How Does Social Acting Affect Children
A child’s development is influenced culturally by the social institutions, customs and laws that make up a society. Society is a group of people, large or small, living together by adopting customs and organization for mutual benefit and interactive coexistence (New Zealand Tertiary College [NZTC], 2014). When we hear the term ‘social’, we immediately connect it to other people. M. Webber defined ‘social acting’ as the sense of the action is related to others’ behavior (Weber, 1922 cited in Aschenbrenner & Hellwig, 2009), example: a child handing over a colourful eraser found on the floor to his teacher, knowing it is not his and someone might be looking for it. If the child wasn’t expecting anyone to look for it, then it wouldn’t be a social behaviour. Social acting takes place in
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our everyday lives (Aschenbrenner & Hellwig, 2009). Culture can be defined as something that includes morals, belief, customs, knowledge and any other habits acquired by man from his society (Cole, 2005 cited in Aschenbrenner & Hellwig, 2009). Culture shapes a child’s development and practices that shape a particular culture have a significant impact on a child’s development (NZTC, 2014). The socio-cultural theory first proposed by Vygotsky, recognises the importance of culture, relationships and interactions bringing about learning in children. Children learn to “look, talk, act, think and feel from participating in everyday family practices and from paying attention to how their family responds to their attempts” (Arthur, Beecher, Death, Dockett & Farmer, 2012, p.14). The bio-ecological theory which was put forward by Bronfenbrenner, states that child development is the consequence of “reciprocal and spiralling interactions between the child” (Johnson, 2010, p.32) and his immediate environment (home, school, community). Using socio-cultural perspectives on human development, this essay will try to explain how society and culture influence technology and how in turn it influences the development of a child.
In today’s world technology has become a part and parcel of everyday life. One cannot argue that it is solely technology that has been influencing the human culture; culture has kindled the growth in technology just as much. There is a complex relationship between both and as one changes the other develops, thus forming a circle with no real start or end points. Technology can have both, a positive and negative impact on culture (Burley, 2010). The development of technology has an integral role of children’s everyday lives and the way children use different technology has been changing over the period of years. Social, cultural and technological changes affect children’s daily lives (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003).
Children’s play has changed over the period of years. Some researchers believe that technology like electronic and digital media impedes a child’s imagination and takes them away from communal play from the streets, example: riding bikes, playing sports, hopscotch, building forts and more (Jessen & Nielsen , 2003). However due to demographical and social changes, there are changes in the society such as families with fewer children. This means children grow up with fewer or no siblings. Most working women leave their children in crèches and playschools and this result in fewer children staying at home. “Play is dependent on the cultural heritage handed from one generation of children to the next” (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003, p.8). This connects with the socio-cultural theory that states that young children get their ‘funds of knowledge’ by participating in family and community life (Moll et al., cited in Arthur et al., 2012). But because older children are hardly around in today’s surroundings of younger children, it is not uncommon to see children looking elsewhere for inspiration, such as the media, internet and digital toys. The cultural challenge today is to create play tools/toys that children can use to stimulate activity, social interaction and play (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003). In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the Macrosystem (social ideologies and cultural values) in relation to technology “establishes the cultural value of some uses of the Internet (e.g. as a tool for learning) and the social devaluation (e.g. as a tool for social deviance)” (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008, para.1).
