Information System

Fundamentals of Information Systems Fourth Edition
Chapter 2 Hardware and Software

Principles and Learning Objectives
• Information system users must work closely with information system professionals to define business needs, evaluate options, and select the hardware and software that provide a costeffective solution to those needs
– Identify and discuss the role of the essential hardware components of a computer system – List and describe popular classes of computer systems and discuss the role of each

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Principles and Learning Objectives (continued)
• Systems and application software are critical in helping individuals and organizations achieve their goals
– Identify and briefly describe the functions of the two basic kinds of software – Outline the role of the operating system and identify the features of several popular operating systems

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Principles and Learning Objectives (continued)
• Do not develop proprietary application software unless doing so will meet a compelling business need that can provide a competitive advantage
– Discuss how application software can support personal, workgroup, and enterprise business objectives – Identify three basic approaches to developing application software and discuss the pros and cons of each

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Principles and Learning Objectives (continued)
• Choose a programming language whose functional characteristics are appropriate for the task at hand, considering the skills and experience of the programming staff
– Outline the overall evolution and importance of programming languages and clearly differentiate among the generations of programming languages

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Principles and Learning Objectives (continued)
• The software industry continues to undergo constant change; users need to be aware of recent trends and issues to be effective in their business and personal life
– Identify several key software issues and trends that have an impact on organizations and individuals

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Why Learn About Hardware and Software?
• Hardware can improve productivity, increase revenue, reduce costs, and provide better service • Managers are expected to know about hardware
– To help define business needs – To ask questions and evaluate options when buying equipment

• Software is indispensable for any computer system • Systems software needed for input, calculations, and output • Application software aids in productivity
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Computer Systems: Integrating the Power of Technology
• Choosing the right computer hardware requires understanding its relationship to the information system and needs of the organization • Hardware objectives are subordinate to, but supportive of, the information system and the current and future needs of the organization

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Hardware Components
• Central processing unit (CPU)
– Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU): performs calculations and makes logical comparisons – Control unit: accesses, decodes and coordinates data in CPU and other devices

• Primary memory: holds program instructions and data for processing • Secondary storage: more permanent storage • Input and output devices • Communications devices
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Hardware Components (continued)

Figure 2.1: Hardware Components
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Processing and Memory Devices: Power, Speed, and Capacity
• System unit
– Houses the components responsible for processing (the CPU and memory)

• All other computer system devices are linked either directly or indirectly into the system unit housing

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Processing Characteristics and Functions
• Clock speed: series of electronic pulses produced at a predetermined rate that affects machine cycle time
– Clock speed is often measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of cycles per second – Clock speed for personal computers is in the multiple gigahertz (GHz), or billions of cycles per second, range

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Processing Characteristics and Functions (continued)
• Physical characteristics of the CPU
– Digital circuits on chips – To turn a digital circuit on or off, electrical current flows through silicon

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Memory Characteristics and Functions: Storage Capacity

Table 2.1: Units for Measuring Computer Storage
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Memory Characteristics and Functions: Types of Memory
• Random access memory (RAM)
– Temporary – Volatile

• Read-only memory (ROM)
– Usually nonvolatile

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Multiprocessing
• Multiprocessing: simultaneous execution of two or more instructions
– Multicore microprocessor: shares workload among two or more independent processors in a single computer – Parallel processing: links several processors to operate at the same time, or in parallel – Grid computing: collection of computers working to solve a common problem

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Secondary Storage and Input and Output Devices
• Secondary storage
– Also called permanent storage – Nonvolatile – Greater capacity and greater economy than memory

• Access methods, storage capacities, and portability required are determined by the information system’s objectives

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Access Methods
• Sequential access: data must be accessed in the order in which it is stored
– Sequential access storage devices (SASDs)

• Direct access: data can be retrieved in any order
– Direct access storage devices (DASDs)

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Secondary Storage Devices
• Magnetic tapes
– Secondary storage used primarily for backups

• Magnetic disks
– Direct access secondary storage, e.g., hard disk

• RAID
– Stores extra bits so that data can be reconstructed if system fails

• SAN
– Provides high-speed connections between data storage devices and computers over a network
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Secondary Storage Devices (continued)
• Optical disks
– Direct access optical disc, e.g., CD-ROM

• Digital video disk (DVD)
– Stores several gigabytes of data

• Flash memory
– Nonvolatile silicon computer chip

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Input Devices
• Personal computer input devices
– Keyboard, mouse

• Speech-recognition technology
– Input devices that recognize human speech

• Digital cameras
– Input device used with PC to record/store images in digital form

