Incarceration Effects

returns home after being released from incarceration. This is important because in the home, the use of physical punishment is associated with numerous negative outcomes for children (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 2). These negative outcomes can include behavioral problems, impairment of cognitive performance, an increase in use of violence, and an increase in mental health problems both during childhood and adulthood (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 2). The negative consequences for children such as an increase in violence, behavioral problems, and an impairment in cognitive performance are major factors that contribute to later criminal justice involvement. Mustaine and Tewksbury focused on the ways that the incarceration of fathers might lead to the use of
harsher physical punishments for the children (8). In general, fathers who are less involved and feel less close to their children are more likely to implement harsh and physical punishment strategies against their children (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 8). Fathers who are unable to interact with their children due to incarceration leads to long-term decreases in father-child involvement and their children can grow accustomed to this separation (Turney, Wildeman, 4) Incarceration plays a significant role in this because taking a father away from the home and away from their children drastically limits their further involvement with their children and will therefore make them feel less close to their children which increases the likelihood for that child’s future criminal activity. The use of physical punishment following the release from incarceration can also impact the co-partner which can fall back on the children. As parents work less well together, fathers have an 83% greater chance of using physical punishment and fathers who have gotten into physical altercations with the child’s mothers in front of the child are 6% more likely to use physical punishments against children (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 8). Fathers who are less satisfied overall and whose relationship with the mother is less supportive are more likely to employ harsher punishment strategies on their children (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 8); incarceration increases the likelihood for both negative outcomes (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 8).
Linking to the study conducted by Nurse, father’s prolonged exposure to harsh prison environments, socializes them to use violence they have learned in prison to resolve problems (Mustaine, Tewksbury, 4). The socialization for fathers who are incarcerated to use violence in order to resolve problems makes it more probable for them to use this violence against their partners and children when they return home from incarceration. In addition, qualitative evidence also suggests that incarceration poisons relationship dynamics which brings me to my next area of focus; the impact that paternal incarceration has on the mothers of their children. In her study, Nurse documents how prolonged paternal absence due to incarceration leads to changes in routines among fathers and mothers alike that damage relationships (4). It is critical to analyze the impact on the mother as well as the children because the mothers are the primary caregivers who help their children develop and
grow. If the mothers are faced with numerous challenges when her home environment is disrupted by paternal incarceration it can disable her ability to take care of her children in a way that helps them develop and grow. This in return can help explain and contribute to the inter-generational patterns of criminal offending and confinement that occur.

One of the initial impacts that incarceration of a father has on the mother or partner is the physical separation from each other.
This initial physical separation due to incarceration introduces a host of distinctive stressors that not only can contribute to damaging the well-being of the mother but also damaging the relationship quality (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 4). The incarceration of a partner causes particularly high distress and loneliness among inmates' wives or partners which can consequentially cause mental health problems among the wives or partners (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 4). This partly is due to mothers increased struggle with managing their households in the father’s absence. Reports show that nearly 70% of fathers in prison contributed financially to their children and families prior to incarceration (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 5). Once these fathers go to prison, the level of support that fathers can provide drops quickly resulting in fewer economic resources that negatively impact co-parents and children’s mental health (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 4). Due to a partner’s incarceration, mothers experience a host of hardships both during and after their partner’s incarceration which helps explain the link between paternal incarceration and depression and life dissatisfaction among the mothers (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney,
5).

Under normal circumstances, it can be difficult being a parent and it becomes more difficult when the co-parent is taken out of the family. Being a single mother due to their co-parents' incarceration leads to financial instability and growing parenting stress (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 19). As a result of the father’s absence as stated earlier in this study, children can suffer from behavioral problems such as hyperactivity, aggression, and delinquency and these changes increase the parenting difficulties for the mothers (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 4). Financial instability and growing parenting stress are two factors that are part of the primary mechanisms connecting paternal incarceration to maternal depression (Wildeman, Schnittker, Turney, 17). Wildeman et al. found that