Hegemony In Sports
An Analysis of How Hegemony has contributed to the Muted Voice of Woman Participants As Coaches and Administrators
Winona State University
Abstract
This paper is going to be about how females have been ignored and looked down on in the sports world. Since Title IX of the Educational Amendments gave women the right to play the number of women coaching women dropped since 1972. Why? This paper will break it down while applying a few theories to show that there is a problem, also these theories will give us a better understand of what’s actually going on and why the decline of women coaches has gone down since Title IX. Will look into the potential solutions to help …show more content…
us solve the problem and again will use a few theories for a better understanding.
For decades society has shaped in the mind of human beings that when it comes to coaching, males are more ideal to receive the coaching title or administration position. Women gained the right to vote in 1920, politically through the 19th amendment. The Equal Pay Act allowed women the right to equal pay for the similar job as their male counterparts. In 1972 in the sports world, Title IX of the Educational Amendments gave women the right to play. Despite the success of women like Pat Summit, and Sylvia Hatchel history has shown a serious decline and the lack in number of female athletic coaches and administration. The number of women coaching women has declined dramatically since 1970. Of the 90% of women who coached women in 1970, only 43% of women coach women in 2012 (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). It’s important that we look into this problem, because we do need females to step up and become leaders and role models for these younger girls, reminding them that there are opportunities to hold a coaching and/or administration position. My communication studies class for the semester has looked into the problem of women and coaching and what has caused the decline of women coaches in America.
This paper is 1st going to cover the problem that exists, not having enough women in coaching and administration positions. Will then examine the problem while applying the Hegemony, Agenda setting, and Muted Group Theory that contribute to the problem of the decline of coaches. Third this paper will explore the possible solution to this problem and to visualize what could happen, if the problem of the shortages of women coaches and administration is unraveled. Finally this paper will conclude with a summation argument and suggestions for future research, on how we can solve this problem and give the female population a voice as they pursuit future jobs.
There are exactly zero women working as coaches for the 122 teams playing in the NBA, MLB, NHL and NFL (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). Zero head coaches, zero assistant coaches, zero assistant to the assistant coaches. Even at the highest level of coaching (professional team) there are 0 women coaching at any position at the professional level. To many, this topic is an unimportant matter to deal with, because in a way females are looked down upon. In 1970 prior to the enactment of Title IX, there were only 2.5 women’s teams per school and only about 16,000 total female intercollegiate athletes (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). Forty years after the enactment of Title IX, there are an average of 8.73 women’s teams per school and a total of about 200,000 female intercollegiate athletes: the highest in history (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). Looking at the growth of women’s sports over the years, it is important to understand that the number of women sports that are offered in women sports has markedly increased. With more women sports being offered this means in a sense there should be more coaching position needed, and to be filled by the coaches who are qualified for the job. The representation of females among the head coaches for male teams remains low, between 2% to 3.5% then there are approximately 200 to 300 female head coaches of menʼs teams, compared to the 5300 male head coaches for female teams (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). When Title IX was passed, more than 90% of women’s teams were coached by females (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). According to the 2007 Knight Commission on Sports, the NCAA watchdog, 42% of women collegiate teams are being coached by women, an all time low. After Title IX was passed, the coaches of women’s teams began to be paid for their efforts therefore making the jobs more attractive to the male counterpart. Once money started coming in to women’s basketball in the early 1990’s, men started competing for the positions with more determination. It makes us wonder what if the gender of the athletics director would make a difference in the amount of female coaches there are? Lets look into a few numbers for a better understanding because it seems the gender of the athletic director plays a role. In Division 1 when there is a female athletic director, the percentage of female coaches is 45.9% compared to 41.9% when the AD is a male. (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). In Division 2, the average percentage of female coaches is 40.7% when the athletic director is a female and 36.9% when the athletic director is a male (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). The evident connection to the gender of the athletic director continues in Division 3 where, when the athletic director is a female, the percentage of female coaches averages 51.1% and when the athletic director is a male, the average is 44.3% (Malady, M. J. X. 2012).