• Terminals
– Input and display devices that perform data entry and input at the same time
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Input Devices (continued)
• Touch-sensitive screens
– Allow display screens to act as input devices as well as output devices

• Bar-code scanners
– Employs a laser scanner to read a bar-coded label

• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) devices
– Code data on banking forms, such as checks

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Input Devices (continued)
• Pen input devices
– Activate a command, enter handwritten notes, and draw objects

• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
– Employs a microchip with an antenna to broadcast its unique identifier and location to a receiver

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Output Devices
• Display monitors (CRTs)
– Output quality measured by number of pixels and dot pitch

• Liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
– Easier on eyes, use less electricity, take up less space than CRTs

• Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
– Directly emits light rather than using backlight – Sharper colors and thinner displays

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Output Devices (continued)
• Printers and plotters: hard copy output
– Printers: laser, inkjet – Plotters: used for general design work

• Digital audio player
– Stores, organizes, and plays digital music files

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Computer System Types

Table 2.3: Types of Computer Systems
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Overview of Software
• Computer programs: sequences of instructions for the computer • Documentation: describes program functions • Systems software: coordinates the activities of hardware and programs • Application software: helps users solve particular problems

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Supporting Individual, Group, and Organizational Goals
• Sphere of influence: the scope of problems and opportunities addressed by a particular organization
– Personal – Workgroup – Enterprise

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Supporting Individual, Group, and Organizational Goals (continued)

Table 2.4: Classifying Software by Type and Sphere of Influence
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Systems Software
• Controlling operations of computer hardware is one of the most critical functions of systems software • Also supports application programs’ problemsolving capabilities • Different types of systems software include:
– Operating systems – Utility programs

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Operating Systems
• Operating system (OS): programs that control the hardware and interface with applications • Common hardware functions
– Get input (e.g., keyboard) – Retrieve data from disks and store data on disks – Display information on a monitor or printer

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Combinations of OSs, computers, and users:
– – – – Single computer with a single user Single computer with multiple users Multiple computers Special-purpose computers

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Operating Systems (continued)

Figure 2.8: The Role of Systems Software

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Activities performed by the operating system
– Perform common computer hardware functions – Provide a user interface and input/output management – Provide a degree of hardware independence – Manage system memory

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Activities performed by the operating system (continued)
– – – – Manage processing tasks Provide networking capability Control access to system resources Manage files

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Common hardware functions
– – – – Get input from keyboard or some other input device Retrieve data from disks Store data on disks Display information on a monitor or printer

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Operating Systems (continued)
• User interface
– Allows individuals to access and command the computer system – Command-based user interface: uses text commands – Graphical user interface (GUI): uses icons and menus to send commands to the computer system

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Hardware independence
– Application program interface (API): allows applications to make use of the operating system

• Memory management
– Converts a user’s request for data or instructions to the physical location where the data or instructions are stored

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Operating Systems (continued)

Figure 2.9: Application Program Interface Links Application Software to the Operating System
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Processing tasks
– Multitasking: more than one program running at the same time – Time-sharing: more than one person using a computer system at the same time – Scalability: ability to handle an increasing number of concurrent users smoothly

• Networking capability: aids users in connecting to a computer network

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Operating Systems (continued)
• Access to system resources
– Protection against unauthorized access – Logins and passwords

• File management
– Ensures that files in secondary storage are:
• Available when needed • Protected from access by unauthorized users

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Current Operating Systems

Table 2.5: Popular Operating Systems Across All Three Spheres of Influence
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Current Operating Systems (continued)
• Microsoft PC operating systems
– PC-DOS and MS-DOS: early, command-driven OSs – Windows XP: greatly improved stability and security over previous versions of Windows – Windows XP N: for European market – Windows XP Professional X64: for computers with newer 64-bit capabilities – Windows XP Media Center Edition: incorporates additional multimedia features – Vista: latest version of Windows
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Current Operating Systems (continued)
• Apple operating systems
– Often provides cutting edge tools in graphics and music not available from Microsoft – Mac OS X
• Jaguar (OS X.2) • Panther (OS X.3) • Tiger (OS X.4): support for 64-bit computing, Dashboard, Spotlight, etc.