Today even children as young as six are on social networking websites such as Myface, Facebook and Twitter. These social sites may give the child a feeling of acceptance but distance them from real life situations (The Real Truth, 2009). Recent statistics show that more than 90% of American children at the age of two have an online history and by the age of five, 50% play regularly with computers and tablet devices (Clinton & Steyer 2012). Television programs and channels like ‘Baby TV’ occupies 2.5 hours of a 0-2 year old child’s day and television occupies 4.5 hours a day for 3-5 year olds. Researchers have reported that having the television on even when no one is watching it, have grave implications on language acquisition and on early brain development (Christakis cited in Rowan, n.d.). According to Ward (cited in Rowan, n.d) over exposure to television causes speech and language delays in one in five toddlers. Research has established a link between online games and distractibility, over arousal, hostility and aggression. Bacigalupa (cited in Johnson & Puplampu, 2008) came to a conclusion after a naturalistic observation in a day care centre, that young children who were given video games to play with had interactions with others that were disjointed, rushed and ineffective. According to Buchanan (cited in Rowan, n.d.), young children cannot distinguish between reality and fantasy and this makes them most vulnerable to media violence. They cannot understand the motives of violence and learn through observing and imitating. This links to Vygotsky’s social developmental theory, which says that younger children learn through observation and imitation (Oswalt, 2014). However if technology like computer and software are used wisely they can be used as a catalyst for social interactions and conversations related to a child’s work (Young, 2001). Due to the easy availability and complexity of childhood technology, from an ecological perspective, the techno subsystem, which was put forward by Johnson and Puplampu , includes “child interaction with both living (e.g. peers) and nonliving (e.g. hardware) elements of communication, information and recreation technologies in direct environments” (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008, para.1).The ecological techno sub system stresses on the “holistic exploration of the developmental effects of Internet use in childhood (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008). When children explore and experiment on computers, it can have positive outcomes if used appropriately, on children’s play and learning (Young 2001). When young children use the social media they are using various skills like speed typing, searching and online communication (Hatch, 2011).
In the past children moved around a lot and had a simple nature based sensory world. In the past family time culture would be doing household chores, baking, crafts and homework. But today parents juggle work, home and community lives and rely on transportation, communication and information technology which makes life easier, faster and efficient (Rowan, n.d.). Due to the rapid change and development in societies, most parents feel it is unsafe to let their young children out to play. This limits a child’s motor movement for rough and tumble play. Young children today rely heavily on television, internet, video games and ipads for their entertainment. In a study conducted it was noted that elementary aged children on an average used entertainment technology eight hours a day, and 65% had televisions in their bedroom (Rowan, n.d.). Movement, touch and connection to other humans are important factors for healthy physical and psychological development. When these are deprived, the child is affected. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory young children need physical contact and comfort from adults when distressed to develop a sense of confidence and trust (Child development principles and theories, n.d.). When toddlers do not get to mingle with other children and are touch-deprived due to excessive use of indoor technology (TV, internet), they exhibit agitation, anxiety and many become depressed by early childhood (Rowan, n.d.).
Language was developed by humans in order to communicate with each other and learn from their elders through stories. Before technology predominated, in different cultures the language and lore of childhood was passed down orally from one generation to the next. These consisted of rhymes, riddles, songs that were adapted to the child’s immediate level. This culture made it easy for a child to be part of a group if she/he had learned the language and lore (Elkind, 2003). However today there is an increased prevalence of technology in society and this has both positive and negative consequences on children’s language and literacy skills.
Language acquisition models stress on the importance of children interacting with adults and other children in their surroundings in order to develop language skills. This links with Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that states language is learned through communicative interactions and also social and cultural interactions (Scott & Palinscar, 2013). One of the concerns of communication technology is that it could encourage social isolation and this could have a negative impact on the child’s language skills due to the lack of face to face interactions with families and friends (Watt, 2010). Another concern is the use of abbreviations used in texting and chatting, this kind of communication style could have negative impact on a child’s literacy skills (Watt, 2010). However research that has been conducted in this field has shown that the use of technology can also have a positive impact of children’s language and literacy skills. Studies have shown that computers aide in complex speech and the development in fluency (Young, 2001). In a study conducted to examine the type of language used by preschool children at a computer, it was found that language almost always was related to the use of computers and the language use became more complex as time went by. Children were initially using self-talk as the main form of language but later started using language to problem solve (McCarrick & Li, 2007). Playful experiences to print- rich environment expose a child to reading and writing (Young, 2001).