Due to the male influences, gender typing happens early during a girl’s development stage. Gender typing is attributing qualities, characteristics, attributes, temperaments, demeanor and behavior due to a gender (Erik 2009). That is, making generalizations about a person, and how they act or should act, based upon preconceived notions and definitions of their gender (Erik 2009). When a little girl hears messages throughout her life that females aren’t good at math and science but must be proficient in math an science are needed to become for example a teacher. The logical conclusion for her is that she can’t become a teacher. “If girls had the ability to be come coaches we would see more of them” is a argument that self - defeating itself because we haven’t given females the opportunity to do so in the first place.
Access to female role models in positions of decision-making and leadership is particularly important for females. Females already have fewer role models in their lives than do their male counterparts. The more athletes’ that can be role models for the little girls, the better it is. Intercollegiate athletics is a very intense and challenging program for the participant and that having female role model available within such an program is beneficial to the program.
This is happening because female sport’s is caught between a rock and a hard place. Males come in and take over the coaching positions. when females encourage for stronger pay. There would be no fan base, if females asked the public to look at their athletic skills. When females accept this role it reinforces the traditional male female value system - which they have tried to distance themselves from. It’s just the way it’s has been and it’s looks like how its going to be. Hegemony.
According to Merriam-Webster hegemony is preponderant influence or authority over others. How I understand hegemony is that it just they way a it is. What it comes down to is that hegemony, the dominant group convincing people what is right and wrong, this occurs constantly in our daily lives. Plays itself right into the conversation of where are the females in the coaching and administration fields? During coaches workshops it’s often to hear from women that they feel isolated, uncertain and perhaps discriminated against (LaVoi 2012). Females also feel helpless to create change, which often leads to burnout, lack of enjoyment and job satisfaction, and perhaps quitting coaching altogether (LaVoi 2012). The reason females feel like this is because of hegemony it how they are treated in the sports world. Agenda setting is the media tell us what to think about, and how to think about it (Griffin 2012).
The Agenda-Setting Theory states the media (mainly the news media) aren’t always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think about. This theory is a great way to explaining the issue why there aren’t many women in coaching. Though people with similar media exposure place importance on the same issues. The Agenda-Setting Theory originates from a scientific viewpoint, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the same issues. It has explanatory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important. It has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will feel the same issues are important. It can be proven false. If people aren’t exposed to the same media, they won’t feel the same issues are important. These are all charactics of the Agenda – Setting Theory, and it fits in when you think about female sport’s representation with the media. Arguably, the media creates fans. Most male’s professional and collegiate teams have national audiences. The reasons why each of these teams attractive a larger and diverse audience as their fan base, are the media, team history and legacy, the location of the team, and team success. These few reasons play a role as to how that team is observed by the public. Inside the greater public are the so - called potential fans. Television coverage, radio broadcast magazine articles etc all impact if a team will acquire a national fan base. An analyzation and comparison of the 1993 NCAA basketball championship coverage for both men and women. The conclusion, in part, was that “the television industry actively builds audiences for men’s games while failing to do so for women’s games” (Erik 2009).
The media also acts to be bias against women’s sports by the way they cover female events.
The quantity of coverage is a small portion compared to the coverage of males. In a way, the media is influencing the viewing audiences with which of the two events they want you to watch, which was of better quality, and the goal in the long run is to build an audience of viewers. Television networks do have the ability to build audiences, and they choose to with men’s sports. On the other hand, several women athletes consider they can’t get the exposure needed to win over large numbers of fans unless they give the fans another reason for coming to their sporting events besides observing athletic ability (Erik 2009). Because females are now identified and valued more for how they look than how they …show more content…
perform. After looking into the agenda setting theory we can see how important the media is when covering both male and female sports and how the media tailor the audience to watch certain games.
