 25% * This rapid ageing of the population is creating a huge burden on pension funds and social welfare programmes, especially health care
Pro Natalist and Anti Natalist policies (government attempt to control population number’s) Pro Natalist policyFrance | Anti Natalist policy | * Aimed to increase the size of population and encourage more birth through the use of incentives. * The government implement this policy to control the population size in order to reach to its ideal population size * In France, the policy is enforced to increase the number of births in France and also keep a balance scale of mothers and workers. * Because France has higher ageing population than younger population, the government focused on balancing the two age groups. So, there would be a rise the younger population in the future * La Code De Famille- implemented in the 1950 * Aimed to increase the number of births in France, balancing the ageing population * The government started subsidizing family holiday, banned the sale of contraceptivesBenefits * Families with three children had access to government incentives * Offered cash incentives to mothers, motivating them to stay home and take care of children * Maternity leave Positive consequences: * Highest fertility rates (2.3) in Europe * Rising birth rates * Increase in women employmentNegative consequences: * In the 21st century, France did not reach its 100 million population goal * Led to the reinforcement of strong immigration policy * Encourage immigrants to enter the country * Which have led to big problems because majority of immigrants come from North Africa * Increase in crime rates in the country * France went over the government budget (200 million Euros) | * Aim to decrease the total fertility rate, as well as the crude birth rate, in order to slow the population growth. * In Iran, the policy was enforced population to double in 20 years; 27 million in 1968 to 55 million in 1988. * Between 1956 and 1986, population grew at a rate more than 3% a year, the government was unable to provide sufficient food, education , housing and employment * Lost population during the Iraq- Iran war, government encouraged married couples to have more babies to replace population lost to the war * Policy- limit family size to three children * Encourage women to wait three to four years between pregnancies and discourage childbearing for women younger than 18 or older than 35 * Permit and encourage the use of all types of contraception, including male and female sterilization Benefits: * Premarital contraceptives counselling * Opportunities for women employment * Rising literacy in both men and womenPositive consequences: * manage to shrink the population to an ideal size * birth rates have fallen * population growth dropped from 3.2% in 1986- 1.2% * TFR dropped to 1.71 * Female literacy rose from 25% (1970)- 70% (today) |

Migration
The movement of a person or persons from one place to another, involving a permanent (one year or more) change of residence Two types of Migration c. Internal migration i. movement between regions within the same country and over relatively short distance d. International migration ii. involves relatively long distance movements between countries. Emigration is the term to describe the departure of a person from one country to live permanently in another: * Voluntary * to retire to a small town or coastal area (esp. true for rich folks) * To live in a smaller urban area for a better quality of life than they had in a large urban area * Education or health reasons * Forced * Civil conflict * Environmental damage * Some form of persecution * Long distance * move to large cities because more opportunities * Short distance * limited technology * transport and poor communications * local opportunities * One of the widely used models: Everett Lee (1966) Push-Pull model of migration
One of the widely used models: Everett Lee (1966) Push-Pull model of migration
Push factors:
Negative features that cause a person to move away from a place

* Unemployment * Discrimination * Low wages * poor living conditions/ poverty * Natural hazards * Persecution * Political/religious crisis * Heavy taxes

Pull factors:
Attractions (real or imagined) that exists at another place

Better wages relatives and friends
More jobs high living standards
Higher education freedom of speech
Political asylum Lack of natural hazards

Push factors:
Negative features that cause a person to move away from a place

* Unemployment * Discrimination * Low wages * poor living conditions/ poverty * Natural hazards * Persecution * Political/religious crisis * Heavy taxes

Pull factors:
Attractions (real or imagined) that exists at another place

Better wages relatives and friends
More jobs high living standards
Higher education freedom of speech
Political asylum Lack of natural hazards

More attractions = more migration
More obstacles and opportunities= less migration
More attractions = more migration
More obstacles and opportunities= less migration