According to Drotner and Livingstone (cited in Blanchard & Moore, 2010) the influence of the digital media on young children will differ across languages and cultures, especially in developing and least developing countries. Though very little research has been done in these nations on the effects of digital media, it can be said that the cultural and language norms in these nations differ clearly from western norms and it is possible that the digital media will affect their emergent literacy skills (Blanchard & Moore, 2010). Lemish (cited in Blanchard & Moore, 2010) stated that “interactions with the child’s individual traits with characteristics of the family…macro characteristics of the society are central in forming and understanding media-related experiences and outcomes” (p.3).This ties with Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological theory’s environmental systems, which states that the relationship between a developing child and the immediate environment (family, peers, and school- microsystem) to the macrosystem (social ideologies and cultural values), help support and guide the child’s growth (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008) .
Thus, there are a number of socio-cultural factors that influence the development of a child. Culture, society and technology all play a role in influencing the development of child and in influencing each other. When cultures changes so does the technology it develops and when “new technology is introduced into a society, the culture reacts in a positive or negative way and is thus changed forever” (Burley, 2010, para.16). The exposure to technology has its advantages and disadvantages and when exposed to children it should be monitored by adults.
Reference List Arthur, L., Beecher, B., Death, E., Dockett, S. & Farmer, S. (2012). Programming & planning in early childhood settings (5th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning Retrieved August 13, 2014 from https://www.cengagebrain.com.au/content/9780170232982.pdf
Aschenbrenner, J. & Hellwig, M. (2009). Socio-Cultural Perspectives: The influence of our social environment on development. Retrieved August 11, 2014 from http://workbloglearning.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/socio-cultural-perspectives-the-influence-of-our-social-environment-on-development
Blanchard, J. & Moore, T. (2010 March). The digital world of young children: Impact on emergent literacy. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.pearsonfoundation.org/downloads/EmergentLiteracy-WhitePaper.pdf
Burley, A. (2010). Technology and culture: A circle of influence. Retrieved August 12, 2014 from http://nuglobalstudies.wordpress.com/global-studies/gls_499-2
Child Development Principles and Theories (n.d.).
Retrieved August 14, 2014 from http://www.gw.com/pdf/sampchap/9781590708132_ch04.pdf
Clinton, C. & Steyer, J. P. (2012 May). Is the Internet hurting children?. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/21/opinion/clinton-steyer-internet-kids/
Elkind, D. (2003). Technology's impact on child growth and development. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.cio.com/article/2441936/it-organization/david-elkind--technology-s-impact-on-child-growth-and-development.html
Hatch, K. E. (2011, Spring). Determining the effects of technology on children. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1212&context=srhonorsprog
Jessen, C. & Nielsen, B. C. (2003). The changing face of children's play culture:Children's play, learning and communication in a technology driven world. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.carsten-jessen.dk/Play_Culture.pdf
Johnson, G. M. (2010). Internet use and child development: The Techno-Microsystem, In Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology,10, 32-43. Retrieved August 13, 2014 from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ885705.pdf
Johnson, G. M. & Puplampu, K. P. (2008). Internet use during childhood and the ecological techno-subsystem . Retrieved August 13, 2014 from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/172/168
McCarrick, K. & Li, X. (2007). Buried Treasure: The impact of computer use on young children’s social, cognitive, language development and motivation. In AACE Journal,15(1), 73-95. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.editlib.org/p/19982/
New Zealand Tertiary College. (2014). Lifespan studies 3 study guide. Auckland, New Zealand: Author.