Muted group theory is people belonging to low power groups who must change their language when communicating publicly, thus their ideas are often overlooked (Griffin 2012). Muted group theory is an explanation of why some groups seem to have a voice and why some do not in our society. In our society females seem not to have a voice in the sports world. Even though females have come a long way to gain and earn respect females are still looked down on. Female’s words and thoughts are discounted in our society, because man-made language aids in defining, depreciating, and excluding women to make them the muted group. Muted group theory argues that language is man-made and excludes women, and that if women cease to be muted, men will no longer be dominant in society. Being the muted group society in a way makes the females seem that they are invisible. This comes back to tie in with agenda setting theory because media plays a huge part in influencing on how we think and act. Muted-Group theory because it agrees with the thought that if women cease to be silent, men will no longer be dominant in society. Now, this does not mean that their viewpoint is silent to others, it simply means that others in opposition choose to ignore it. Hegemony comes in why they ignore it ? It’s just how things
are
What is the solution for the problem of shortage of female coaches and administration? We must educated the younger females and continue to encourage them to stick with sports as they mature. We should try to limit the gender socialization and gender typing to the young females. It informally tells young female athletes that she shouldn’t or should do that because it’s not what females do. This is critical to a child development to expose the child to as many different activities growing up to give them that opportunity to do what they love in life. We must start from the bottom up if we want to see some type of change in coaching. Grade schools and high schools should create some type of incentives that encourage women teachers to take up coaching more broadly to build that bond between teacher-student teacher-athletes. Mentoring the younger children is were we can break the muted voice of the female population. It’s never too early to work on leadership skill. Mentoring the younger children with college athletes would go a long way. Children that play sports at that young age look up to the older athletes having some inspiration to be like them someday. If that college athlete would encourage the younger children and be that role model for him/her I feel we can make some change. Parents also are factor, they also should be educated about the opportunities out there for women coaches and administration positions. Parents want their child to be successful plus happy in life. Having summer youth programs where the counselor of those summer youth groups, also would educated the kids encourage young girls to consider coaching or athletic administration career. We shouldn’t be separating the boys from the girls and remind the children that it’s ok for girls and boys to play with each other in sports. This mentoring and leadership could work if we got enough counselor started and then aim towards the young girls. Having some type of rule like the Rooney Rule that is in the NFL where at least one minority get a chance to be interview for the job. For women having such a rule could be beneficial to the female coaches and just might break the glass celling for women going into coaching. We should form groupthink with the problem of shortage of coaches, but try to find the right solution or go in the right direction. There is a lot of pressure of women who’s going to step up and be that leader that opens the door for females to coach. Once we see more female leaders I feel change is on the way. We must get away from conforming to groupthink just plays back into the role of hegemony.
To conclude I’ve learned a lot about how females have been treated in sports. This is important topic that should be discussed, but it’s not because it such a sensitivity topic. Even thought females have made tremendous strides to get where they are today in the world. With more female leadership and mentoring to the younger girls we could possible see a change in the coaching. There are always going to be that negative group trying to bring you down, but with enough support I feel change is on the way one step at a time.
References
Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. (2012). Women in intercollegiate sport. Retrieved from http://acostacarpenter.org/AcostaCarpenter2012.pdf>.
Collins, Brian W. (June 2007), "Tackling Unconscious Bias in Hiring Practices: The plight of the Rooney Rule." New York University Law Review 82 (3): 870- 912.ISSN 0028-7881
Garber, G. (2007, FEB 09). Thanks to rooney rule, doors opened. Retrieved from http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/playoffs06/news/story?id=2750645
Malady, M. J. X. (2012, OCT 07). Sidelined: Why don 't any women coach big-time men 's sports? and why don 't we care?. Post-gazette. Retrieved from http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/opinion/perspectives/sidelined-why-dont-any-women-coach-big-time-mens-sports- 656557/
Pro-football. (2013). Online. Retrieved from: http://www.pro-football-reference.com/coaches>.
Rooney rule. In (2013). From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooney_Rule
Waldron, T. (2012, JUNE 21). Why sports leagues should adopt a ‘rooney rule’ for women. Retrieved fromhttp://thinkprogress.org/alyssa/2012/06/21/503605/why-sports-leagues-should-adopt-a-rooney-rule-for-women/?mobile=nc
Erik , P. (2009). Gender bias in american sports: Lack of opportunity, lack of administrative positions and lack of coverage in women 's sport. Retrieved from http://thesportdigest.com/archive/article/gender-bias-american-sports-lack-opportunity-lack-administrative-positions-and-lack-coverage
LaVoi, N. V. (2012 ) [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://stream.goodwin.drexel.edu/womenincoaching/2012/02/06/explaining-the-scarcity-of-female-coaches-barriers-part-i/
Griffin, E. (2011). A first look at communication theory. Retrieved from http://www.afirstlook.com/edition_8/theory_resources/Agenda_Setting_Theory
Winona State University
Abstract
This paper is going to be about how females have been ignored and looked down on in the sports world. Since Title IX of the Educational Amendments gave women the right to play the number of women coaching women dropped since 1972. Why? This paper will break it down while applying a few theories to show that there is a problem, also these theories will give us a better understand of what’s actually going on and why the decline of women coaches has gone down since Title IX. Will look into the potential solutions to help …show more content…
us solve the problem and again will use a few theories for a better understanding.