Rural to urban migration and urbanisation
Global pattern of urbanisation * On a global scale, nearly half of the world’s population live in urban areas and this trend is expected to continue. * Higher levels of urban population in the developed than in the developing countries (75% of population in developed countries live in big cities, 25% in developing countries)
The growth of cities in developing countries * The growth of cities in developing countries is phenomenal * By the year 2015, urban population in developing countries will rise to 49% of the total world’s population * Rate of urbanisation is high in South America and Sub Saharan Africa. In 1960, 14.9 % of Africans lived in cities, rose to 24.2% in 1980 and by the year 2015, will reach as high as 44%. * Rate of urbanisation is low in UK. In 1970, urban population only reached to 89% and remain at the same rate until 1998, where it reaches slightly to 90%.
Consequences of increasing urbanisation in developing countries * Overcrowding * In Cairo, there is lack of living space as 1000 people migrate into the city every day and many are forced to live on roof tops. Others, 3 million, find space in the city’s cemetery, “City of the Dead”
International Migration * Pressure for people wanting to migrate from developing countries to developed countries in search of economic security has increased since the economic gap between the rich North and the poor South has widened.
Impacts on Source Area
Positive Impacts * Population pressure reduced (Ireland during the 1950s and 60s) * Remittances sent home (labor migrants from Malawi and Lesotho in S. Africa)
Negative Impacts * Removal of younger, more educated people (Brain Drain) eg. Indian software experts to the USA * Decline in local market/ pulling power * Reduced workforce * Reduced purchasing power/smaller market * Closure of local service such as schools, hospitals
Impacts on Destination
Positive Impacts * Population growth * Larger workforce * Increased demand for housing * Increased demand for services * New industry and investment attracted to the area * New skilled, young workforce * Multicultural enrichment
Negative Impacts * Racism and segregation * Cultural disharmony * Overcrowding an ghettoization (Blacks in NY) * Spread of diseases

* Mexico and the United States * The US government is keen to attract the immigration of highly qualified professionals, that in 1990, they passed a new immigration law specifically to make it easier for professional people to enter USA * However, the government is concerned about the continuing immigration from Mexico because of illegally crossing the border and being one of the largest migrants. * In 1980, 3.5 million immigrants were Mexicans; in 1990, more than one million were caught trying to enter the USA and were sent back to Mexico. * The Japanese and Chinese have had a long history of opposition to migration. * Numerous factors over the past few decades have encouraged greater numbers of migrants throughout the regions * Increasing population pressure (the mountainous areas of Japan mean much of the land is unsuitable for human settlement. * Difficult political settlement (China cultural revolution in 1960s resulted to widespread famine, so those peasants emigrated to either Malaysia or Singapore) * Different levels of development (civil wars prohibited development such as in Vietnam and Cambodia; successful industrialisation exists in countries like Hong Kong and Singapore where war refugees and economic migrants are common)

The “Brain Drain” * Migrants to rich countries often better educated than the native population * The more educated the migrants are, the more likely they are to be overqualified for their work * For example: In Greece, migrants rae 3 times as ikely to be overqualified for their jobs as locals * China suffers the worst brain drain in the world * An increasing number of the country’s brightest minds are relocating to wealthier nation where they can usually benefit from higher living standards, better career opportunities and the freedom to have as many children as they wish * Between 1978 and 2007, over a million chinse went to study overseas
Refugees
* An example of forced migration * Someone who has fled their normal country of residence, often for fear of persecution * Lack of civil liberties in their home country has led to political repression or persecution, which forced them to migrate across an international border
Push factors for refugees may be: 1. Intolerance of one part of society towards another 2. Environmental degradation 3. State persecution 4. Wars