Oswalt, A. (2014). Vygotsky's social developmental emphasis. Retrieved August 14, 2014 from http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=37680&cn=1272
Rowan, C. (n.d.). A research review regarding the impact of technology on child development, behavior, and academic performance.. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.sd23.bc.ca/ProgramsServices/earlylearning/parentinformation/Documents/Impact%20of%20Technology%20on%20Young%20Children's%20Development.pdf
Rowan, C. (n.d.). The impact of technology on child sensory and motor development . Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.sensomotorische-integratie.nl/CrisRowan.pdf
Scott, S. & Palinscar, A. (2013). Sociocultural Theory. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.education.com/reference/article/sociocultural-theory/
The Real Truth (2009). Does technology stunt children’s social development? Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://realtruth.org/news/090303-008-society.html
Watt, H. J. (2010, Fall). How does the use of modern communication technology influence language and literacy development? A Review. In Contemporary issues in communication science and disorders, 37, 141-148. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/asha/publications/cicsd/2010F-Use-of-Modern-Communication-Technology.pdf
Young, M. E. (2001 September/October). Technology and early child development. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www.techknowlogia.org/TKL_Articles/PDF/314.pdf
our everyday lives (Aschenbrenner & Hellwig, 2009). Culture can be defined as something that includes morals, belief, customs, knowledge and any other habits acquired by man from his society (Cole, 2005 cited in Aschenbrenner & Hellwig, 2009). Culture shapes a child’s development and practices that shape a particular culture have a significant impact on a child’s development (NZTC, 2014). The socio-cultural theory first proposed by Vygotsky, recognises the importance of culture, relationships and interactions bringing about learning in children. Children learn to “look, talk, act, think and feel from participating in everyday family practices and from paying attention to how their family responds to their attempts” (Arthur, Beecher, Death, Dockett & Farmer, 2012, p.14). The bio-ecological theory which was put forward by Bronfenbrenner, states that child development is the consequence of “reciprocal and spiralling interactions between the child” (Johnson, 2010, p.32) and his immediate environment (home, school, community). Using socio-cultural perspectives on human development, this essay will try to explain how society and culture influence technology and how in turn it influences the development of a child.
In today’s world technology has become a part and parcel of everyday life. One cannot argue that it is solely technology that has been influencing the human culture; culture has kindled the growth in technology just as much. There is a complex relationship between both and as one changes the other develops, thus forming a circle with no real start or end points. Technology can have both, a positive and negative impact on culture (Burley, 2010). The development of technology has an integral role of children’s everyday lives and the way children use different technology has been changing over the period of years. Social, cultural and technological changes affect children’s daily lives (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003).
Children’s play has changed over the period of years. Some researchers believe that technology like electronic and digital media impedes a child’s imagination and takes them away from communal play from the streets, example: riding bikes, playing sports, hopscotch, building forts and more (Jessen & Nielsen , 2003). However due to demographical and social changes, there are changes in the society such as families with fewer children. This means children grow up with fewer or no siblings. Most working women leave their children in crèches and playschools and this result in fewer children staying at home. “Play is dependent on the cultural heritage handed from one generation of children to the next” (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003, p.8). This connects with the socio-cultural theory that states that young children get their ‘funds of knowledge’ by participating in family and community life (Moll et al., cited in Arthur et al., 2012). But because older children are hardly around in today’s surroundings of younger children, it is not uncommon to see children looking elsewhere for inspiration, such as the media, internet and digital toys. The cultural challenge today is to create play tools/toys that children can use to stimulate activity, social interaction and play (Jessen & Nielsen, 2003). In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the Macrosystem (social ideologies and cultural values) in relation to technology “establishes the cultural value of some uses of the Internet (e.g. as a tool for learning) and the social devaluation (e.g. as a tool for social deviance)” (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008, para.1).
Today even children as young as six are on social networking websites such as Myface, Facebook and Twitter. These social sites may give the child a feeling of acceptance but distance them from real life situations (The Real Truth, 2009). Recent statistics show that more than 90% of American children at the age of two have an online history and by the age of five, 50% play regularly with computers and tablet devices (Clinton & Steyer 2012). Television programs and channels like ‘Baby TV’ occupies 2.5 hours of a 0-2 year old child’s day and television occupies 4.5 hours a day for 3-5 year olds. Researchers have reported that having the television on even when no one is watching it, have grave implications on language acquisition and on early brain development (Christakis cited in Rowan, n.d.). According to Ward (cited in Rowan, n.d) over exposure to television causes speech and language delays in one in five toddlers. Research has established a link between online games and distractibility, over arousal, hostility and aggression. Bacigalupa (cited in Johnson & Puplampu, 2008) came to a conclusion after a naturalistic observation in a day care centre, that young children who were given video games to play with had interactions with others that were disjointed, rushed and ineffective. According to Buchanan (cited in Rowan, n.d.), young children cannot distinguish between reality and fantasy and this makes them most vulnerable to media violence. They cannot understand the motives of violence and learn through observing and imitating. This links to Vygotsky’s social developmental theory, which says that younger children learn through observation and imitation (Oswalt, 2014). However if technology like computer and software are used wisely they can be used as a catalyst for social interactions and conversations related to a child’s work (Young, 2001). Due to the easy availability and complexity of childhood technology, from an ecological perspective, the techno subsystem, which was put forward by Johnson and Puplampu , includes “child interaction with both living (e.g. peers) and nonliving (e.g. hardware) elements of communication, information and recreation technologies in direct environments” (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008, para.1).The ecological techno sub system stresses on the “holistic exploration of the developmental effects of Internet use in childhood (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008). When children explore and experiment on computers, it can have positive outcomes if used appropriately, on children’s play and learning (Young 2001). When young children use the social media they are using various skills like speed typing, searching and online communication (Hatch, 2011).
