Job Satisfaction and Motivation

Discuss the challenges faced by managers of multicultural workforces and those managing in cultures other than their own, and put forward recommendations for management training.
Around the world people eat differently, people speak differently, and people dress differently. (Alder, 2008) We can see these differences with our eyes, hear them with our ears, but what about the differences we cannot hear or see? These differences are known as our culture. ‘Culture is a complex and dynamic topic that is very difficult for leaders, or anyone, for that matter, to deal with.’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.2) To be able to understand culture is a difficult and complex task, this highlights the level of trouble that managers can have working within and with other cultures. To identify the difficulties that managers face in expatriate work and also managing a multicultural workforce one needs to be able to define the characteristics of culture and asses the best methods of overcoming the challenges that may arise within a multinational and multicultural organisational workplace.
‘Culture is like gravity: you do not experience it until you jump six feet into the air.’ (Trompenaars et al, 1998 pg.5) Culture can look very simple from an outsider’s point of view however it is only when you are immersed in another culture or that find yourself working within a multinational or a multicultural team that one can truly comprehend the differences between different cultures. Even when we are working with people who we think share our culture, we can easily be mistaken, and they can in fact have a completely different culture, and subsequently a totally dissimilar ways of working. We are all well aware of the major cultural differences between us, such as religion, race, and the languages that we speak, but what about the subtle cultural differences between us that are not so easy to spot or that are even harder to define. In The Meanings of Culture, French states that: ‘Culture should be defined, and this is by no means an easy task.’ (2010 pg.19) This brings to mind that one should define culture in one sentence or even in one word, however could it not be that culture should be defined within the many variables that it exists in? Could and should we not look at the differences between cultures and create our own definition based on these? One needs to recognise that culture can be more than simple geographic location or ethnicity.
‘Ethnicity and nationality are important to individual and familial identity as on subset of culture, but the construct of culture-broadly defined- goes beyond national and ethnic boundaries. Persons from the same ethnic or nationality may still experience different cultures differences.’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.5) People from theoretically the same culture will have experienced different cultures and as a result will react differently than someone who is perceived to be from the same culture, in the same situation.
As communication technology improves it can be argued that the world is getting smaller. Globalization is a growing entity that directly affects culture. We can see that our organisations, towns and even nations becoming more and more similar, and yet still maintain their cultural dissimilarities. (Alder, 2008 pg.62) The direct effect that globalization has on culture can be seen as two fold. It can either merge cultures together, much like the melting pot idea, or it can encourage cultures to reinforce their cultural differences to maintain and protect a culture. ‘Multiculturalism presents us with a paradox because it requires us to look at how we are the same and how we are different at the very same time.’ (Connerely et al, 2005 pg.22)
The idea of the effects of globalization directly effecting culture, leads onto the idea if cultural imperialism. Cultural imperialism is a complex and problematic term to define as it requires the individual definition and exploration of culture and imperialism, which are in them multifaceted and challenging terms to define. However cultural imperialism can be defined as:
‘[T]he use of political and economic power to exalt and spread the values and habits of a foreign culture at the expense of a native culture.’ (Tomlinson, 1991 pg.3) This definition of cultural imperialism brings forward images of the Pilgrims enforcing their values onto the Native American’s, or the colonialist marching on the aborigine’s ; however the ever spreading movements of economic and political values onto another culture is still very much a part of our lives and of the business world. Within the business world the old idea of the American melting pot, where all cultures, differences and identities are melted together and accumulated into one idea, one identity still is a way of working for many organisations. Companies such as Marriott use the melting pot idea as a way of working with the “Marriott Way”, the Marriott way of working resulting in all identities, differences of their staff are melted together in the Marriott melting pot.
In Leadership in a Diverse and Multicultural Environment (2005), Connerley and Pederson discuss that ‘the old idea of America representing a ‘melting pot’ has been replaced by images of ‘stews’ or ‘salads’ where everyone keeps his or her identity, which adds richness and flavour to the dish.’ (pg.4) However to what extent is the idea of a melting pot being replaced with the idea of salads is actually taking place within organisations throughout the United States? Also is it just confined to America, or are other countries and nations developing the ideas that organisations can be enriched by bringing together everyone’s differences and embracing them?
After discussing the factors of culture and working towards a definition, we can now explore how culture creates challenges for expatriate managers and managers of international workforces. ‘We should certainly be concerned with identifying how culture can be used to affect change and improve business performance.’ (French, 2010 pg.21) However does culture always affect change in a positive way? Are all organisational ‘salads’ a productive and beneficial aspect to all organisations?
One of the first challenges that come to mind when considering working with a multicultural workforce or a culture other than your own is the ways that people work, patterns of working behaviour.
‘International mangers need to keep in mind that practices around the world differ greatly, and requesting a worker to perform a task in one culture may involve challenges not faced in another.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg.96) When working within an international team problems may easily arise from the simple differences in the way the people work or approach working relationships. As a manager of an international workforce one needs to ensure that these problems do not arise and if they do to overcome them with little disruption to the effectiveness and harmony of the team. Culture can be seen a programming that takes place throughout an individual’s life, as a result of this programming the mind distinguishes the ways in which people are different from one another, and categories them into groups. (Hickson, 1997) This categorisation can be perfectly harmless if all parties can use co-exist after these categories have been created. As a manager an idea to overcome the problems in which people work can be relevantly simple. As the manager one can outline simple working rules and working methods, for example focusing on which behaviour is acceptable and which is not to help set boundaries and so that all members of the team know where they stand. This task comes down to the manager because ‘is a manager primarily… a problem solver?’ (Connerley et al, 2008 pg.50)
‘It is always best to have an in depth understanding of the multicultural environment, but the general groupings outline common ground that one can use a starting point.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg.107)
This common ground helps to levitate any feelings of misjudgement and misunderstandings. Moving on from the idea of misjudgement leads us nicely onto the challenge that stereotypes can cause managers.