For decades society has shaped in the mind of human beings that when it comes to coaching, males are more ideal to receive the coaching title or administration position. Women gained the right to vote in 1920, politically through the 19th amendment. The Equal Pay Act allowed women the right to equal pay for the similar job as their male counterparts. In 1972 in the sports world, Title IX of the Educational Amendments gave women the right to play. Despite the success of women like Pat Summit, and Sylvia Hatchel history has shown a serious decline and the lack in number of female athletic coaches and administration. The number of women coaching women has declined dramatically since 1970. Of the 90% of women who coached women in 1970, only 43% of women coach women in 2012 (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). It’s important that we look into this problem, because we do need females to step up and become leaders and role models for these younger girls, reminding them that there are opportunities to hold a coaching and/or administration position. My communication studies class for the semester has looked into the problem of women and coaching and what has caused the decline of women coaches in America.
This paper is 1st going to cover the problem that exists, not having enough women in coaching and administration positions. Will then examine the problem while applying the Hegemony, Agenda setting, and Muted Group Theory that contribute to the problem of the decline of coaches. Third this paper will explore the possible solution to this problem and to visualize what could happen, if the problem of the shortages of women coaches and administration is unraveled. Finally this paper will conclude with a summation argument and suggestions for future research, on how we can solve this problem and give the female population a voice as they pursuit future jobs.
There are exactly zero women working as coaches for the 122 teams playing in the NBA, MLB, NHL and NFL (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). Zero head coaches, zero assistant coaches, zero assistant to the assistant coaches. Even at the highest level of coaching (professional team) there are 0 women coaching at any position at the professional level. To many, this topic is an unimportant matter to deal with, because in a way females are looked down upon. In 1970 prior to the enactment of Title IX, there were only 2.5 women’s teams per school and only about 16,000 total female intercollegiate athletes (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). Forty years after the enactment of Title IX, there are an average of 8.73 women’s teams per school and a total of about 200,000 female intercollegiate athletes: the highest in history (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). Looking at the growth of women’s sports over the years, it is important to understand that the number of women sports that are offered in women sports has markedly increased. With more women sports being offered this means in a sense there should be more coaching position needed, and to be filled by the coaches who are qualified for the job. The representation of females among the head coaches for male teams remains low, between 2% to 3.5% then there are approximately 200 to 300 female head coaches of menʼs teams, compared to the 5300 male head coaches for female teams (Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. 2012). When Title IX was passed, more than 90% of women’s teams were coached by females (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). According to the 2007 Knight Commission on Sports, the NCAA watchdog, 42% of women collegiate teams are being coached by women, an all time low. After Title IX was passed, the coaches of women’s teams began to be paid for their efforts therefore making the jobs more attractive to the male counterpart. Once money started coming in to women’s basketball in the early 1990’s, men started competing for the positions with more determination. It makes us wonder what if the gender of the athletics director would make a difference in the amount of female coaches there are? Lets look into a few numbers for a better understanding because it seems the gender of the athletic director plays a role. In Division 1 when there is a female athletic director, the percentage of female coaches is 45.9% compared to 41.9% when the AD is a male. (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). In Division 2, the average percentage of female coaches is 40.7% when the athletic director is a female and 36.9% when the athletic director is a male (Malady, M. J. X. 2012). The evident connection to the gender of the athletic director continues in Division 3 where, when the athletic director is a female, the percentage of female coaches averages 51.1% and when the athletic director is a male, the average is 44.3% (Malady, M. J. X. 2012).