In the past children moved around a lot and had a simple nature based sensory world. In the past family time culture would be doing household chores, baking, crafts and homework. But today parents juggle work, home and community lives and rely on transportation, communication and information technology which makes life easier, faster and efficient (Rowan, n.d.). Due to the rapid change and development in societies, most parents feel it is unsafe to let their young children out to play. This limits a child’s motor movement for rough and tumble play. Young children today rely heavily on television, internet, video games and ipads for their entertainment. In a study conducted it was noted that elementary aged children on an average used entertainment technology eight hours a day, and 65% had televisions in their bedroom (Rowan, n.d.). Movement, touch and connection to other humans are important factors for healthy physical and psychological development. When these are deprived, the child is affected. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory young children need physical contact and comfort from adults when distressed to develop a sense of confidence and trust (Child development principles and theories, n.d.). When toddlers do not get to mingle with other children and are touch-deprived due to excessive use of indoor technology (TV, internet), they exhibit agitation, anxiety and many become depressed by early childhood (Rowan, n.d.).
Language was developed by humans in order to communicate with each other and learn from their elders through stories. Before technology predominated, in different cultures the language and lore of childhood was passed down orally from one generation to the next. These consisted of rhymes, riddles, songs that were adapted to the child’s immediate level. This culture made it easy for a child to be part of a group if she/he had learned the language and lore (Elkind, 2003). However today there is an increased prevalence of technology in society and this has both positive and negative consequences on children’s language and literacy skills.
Language acquisition models stress on the importance of children interacting with adults and other children in their surroundings in order to develop language skills. This links with Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that states language is learned through communicative interactions and also social and cultural interactions (Scott & Palinscar, 2013). One of the concerns of communication technology is that it could encourage social isolation and this could have a negative impact on the child’s language skills due to the lack of face to face interactions with families and friends (Watt, 2010). Another concern is the use of abbreviations used in texting and chatting, this kind of communication style could have negative impact on a child’s literacy skills (Watt, 2010). However research that has been conducted in this field has shown that the use of technology can also have a positive impact of children’s language and literacy skills. Studies have shown that computers aide in complex speech and the development in fluency (Young, 2001). In a study conducted to examine the type of language used by preschool children at a computer, it was found that language almost always was related to the use of computers and the language use became more complex as time went by. Children were initially using self-talk as the main form of language but later started using language to problem solve (McCarrick & Li, 2007). Playful experiences to print- rich environment expose a child to reading and writing (Young, 2001).
According to Drotner and Livingstone (cited in Blanchard & Moore, 2010) the influence of the digital media on young children will differ across languages and cultures, especially in developing and least developing countries. Though very little research has been done in these nations on the effects of digital media, it can be said that the cultural and language norms in these nations differ clearly from western norms and it is possible that the digital media will affect their emergent literacy skills (Blanchard & Moore, 2010). Lemish (cited in Blanchard & Moore, 2010) stated that “interactions with the child’s individual traits with characteristics of the family…macro characteristics of the society are central in forming and understanding media-related experiences and outcomes” (p.3).This ties with Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological theory’s environmental systems, which states that the relationship between a developing child and the immediate environment (family, peers, and school- microsystem) to the macrosystem (social ideologies and cultural values), help support and guide the child’s growth (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008) .