Gender Inequalities
Women Employment in UK * Women on average in the UK finance companies earned 2,875 EU in annual performance pay compared to 14,554 EU for men, in spite of undertaking the same jobs. * Women earn around 80% less than men in performance related pay in top business companies There is a massive gender pay gap and gender disparity * There is a ‘glass ceiling’ that prohibits women from reaching executive office (only at mediocre or low positions) * low income salary compare to men, lower job positions, increase cost of childcare and the inflexibility between becoming a mother and worker
Causes
* Men dominate the corporate world in the UK in terms of higher positions and job income * The majority of financial sectors workers are between the age of 25-39, at which women have childcare responsibilities * So… Many women choose to leave the corporate life and many who left are working towards setting up their own business
Action
* government plan to close the gender gap by encouraging women to remain in work, enticing more of them into top level positions and rising pay equality in various companies * Companies are introducing flexible working arrangements & appointing heads of diversity * one employer making data on average bonus payments by gender available to employees. * The maternity "buddy" scheme to support pregnant women and those on maternity leave, the report states * By having more women in the companies, financial firms will have the chance to bring new talent and maximise the potential of their existing employees, change in working culture, such as family-friendly flexible working and childcare, in the workplace
Education in Yemen * The quality of education in Yemen was low for women due various economic and political reasons. * Islam is the predominate religion. * Because The role of women in society have been undermined by religion, women are perceived and treated as inferior to men in most spheres of society, and have limited access to health care, economic opportunities and education * When times are hard women suffer the most * Daughters give up education if money is a problem and it usually is, usually the sons are given an education
Causes
* Women enrolment in school is viewed negatively because of the strong roots of Islam in the country and tradition. * The tradition of early marriage in rural areas hinders girls’ schooling and leads to high drop-out rates. * Girls have great importance in rural areas; therefore parents are unwilling to send girls to mixed gender schools. Also, negative social attitudes towards girls’ education, and a lack of female teachers contribute to low female enrolment * male teachers’ conservative attitudes towards girls, * the distance from schools in rural areas * lack of books and teaching materials and parents’ financial constraints limit girls’ opportunities for education
Action
* The international development association (IDA) is taking part in improving quality and access of education * With their effective collaboration and initiation, the literacy rate in the country rose from 50%- 90% (female 49%- 78%)
Two main projects: Basic and secondary projects * Focus: female population * The issue is taking part in urban areas
Fast tract initiative * Educate women in rural areas * Results: education become culturally acceptable, more educational institutions (schools) and girls welcome more active enrolling themselves
Legal rights and Land Tenure * Women have limited rights on land ownership, even restricted from owning any form of business, or access to property. * 2/3 of Yemenis live in the rural areas at which they derive their livelihood from agriculture * Women have responsibility for most of the work on agricultural land yet have limited rights to the land * So they are at disadvantage when it comes to rights of land ownership because men mostly own the majority of land. * Results: The common view in the Yemeni society is that a woman’s place is in the home, and that financial matters should be left to her husband even if in the case of divorce or separation, not to mention, the father is the first priority when it comes to legal guardian or custodian to their children. Her income might also be partially or completely controlled by her husband. Women are unable to earn enough money for themselves and family.
Action
* The UN proposed a split of money 50- 50 when partners get married. So, women can use the money to help themselves and their farms while their husband can take on a second job. Women can now invest into business more which means more profits collected
DISPARITY IN WEALTH AN DEVELOPMENT
Measurements of regional and global disparities * Development: economic development Is typically measured in terms of jobs and income, but it also includes improvements in human development, education, health, choice and environmental sustainability * Maganalisation: regulate to a lower or outer edge, as of specific groups of people * Interdependence: the mutual responsibility and dependency on others
Indicators
Qualitative indicators: Describe development rather than measure .e.g. Security, survival

Composite indicators: Combine several other factors in one single figure E.g. HDI

Quantitative indicators: Numbers rather than descriptions GNI per Capita

Infant Mortality: the number of deaths of infants under one year old in a given year per 1,000 live births in the same year. This rate is often used as an indicator of the level of health in a country.

* Education Indices:
Literacy Rate: There are no universal definitions and standards of literacy. Unless otherwise specified, all rates are based on the most common definition - the ability to read and write at a specified age.. Low levels of literacy, and education in general, can impede the economic development of a country in the current rapidly changing, technology-driven world
Education expenditure: the public expenditure on education as a percent of GDP

* Nutrition Indices:
Malnutrition prevalence, height for age (% of children under 5): Prevalence of child malnutrition is the percentage of children under age 5 whose height for age (stunting) is more than two standard deviations below the median for the international reference population ages 0-59 months. For children up to two years old height is measured by recumbent length. For older children height is measured by stature while standing. The data are based on the WHO's new child growth standards released in 2006.

* Income Indices:
Gross National Income: (now used in preference to gross national product—GNP). The total value of goods and services produced within a country together with the balance of income and payments from or to other countries
Other Measures of development
The Human Development Index (HDI): a composite measure of development. Includes three basic components of human development which are longevity (life expectancy), adult literacy and amount of children enrolled in school and economy (GDP per capita)

* Measure differences within a country (unlike the GNP) as well as between countries * Highlight where poverty is worst, within and between countries * Act as a measure to show how far a country has developed and whether there are improvements in its level and rate of development * Help countries to set goals to improve life quality, health care and education * Weakness: no standard way of measuring it in all countries; not considering any impact on the environment (sustainability- how we use our resources)

Gender- related development index (GDI): measures achievements in the same dimensions and using the same indicators as the HDI, but examines inequalities between women and men; it is simply the HDI adjusted for gender inequality;addresses gender-gaps in life expectancy, education, and incomes.