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Current Operating Systems (continued)
• Linux
– – – – Developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 Open-source product Only the kernel of an OS Several distributions available with capabilities/applications that form a complete OS
• Examples: Red Hat Linux, Caldera OpenLinux

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Workgroup Operating Systems
• • • • • Windows Server UNIX NetWare Red Hat Linux Mac OS X Server

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Enterprise Operating Systems
• z/OS • MPE/iX and HP-UX • Linux

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Operating Systems for Small Computers, Embedded Computers, and Special-Purpose Devices
• Palm OS • Windows Embedded • Windows Mobile

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Application Software
• Give users the ability to solve problems and perform specific tasks • Interact with systems software; systems software then directs the hardware to perform tasks

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Types and Functions of Application Software
• Proprietary software: unique program for a specific application, usually developed and owned by a single company • Off-the-shelf software: existing software program that can be purchased • Customized package

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Types and Functions of Application Software (continued)

Figure 2.13: Types of Application Software
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Types and Functions of Application Software (continued)

Table 2.6: A Comparison of Proprietary and Off-the-Shelf Software
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Types and Functions of Application Software (continued)

Table 2.6: A Comparison of Proprietary and Off-the-Shelf Software (continued)
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Personal Application Software
• Serves the needs of an individual user • Includes personal productivity software
– Enables users to improve their personal effectiveness

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Personal Application Software (continued)

Table 2.7: Examples of Personal Productivity Software
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Personal Application Software (continued)

Table 2.7: Examples of Personal Productivity Software (continued)
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Personal Application Software (continued)
• Software suite: collection of single application programs packaged in a bundle
– Microsoft Office: most popular general-purpose software suite – Other general-purpose software suites: Corel’s WordPerfect Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Sun Microsystems’s StarOffice

• Integrated application packages: offer a range of capabilities for less money than software suites
– Example: Microsoft Works
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Personal Application Software (continued)

Table 2.8: Major Components of Leading Software Suites

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Workgroup Application Software
• Workgroup application software: support teamwork, whether people are in the same location or dispersed around the world • Groupware: software that helps groups of people work together more efficiently and effectively

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Workgroup Application Software (continued)

Table 2.9: Ernst & Young’s “Three Cs” Rule for Groupware
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Enterprise Application Software
• Software that benefits an entire organization • Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software: programs that manage a company’s vital business operations for an entire multisite, global organization

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Enterprise Application Software (continued)

Table 2.10: Examples of Enterprise Application Software
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Application Software for Information, Decision Support, and Specialized Purposes
• Used in businesses of all sizes and types to increase profits or reduce costs • Available in every industry
– Example: analysis to increase the cure rate for cancer

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Programming Languages
• Sets of keywords, symbols, and a system of rules for constructing statements • Allow humans to communicate instructions to be executed by a computer • Syntax: a set of rules associated with a programming language • Different languages have characteristics that make them appropriate for particular types of applications

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Programming Languages (continued)

Table 2.11: The Evolution of Programming Languages
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Software Issues and Trends
• Software issues and trends receiving increasing attention
– – – – Software bugs Copyrights and licenses Software upgrades Global software support

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Software Bugs
• Software bug: defect in a computer program that keeps it from performing as it is designed to perform • Tips for reducing impact of software bugs include:
– Register all software so that you can receive bug alerts, fixes, and patches – Check the manual or read-me files for work-arounds – Access support area of the manufacturer’s Web site for patches – Install the latest software updates
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Copyrights and Licenses
• Most software products are protected by law using copyright or licensing provisions
– In some cases, you are given unlimited use of software on one or two computers – In other cases, you pay for your usage—if you use the software more, you pay more

• Some software now requires that you register or activate it before it can be fully used

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Software Upgrades
• Software companies periodically revise their programs and sell new versions • Revised software
– May offer new and valuable enhancements – May just contain complex program code changes that offer little in terms of additional capabilities

• Software upgrades usually cost much less than the original purchase price

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Global Software Support
• For large, global companies, getting adequate software support at all their locations for their standardized, companywide systems is a big challenge • Large vendors such as Sybase, IBM, and HewlettPackard typically contract out support for their software to local providers

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Summary
• Hardware: central processing unit (CPU), input and output devices, communications devices, primary storage devices, and secondary storage devices • Random access memory (RAM): temporary and volatile • Read-only memory (ROM): usually nonvolatile • Multiprocessing: simultaneous execution of two or more instructions

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Summary (continued)
• Sequential access: records retrieved in order • Direct access: records retrieved in any order • Computer programs: sequences of instructions for the computer • Systems software: coordinates the activities of hardware and programs • Application software: helps users solve problems

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Summary (continued)
• Operating system (OS): set of computer programs that control the hardware and interface with applications • Graphical user interface (GUI): uses icons and menus to send commands to the computer system • Programming languages: allow humans to communicate instructions to be executed by a computer

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