Thus, there are a number of socio-cultural factors that influence the development of a child. Culture, society and technology all play a role in influencing the development of child and in influencing each other. When cultures changes so does the technology it develops and when “new technology is introduced into a society, the culture reacts in a positive or negative way and is thus changed forever” (Burley, 2010, para.16). The exposure to technology has its advantages and disadvantages and when exposed to children it should be monitored by adults.
Reference List Arthur, L., Beecher, B., Death, E., Dockett, S. & Farmer, S. (2012). Programming & planning in early childhood settings (5th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning Retrieved August 13, 2014 from https://www.cengagebrain.com.au/content/9780170232982.pdf
Aschenbrenner, J. & Hellwig, M. (2009). Socio-Cultural Perspectives: The influence of our social environment on development. Retrieved August 11, 2014 from http://workbloglearning.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/socio-cultural-perspectives-the-influence-of-our-social-environment-on-development
Blanchard, J. & Moore, T. (2010 March). The digital world of young children: Impact on emergent literacy. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.pearsonfoundation.org/downloads/EmergentLiteracy-WhitePaper.pdf
Burley, A. (2010). Technology and culture: A circle of influence. Retrieved August 12, 2014 from http://nuglobalstudies.wordpress.com/global-studies/gls_499-2
Child Development Principles and Theories (n.d.).
Retrieved August 14, 2014 from http://www.gw.com/pdf/sampchap/9781590708132_ch04.pdf
Clinton, C. & Steyer, J. P. (2012 May). Is the Internet hurting children?. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/21/opinion/clinton-steyer-internet-kids/
Elkind, D. (2003). Technology's impact on child growth and development. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.cio.com/article/2441936/it-organization/david-elkind--technology-s-impact-on-child-growth-and-development.html
Hatch, K. E. (2011, Spring). Determining the effects of technology on children. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1212&context=srhonorsprog
Jessen, C. & Nielsen, B. C. (2003). The changing face of children's play culture:Children's play, learning and communication in a technology driven world. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.carsten-jessen.dk/Play_Culture.pdf
Johnson, G. M. (2010). Internet use and child development: The Techno-Microsystem, In Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology,10, 32-43. Retrieved August 13, 2014 from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ885705.pdf
Johnson, G. M. & Puplampu, K. P. (2008). Internet use during childhood and the ecological techno-subsystem . Retrieved August 13, 2014 from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/172/168
McCarrick, K. & Li, X. (2007). Buried Treasure: The impact of computer use on young children’s social, cognitive, language development and motivation. In AACE Journal,15(1), 73-95. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.editlib.org/p/19982/
New Zealand Tertiary College. (2014). Lifespan studies 3 study guide. Auckland, New Zealand: Author.
Oswalt, A. (2014). Vygotsky's social developmental emphasis. Retrieved August 14, 2014 from http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=37680&cn=1272
Rowan, C. (n.d.). A research review regarding the impact of technology on child development, behavior, and academic performance.. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.sd23.bc.ca/ProgramsServices/earlylearning/parentinformation/Documents/Impact%20of%20Technology%20on%20Young%20Children's%20Development.pdf
Rowan, C. (n.d.). The impact of technology on child sensory and motor development . Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.sensomotorische-integratie.nl/CrisRowan.pdf
Scott, S. & Palinscar, A. (2013). Sociocultural Theory. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.education.com/reference/article/sociocultural-theory/
The Real Truth (2009). Does technology stunt children’s social development? Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://realtruth.org/news/090303-008-society.html
Watt, H. J. (2010, Fall). How does the use of modern communication technology influence language and literacy development? A Review. In Contemporary issues in communication science and disorders, 37, 141-148. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/asha/publications/cicsd/2010F-Use-of-Modern-Communication-Technology.pdf
Young, M. E. (2001 September/October). Technology and early child development. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www.techknowlogia.org/TKL_Articles/PDF/314.pdf