Gender empowerment measure (GEM): * Reveals whether women can take an active part in economic and political life. * Exposes inequality in opportunities in selected areas. * Focuses on participation, measuring gender inequality in key areas of economic and political decision making. * Tracks the percentages of women in parliament, among legislators, and professional and technical workers and the gender disparity in earned income, reflecting economic independence. * Norway ranked first in GEM (0.837) and Yemen 70th (0.127)

The Education Index * Index of education * Varies from a minimum 0.0 an maximum of 1.0 * Based on the adult literacy rate and the combined enrollment for primary, secondary and tertiary schools. * Adult literacy is defined as the proportion of the adult population aged 15 and over than can read and write a short simple statement on their everyday life. * Australia has high education index of 0.993 and Cuba, 0.354

Gross national income (GNI): the total value of goods and services produced within a country, together with the balance of income and payments from or to other countries

GINI coefficient: a measure of the inequality of a distribution, comparing the ideal distribution of income with the Lorenz Curve (which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom x% of the population). A value of 0 expresses total equality and a value of 1 expresses maximal inequality. Closer you are to zero, less disparity; further away from zero more disparity.
How do geographers measure development?
1. Economic wealth: the wealth of a country is measured by gross national product per capita GNP; total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, divided by the total number of people living in that country
2. Social indicators:
a. Population: in general, MEDCs have lower birth rates and a slower natural increase than LEDCs; MEDCs have smaller proportion of children under 15 and higher proportion of people over 65
b. Wealth: MEDC’s have lower infant mortality rate and a longer life expectancy
3. Other indicators:
a. Adult literacy
b. Diet-calorie intake
c. Employment structure
d. Energy consumption
Explain the value of the indices in measuring disparities across the globe
Why are IMR and LE good indicators for development?
Infant Mortality indicates: * Level of Medical care: If there are no medicines to cure illnesses the number of infants dying can start to increase * Presence of Disease: Children are particularly vulnerable to outbreaks of disease. Disease is a major killer of the young in developing countries. * Number of doctors: If a child becomes ill in rural areas the nearest doctor may be many kilometers away. * Nutrition: Poor families can’t afford enough food to go around. Hunger and poor diet is a major killer * Natural disasters/war: War and natural disasters affect everyone in a country or region young and old alike * Cultural : In many developing areas, girls marry and have children at a young age. This can affect the health of their babies. Sometimes, minorities tend to have more children because of their economic situation (help on the farm)
Life Expectancy indicates: * Lifestyle : A combination of factors, such as unsanitary living conditions, pollution, diet, health and poverty, means that the overall quality of life for people can affect a regions’ Life Expectancy. People living under these conditions are more prone to illness and disease – particularly amongst the very young and the very old. * Medical care : The absence of an effective healthcare system, with efficient hospitals and medical staff, can result in a low life expectancy. Illnesses that would normally be easily cured in developed countries can go untreated in less developed nations and become life threatening. * Diet: Having too little food to eat can seriously affect people’s health and reduce how long they can expect to live. Lack of food, and nutritionally poor food, can cause illness and ailments that can shorten people’s lives. A poor diet can also make people weaker and more vulnerable to catching diseases. * Disease: A country plagued by diseases can expect this factor to affect its citizens’ life expectancy. Some diseases may not kill a person immediately but make them much weaker and prone to sickness. Over the years this can significantly reduce their life expectancy.
Explain disparities and inequities that occur within countries resulting from ethnicity, residence, parental education, income, employment and land ownership
What’s the difference between inequity and disparity? * Inequity is lack of fairness; got to do with equal opportunities; does not account with gender, could be ethnicity issues, not specific to ‘gender’; not only restricted to social inequalities * Disparity is great differences, unequal (factor: poverty); one group has less and the other has more;
Land ownership (tenure): black agriculture in South Africa * The decline of black subsistence agriculture has traditionally been put down to the shortage of land relative to the growing population and the increasing poverty of that population * Shortage of land led to overcrowding, over gazing, use of poor land, soil erosion, and declining yields * The loss of the Africans traditional lands led to the decline of the black rural economy. * Increased poverty prevented black farmers from affording the inputs necessary to improve yields * Many black people eventually resorted to becoming migrant laborers and entered the cash economy – weakened the agricultural base
Employment
* Today, poverty remains entrenched and much world is trapped in an inequality predicament * Unemployment rates are high especially among the youths (and they make up 47% of the total 186 million people out of work worldwide * Millions are working but remain poor; nearly a quarter of the world’s workers do not earn enough to lift themselves and their families above the $1 per day poverty threshold * Large proportion of the working groups are informal non-agricultural workers * Changing labor markets and increased global competition have led to an explosion of the informal economy and deterioration in wages, benefits and working conditions especially in developing countries * Widened inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers o China and india have seen considerable income growth, but differentials remain wide * In rich countries, income gap has been especially pronounced in Canada, UK and USA.
Parental education and inequality * Education affect poverty in two ways o It may rise the incomes of those with education o Promoting growth in economy will raise the incomes of those with given levels of education o Those with higher education tend to have fewer children
Identify and explain the changing patterns and trends of regional and global disparities of life expectancy, education and income
Trend- the differences overtime
Pattern- spatial differences