Due to the male influences, gender typing happens early during a girl’s development stage. Gender typing is attributing qualities, characteristics, attributes, temperaments, demeanor and behavior due to a gender (Erik 2009). That is, making generalizations about a person, and how they act or should act, based upon preconceived notions and definitions of their gender (Erik 2009). When a little girl hears messages throughout her life that females aren’t good at math and science but must be proficient in math an science are needed to become for example a teacher. The logical conclusion for her is that she can’t become a teacher. “If girls had the ability to be come coaches we would see more of them” is a argument that self - defeating itself because we haven’t given females the opportunity to do so in the first place.
Access to female role models in positions of decision-making and leadership is particularly important for females. Females already have fewer role models in their lives than do their male counterparts. The more athletes’ that can be role models for the little girls, the better it is. Intercollegiate athletics is a very intense and challenging program for the participant and that having female role model available within such an program is beneficial to the program.
This is happening because female sport’s is caught between a rock and a hard place. Males come in and take over the coaching positions. when females encourage for stronger pay. There would be no fan base, if females asked the public to look at their athletic skills. When females accept this role it reinforces the traditional male female value system - which they have tried to distance themselves from. It’s just the way it’s has been and it’s looks like how its going to be. Hegemony.
According to Merriam-Webster hegemony is preponderant influence or authority over others. How I understand hegemony is that it just they way a it is. What it comes down to is that hegemony, the dominant group convincing people what is right and wrong, this occurs constantly in our daily lives. Plays itself right into the conversation of where are the females in the coaching and administration fields? During coaches workshops it’s often to hear from women that they feel isolated, uncertain and perhaps discriminated against (LaVoi 2012). Females also feel helpless to create change, which often leads to burnout, lack of enjoyment and job satisfaction, and perhaps quitting coaching altogether (LaVoi 2012). The reason females feel like this is because of hegemony it how they are treated in the sports world. Agenda setting is the media tell us what to think about, and how to think about it (Griffin 2012).
The Agenda-Setting Theory states the media (mainly the news media) aren’t always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think about. This theory is a great way to explaining the issue why there aren’t many women in coaching. Though people with similar media exposure place importance on the same issues. The Agenda-Setting Theory originates from a scientific viewpoint, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the same issues. It has explanatory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important. It has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will feel the same issues are important. It can be proven false. If people aren’t exposed to the same media, they won’t feel the same issues are important. These are all charactics of the Agenda – Setting Theory, and it fits in when you think about female sport’s representation with the media. Arguably, the media creates fans. Most male’s professional and collegiate teams have national audiences. The reasons why each of these teams attractive a larger and diverse audience as their fan base, are the media, team history and legacy, the location of the team, and team success. These few reasons play a role as to how that team is observed by the public. Inside the greater public are the so - called potential fans. Television coverage, radio broadcast magazine articles etc all impact if a team will acquire a national fan base. An analyzation and comparison of the 1993 NCAA basketball championship coverage for both men and women. The conclusion, in part, was that “the television industry actively builds audiences for men’s games while failing to do so for women’s games” (Erik 2009).
The media also acts to be bias against women’s sports by the way they cover female events.
The quantity of coverage is a small portion compared to the coverage of males. In a way, the media is influencing the viewing audiences with which of the two events they want you to watch, which was of better quality, and the goal in the long run is to build an audience of viewers. Television networks do have the ability to build audiences, and they choose to with men’s sports. On the other hand, several women athletes consider they can’t get the exposure needed to win over large numbers of fans unless they give the fans another reason for coming to their sporting events besides observing athletic ability (Erik 2009). Because females are now identified and valued more for how they look than how they …show more content…
perform. After looking into the agenda setting theory we can see how important the media is when covering both male and female sports and how the media tailor the audience to watch certain games.