Life expectancy: the expected number of years a person is expected to live when demographics remain unchanged
Trends in Life expectancy
Developed world * In developed countries, more people survive to old age and can be expected to live longer than their predecessors * Women outlive men by an average of 5-9 years o In the 1950s female life expectancy continued to rise; male life expectancy slowed or leveled off * Scandinavian countries such as France and Switzerland, 4% of their population are 80+ (the oldest age – fastest growing segment of many nations’ population) * However, increases in life expectancy are not uniform for all people living within a country * Indigenous population living in developed countries have population pyramids that are more typical of developing countries * Ex. American Indian, Inuit and Aleut populations have an age structure like Morocco rather than US
Developing world * More people now have access to at least minimum health care to safe water supplies and sanitation facilities * Most of the world’s children are now immunized against 6 major diseases of childhood * In the late 20th century, socioeconomic progress can be seen in the developing world, accompanied by steady and sometimes dramatic advances in the control and prevention of diseases, the development of vaccines and medicines and countless medical scientific innovation. * Gaps between the richest and poorest countries remain huge but gradually closing (in terms of premature death) * However, some gaps in health between rich and poor are at least as wice as they were hald a century ago and becoming wider still * Some African countries, unfortunately, is decreasing in life expectancy due to HIV/AIDS epidemic
Trends in Education
Developing world * Since 1999 the number of children not attending school has fallen by 33 million and more children are completing a full cycle of primary education * Gender gap has also narrowed (more equal number of girls and boys in schools) * Education systems in many of the world’s poorest countries are now experiencing an aftermath of the global economic downturn o 72 million children are still out of school as a consequence of a combination of slower economic growth, rising poverty and budget pressures * Rich countries nurture their economic recovery whereas many poor countries face the imminent prospect of education reversals * Education gap still exist in very poor places (in the Philippines there is four year education gap between the rich and poor) * Disparities within countries are often bigger than disparities between countries o Mexico: a quarter of young adults in Chiapas have fewer than four years of education * Some groups face acute disadvantages such as in Kenya: 51% of male Somali pastoralists aged 17-22 have less than 2 years of school. * Language and ethnicity often reinforce marginalization: Turkey has made rapid progress in education BUT Kurdish- speaking females from poor households average around three years in school.
Pattern
Life expectancy
The US * 1950: have one of the highest life expectancy, with the majority of the population living until their 70s. * Health services were already widely publicized, medical supplies and hospitals can be found everywhere in the region, and many US citizens live a healthy lifestyle due to the serious safety health precautions they took. Some of factors that were available to the nation were vaccination, family planning, safer and healthier foods, safer workplaces, discoveries of modern medicine, public health awareness and many more.
Latin America * 1950: life expectancy was relatively low. The majority of the people did not exceed more than 50 years old. * Malnutrition, lack of health public awareness, no access to medical care and attention, health services and high crime rates which led to high death rates. Not to mention, the infant mortality rate was high at that time because mothers and babies were not receiving the proper nutritional care they need. * After the year 1950: Latin Americans life expectancy increases rapidly until the 2000. In the year 2000, the life expectancy reached nearly to 70 years. * Improvements in public health, nutrition and medicine. The government have also began to reinforce new ways to alleviate poverty in the nation, ensuring its people are receiving their basic needs in order to live a satisfactory life.
Income
* In general, all countries are see a rapid rise in income since the beginning of the 19th century * The developed countries such as Switzerland, Japan, Sweden, Singapore, Germany are becoming richer than ever, earning more than $10,000. * Despite the gradual rise in income per capita in Africa, the countries still sit at the lower end of GDP per capita scale. * There is an increasing income gap between developing countries and developed countries over the centuries and the gap is continuing to grow even wider as the countries become richer and the poor countries either remain the same range or declining. * In the late 19th century, there is a large disparity between Africa and the rest of the world as Africa is still earning a very low income per capita (widespread poverty, wars, famine) * There is also disparity within Africa itself as North Africa tends to earn slightly more than the Southern population.
Education
1. Europe has high level of literacy rate among adults and teenagers because of the state of economy in the region 2. In Central Asia, the economic development is poorer and thus, the nation receives limited access to education 3. Education also depends on the level of income per capita, how much per family earns is an important factor

* In Europe, Education is not a big issue because most people can afford to get education or the government is able to sponsor those who can’t afford * In Central Asia, however, countries lack the privilege to get proper education due to restricted rights (Yemen and Afghanistan- girls don’t receive equal education) and low income GDP * Public expenditure for education is inadequate * Underinvestment in primary education * Disparity can be seen between these two regions * In Central Asia, the education system was a lot worse back in the 1950, over the years, the government began to take serious action on the gender inequality issues in the region as well as encouraging more children including girls to go to schools * In the late 19th century, the number of children enrolled in public schools increased by a double amount; lessen gender inequality
Examine the progress made in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in poverty reduction, education and health
What are the purposes of MDGs and how do they work? * In 2000, 189 nations made a promise to free people from extreme poverty and multiple deprivations; “blueprint to build a better and safer world for the next century though global partnership for development” * This pledge became the eight Millennium Development Goals to be achieved by 2015. In September 2010, the world recommitted itself to accelerate progress towards these goals * The goals are premised on the notion of human rights being central to development * 8 goals with specific targets and a menu of indicators to measure progress

UN Millennium Development Goals and progress done 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger a. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day and halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger b. Accomplishments: reduced population of living less than $1.25 c. Decreased undernourished populations d. Children under 5 that are underweight are declined 2. Achieve universal primary education a. Target to ensure that by 2015 all children will be able to complete full course of primary schooling b. Accomplishments: by 2015, MEDCs will meet the goals and LEDCs will not; abolished school fees, free school lunches and gender gap narrowed. In Sub- Saharan Africa, drop-out rate is high, although there has been investments in teachers and classrooms, it is not enough
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
a. Target is to reduce by two thirds between 1990 and 2015, the under 5 mortality rate
b. Accomplishments: All countries have made enormous progress including Bangladesh, Bolivia and Nepal which managed to reduce its child mortality by 4.5% or more annually
c. Sub Saharan Africa and South Africa made the least progress
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases
a. Target to have halted by 2015 and begin the reverse spread of HIV/AIDS and second target is to have halted by 2015, and begun the reverse, the incidence os malaria and other major diseases
b. Accomplishments: all regions are on track to achieve the 50% mortality and prevalence reduction target, except for Africa
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop global partnership for development
THE DEVELOPMENT PATHAWAY LLEDC -> LEDC -> RIC -> OPEC -> NIC -> MEDC * Least less developed country (LLEDC)
- Lagging behind the main LEDC cluster
- Ethopia and Nepal * Less economically developed country (LEDC)
- Mainly agricultural employment
- Bangladesh and morocco * Recently industrialized country (RIC)
- Started their modernization in 1960s an 1990s
- Manufacturing based
- Thailand and Chile * Oil and Petroleum Exporting Country (OPEC)
- Economies dependent on oil exportation
- Saudi Arabia and Venenzuela * Newly industrialized country (NIC)
- Manufacturing based
- Started their modern industrialization in the 1960s
- Portugal and South Korea * More economically developed country (MEDC)
- Highest standard of living
- France and USA
Discuss the different ways in which disparities can be reduced with an emphasis on trade and market access, debt relief, aid and remittances * Trade is simply the flow of gross and services between people * International trade involves selling goods to other countries (exports) and buying goods from other countries (imports) * Tariff: a tax on imported goods * Quotas: a limit on the quantity of imports * Export subsidy: government payment to competing firms in its own country
- Allows firms to sell their goods at lower prices thus competing well in both their country and other countries * Product standard: safety requirements, product features and packaging requirements * Expanding trade
- Greater economic integration has large benefits o raising average living standards in developed countries and accelerating development in developing countries
- However, it has hit unskilled workers in developing countries, reducing their wages and pushing them out of jobs
- If governments do not take action, these countries will continue to suffer from barriers to trade
- Over the past few decades, developing countries have ceased to be merely exporters of primary products and their exporters of manufactured goods to developed countries have increased massively
- Both developed and developing countries each specialize in different sorts of manufactured goods (needs to continue to improve their standard of living)
- Developing countries are now a substantial exporter of services such as shipping, tourism and even routine punhing