Muted group theory is people belonging to low power groups who must change their language when communicating publicly, thus their ideas are often overlooked (Griffin 2012). Muted group theory is an explanation of why some groups seem to have a voice and why some do not in our society. In our society females seem not to have a voice in the sports world. Even though females have come a long way to gain and earn respect females are still looked down on. Female’s words and thoughts are discounted in our society, because man-made language aids in defining, depreciating, and excluding women to make them the muted group. Muted group theory argues that language is man-made and excludes women, and that if women cease to be muted, men will no longer be dominant in society. Being the muted group society in a way makes the females seem that they are invisible. This comes back to tie in with agenda setting theory because media plays a huge part in influencing on how we think and act. Muted-Group theory because it agrees with the thought that if women cease to be silent, men will no longer be dominant in society. Now, this does not mean that their viewpoint is silent to others, it simply means that others in opposition choose to ignore it. Hegemony comes in why they ignore it ? It’s just how things
are
What is the solution for the problem of shortage of female coaches and administration? We must educated the younger females and continue to encourage them to stick with sports as they mature. We should try to limit the gender socialization and gender typing to the young females. It informally tells young female athletes that she shouldn’t or should do that because it’s not what females do. This is critical to a child development to expose the child to as many different activities growing up to give them that opportunity to do what they love in life. We must start from the bottom up if we want to see some type of change in coaching. Grade schools and high schools should create some type of incentives that encourage women teachers to take up coaching more broadly to build that bond between teacher-student teacher-athletes. Mentoring the younger children is were we can break the muted voice of the female population. It’s never too early to work on leadership skill. Mentoring the younger children with college athletes would go a long way. Children that play sports at that young age look up to the older athletes having some inspiration to be like them someday. If that college athlete would encourage the younger children and be that role model for him/her I feel we can make some change. Parents also are factor, they also should be educated about the opportunities out there for women coaches and administration positions. Parents want their child to be successful plus happy in life. Having summer youth programs where the counselor of those summer youth groups, also would educated the kids encourage young girls to consider coaching or athletic administration career. We shouldn’t be separating the boys from the girls and remind the children that it’s ok for girls and boys to play with each other in sports. This mentoring and leadership could work if we got enough counselor started and then aim towards the young girls. Having some type of rule like the Rooney Rule that is in the NFL where at least one minority get a chance to be interview for the job. For women having such a rule could be beneficial to the female coaches and just might break the glass celling for women going into coaching. We should form groupthink with the problem of shortage of coaches, but try to find the right solution or go in the right direction. There is a lot of pressure of women who’s going to step up and be that leader that opens the door for females to coach. Once we see more female leaders I feel change is on the way. We must get away from conforming to groupthink just plays back into the role of hegemony.
To conclude I’ve learned a lot about how females have been treated in sports. This is important topic that should be discussed, but it’s not because it such a sensitivity topic. Even thought females have made tremendous strides to get where they are today in the world. With more female leadership and mentoring to the younger girls we could possible see a change in the coaching. There are always going to be that negative group trying to bring you down, but with enough support I feel change is on the way one step at a time.
References
Acosta, V. & Carpenter, L. J. (2012). Women in intercollegiate sport. Retrieved from http://acostacarpenter.org/AcostaCarpenter2012.pdf>.
Collins, Brian W. (June 2007), "Tackling Unconscious Bias in Hiring Practices: The plight of the Rooney Rule." New York University Law Review 82 (3): 870- 912.ISSN 0028-7881
Garber, G. (2007, FEB 09). Thanks to rooney rule, doors opened. Retrieved from http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/playoffs06/news/story?id=2750645
Malady, M. J. X. (2012, OCT 07). Sidelined: Why don 't any women coach big-time men 's sports? and why don 't we care?. Post-gazette. Retrieved from http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/opinion/perspectives/sidelined-why-dont-any-women-coach-big-time-mens-sports- 656557/
Pro-football. (2013). Online. Retrieved from: http://www.pro-football-reference.com/coaches>.
Rooney rule. In (2013). From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooney_Rule
Waldron, T. (2012, JUNE 21). Why sports leagues should adopt a ‘rooney rule’ for women. Retrieved fromhttp://thinkprogress.org/alyssa/2012/06/21/503605/why-sports-leagues-should-adopt-a-rooney-rule-for-women/?mobile=nc
Erik , P. (2009). Gender bias in american sports: Lack of opportunity, lack of administrative positions and lack of coverage in women 's sport. Retrieved from http://thesportdigest.com/archive/article/gender-bias-american-sports-lack-opportunity-lack-administrative-positions-and-lack-coverage
LaVoi, N. V. (2012 ) [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://stream.goodwin.drexel.edu/womenincoaching/2012/02/06/explaining-the-scarcity-of-female-coaches-barriers-part-i/
Griffin, E. (2011). A first look at communication theory. Retrieved from http://www.afirstlook.com/edition_8/theory_resources/Agenda_Setting_Theory