* Trading Blocs * an arrangement among a group s nations to allow free trade between member countries but to impose tariffs (charges) on other countries who may wish to trade with them * Example: the European Union * Within a trading bloc, member countries have free access to each other’s market. * Within the EU, the UK has access to the other countries of the EU, and then in turn have access to Britain’s market * Being a member is important as it allows access to a much bigger market * Some critics belief trading blocs are unfair * As they deny access to non-members * Countries from the developing world would have more limited access to the rich markets of Europe * Makes it harder for them to trade and to develop * The Word Trade Organization has tried to promote free trade to and from all markets * Fair or ethical trade: trade that attempts to be socially, economically and environmentally responsible; a trade in which companies take responsibility for the wider impact of their business. Ethical trading is an attempt to address failings of the global trading system * Remittances * the transfer of money and/or goods by foreign workers to their home country * Most of the money goes to LEDCs and is more than double the value of foreign aid * China, India and Mexico are receiving the most * Poor countries’ Debt * Sub Saharan Africa includes most of the 42 countries classified as heavily indebted. (Nigeria $35 billion, Sudan $18 billion) * Many developing countries borrowed heavily in the 1970s and early 1980s
Problems faced: a. Low growth in industrialized economies b. High interest rates between 1975 and 1985 c. Oil price rises d. Falling commodity prices
What has been done to deal with Debt?
Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) designed to:
1. cut government expenditure
2. reduce the amount of state intervention in the economy
3. promote liberalization and international trade
Consist of four main elements:
a. greater use of a country’s resource base
b. policy reforms to increase economic efficiency
c. generation of foreign income through diversification of the economy and increased trade
d. reducing the active role of the state
These measures were sometimes divided into two main groups: * Stabilization measures * short term steps to limit any further deterioration of the economy * Adjustment measures * long term policies to boost economic competitiveness
The Heavily indebted poor countries (HIPV) initiatives * Two main objectives
1. To relieve certain low income countries of their sustainable debt to donors
2. Promote reform an sound policies for growth, human development and poverty reduction

* Deb relief occurs in two steps: 1. at the decision point the country gets debt service relief after having demonstrated adherence to an IMP programme and progress in developing a national poverty strategy 2. at the completion point the country gets debt service relief upon approval by the Worl Bank and the IMF; country is entitled to at least 90%debt relief from bilateral and multilateral creditors to make debt levels sustainable

* Debt service: required over a given period for time for the payment of interest and principal on a debt (ex. Monthly mortgage payment) * Stock relief: cancelling of specific debts; this achieves reduction in debt service over the life of a loan
Market Access * expanding market access is essential to help countries diversify and expand trade * average OECD tariffs on manufactured goods from developing countries are more than four times than those on manufactured goods from other OECD countries * agricultural subsidies in rich countries lead to unfair competition * MEDCs should set targets to: * increase official development assistance to fill financing gaps * remove tariffs and quotas on agricultural products, textiles and clothing exported by developing countries * remove subsidies on agricultural exports from developing countries * agree an finance deeper debt reduction for HIPCs that have reached their competition points, to ensure sustainability HL: Measuring Global Interactions
Two main globalisation indices used to measure global interactions: 1. The Kearney Index

* Tracks and access changes in four key components of global integration.

* Political Engagement (including foreign aid, treaties, organizations, and peacekeeping) * Technological connectivity (including number of internet users, hosts and secure servers) * Personal Contact (including neighbouring calls, travel and remittances) * Economic integration (including international trade and foreign direct investment

* The 72 countries ranked in the 2007 globalization index account for 97% of the world’s GDP and 88% of the world’s population. * Covers major regions of the world including developed and developing countries, to provide a comprehensive and comparative view of global integration.
Economic integration combines data on trade and foreign investment (FDI) inflows and outflows, international travel and tourism, international telephone calls, and cross border remittances
Technological connectivity counts the number internet users and internet hosts
Political engagement includes each country’s memberships in a variety of representative international organizations.
How is it calculated? * The resulting data for each given variable are normalized through a process that assigns the value of 1 to the highest data and all other data points are valued as fraction of 1. (lowest 0 and relative value between 0-1) * The base year (ex. 1998) is assigned a value of 100. The given variable’s scale factor for each subsequent year is the percentage growth or decline in the GDP or the population weighted score of the highest data point, relative to 100 * Scores for every country an year are derived by summing all the indicator scores
Disadvantages
* Only 64 Countries are included in the index * Weightings – who decides? * How do you measure cultural trends?

Disadvantages * Only 64 Countries are included in the index * Weightings – who decides? * How do you measure cultural trends?

Advantages * It covers 96% of worlds GDP * It covers 84% of worlds Population * Allows for comparison between countries * Allows for comparison over time

2. The KOF Index * Introduced in 2002 * Covers the economic, social and political dimensions of globalizations * Defined globalization as: * “the process of creating networks of connections among actors as multi- continental distances, mediated through a variety of flows including people, information and ideas, capital and goods” * Three dimensions of the KOF index are defined as a. Economic globalisation, characterized as long distance flows of goods, capital and services as well as information and perceptions that accompany market exchanges b. Political globalisation, characterized by a diffusion of government policies c. Social globalisation, expressed as the spread of ideas, information, images and people
How is it calculated? * Calculates an overall index of globalisation and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows, economic restrictions, data on information flows, data on personal contact and data on cultural proximity * Index value closer to 100 > the more globalized the country * In 2009, Belgium had the highest index of globalisation (91.5) and the lowest was Myanmar (23.7)
Economic globalization 1. Actual economic flows – trade and FDI (foreign direct investment) 2. Restrictions to trade and capital – import barriers, mean tariff rates, taxes on international trade
In 2009, Singapore had the highest level of economic globalization
Political globalization 1. The number of embassies an high commissions in a country 2. Number of international organizations of which the country is a member 3. The number of UN peace missions a country has participated in
In 2009, political globalisation was highest in France, followed by Italy an Belgium
Social globalization
(In 2009, Switzerland had the highest level of social globalisation)
Classified in three categories: * Personal contacts * international telecom traffic * Degree of tourism * Direct interaction among people living in different countries * Information flows * Number of internet users * Cable television subscribers * Number of TV (all per 1,000 people) * Cultural proximity * Imported and exported books * Number of McDonald’s restaurants and Ikea stores
According to KOF index of 2009… * Globalization is still on the rise, driven by increased economic and political globalization, while social globalization stagnates. * Belgium is the world's most globalised country,
Disadvantages
* the results were sometimes driven by extreme outlying observations and missing values. * cultural globalization mostly refers to the domination of U.S. cultural products. Arguably, the United States is the trend-setter in much of the global socio-cultural realm

Disadvantages * the results were sometimes driven by extreme outlying observations and missing values. * cultural globalization mostly refers to the domination of U.S. cultural products. Arguably, the United States is the trend-setter in much of the global socio-cultural realm

Advantages * The index allows comparing degree and changes in globalization over a large number of countries and more than 30 years. * The KOF Index of Globalization 2009 is available for 158 countries over the period 1970–2006, * It is calculated on the basis of 24 variables.

Advantages * The index allows comparing degree and changes in globalization over a large number of countries and more than 30 years. * The KOF Index of Globalization 2009 is available for 158 countries over the period 1970–2006, * It is calculated on the basis of 24 variables.