‘It must be remembered that stereotypes and overgeneralizations should be avoided: there are always individual differences and even subcultures within every country.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg.94)
All cultures create stereotypes for other cultures. Stereotypes are often used when one is trying to illustrate another’s, or our own, culture, such as all English people drink nothing but tea. It is something that comes naturally to us, we often find it easy to use a stereotype than to look deeper and think more about what characteristics we are trying to describe. Stereotyping can be perfectly harmless the problems arise in the way that they are used. (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.13) Problems can arise if one makes a snap judgement about an individual or another culture purely on the basis of a stereotype. Stereotypes can also help to reinforce tensions between different cultures.
‘The stereotypes are often exaggerates and used be members of one culture in describing the other, this helping reinforce the differences between the two while reducing the likelihood of achieving cooperation and communication.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg. 100)
These uses of stereotypes often create hurtful misunderstandings that can create rifts between individuals, and even entire workforces.
‘The problem with stereotyping is that it conjures up an image (from type setting) of stamping the same type on every blank face.’ (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.15) For any manager stamping the same type onto every person is a major problem, the need to see your staff as individuals with individual needs in paramount. If not it ignores the fact that individuals from the same culture may have different levels of personal identity. Their universal, even their group, level of personal identity maybe very similar, or even identical, to other members of the same culture; however they may still have many differences in the individual level. So as a result the use of stereotypes can have a negative effect on the manager’s abilities to see their staff as individuals and not simply as one image created and enforced through the stereotype. Stereotyping ignores the fact that individuals may not behave in that ways that is expected from the cultural norm. (Trompenaars, 1998 pg.26) ‘This repeated pattern of behaviour reinforces the prejudices of both groups, where prejudice refers to the prejudgement of people, objects and situations, on the basis of stereotypes or generalisations that persist even when the facts demonstrate otherwise.’ (McEwan, 2001 pg.200)
An important element of stereotyping is its development into segregation, prejudice and racism, if one group, society or culture uses only the narrowed view that take root within a stereotype then prejudice, intolerance and ignorance can take form. (Hafen cited in Cheney et al, 2005 pg.11) Ignorance can lead to racism, which involves any immoral and harmful attitudes of disrespect. (Ikuenobe, 2010) In any workforce, or team, of people from different nationalities any negative attitudes and disrespect between co-workers is extremely disadvantageous to the quality the working environment and any work produced.
Any manager of an international workforce would, and should, keep extremely watchful eyes to ensure that any negative stereotyping or racist behaviour is not in action within their team. This is easier said than done, with a complex issue such as stereotyping and racism how can the training of future managers ensure that they are equipped with the relevant tools to tackle potentially, an ancient problem. Potential managers need to be able to look at both sides of a situation, especially in regards to whether a stereotype is harmful or not. ‘Being faced with conflicting demands or contradictory truths requires the ability to see situations from both angles and to assess the strengths and weaknesses from each perspective (a bicultural perspective).’ (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.190) In future training, emphasis needs to be on giving managers the tools to be able to learn the art of ‘reading’ people and their behaviour so that they can effectively manage relationships and subsequently manage situations that involve emotional subjects or disputes, in a rational and unbiased nature. (Mullins, 2008) An idea as for the tools that can be given to potential managers can be extensive training using scenarios and practical assessments of different situations where they would need to view a conflict with an unbiased view point. This would give potential managers on the job training whilst being off the job, giving them the training with the possible confrontation from other members of staff.
Moving on from stereotyping, and as result racism, creating barriers to employees co-existing, another challenge faced by both expatriate managers and managers of international workforces is barriers to communication. ‘Communication is of course essentially the exchange of information, be it words, ideas or emotions.’ (Trompenaars er al, 1997 pg.74) Communication is an integral element in any interactions between people, it can exist both verbally and non-verbally. As it can be said that up to 75% of all communication is non-verbal, it is possible for a person to communicate their feelings and emotions more effectively without using any verbal communication, in theory. There are many aspects to non-verbal communication; ‘…gestures, facial expression (including affective expressions such as laughter or showing anger), posture and the distance between sender and receiver.’ (Browaeys et al, 2008 pg.256) The ability to read non-verbal communication, such as gestures, is fundamental to the understanding of non-verbal communication. However if a gesture is used that is not known to another culture then the meaning of the gesture can be lost, and as a result the communication lost as well. (Browaeys et al, 2008) If the gesture is not understood, and its meaning lost then the communication has been lost as well. Gestures can vary from culture to culture and as a result ‘those communicating across cultures must therefore be careful not to assume that certain gestures have the same meaning as in their own culture.’ (Browaeys et al, 2008 pg.257)
The idea that non-verbal communication, such as body language and gestures, can create obstacles to communication creates the thought of whether the same can be said for verbal communication, what about the differences in language. ‘It is through language that we formulate thoughts and that we experience the world and others.’ (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.44) Language determines what is said, but not necessarily how it is said, this can show the cultural differences between two cultures, even if they speak the same language, for example in Britain it is perfectly acceptable to say to someone ‘I’m going out for a fag’ however in America the word ‘fag’ has a completely different, and in fact a derogatory, meaning. Anyone, manager or not, who is preparing to be immersed in another culture for a period of time should take the time to familiarise themselves with these, can be seen as small, cultural differences. It is often assumed that English is fast becoming the international language, in reality in the corporate setting English is not always the spoken language. (Hurn, 2007) So as a result the assumption the English will be the common language can often have near disastrous consequences. Within this in mind potential expatriate managers, who are not fluent in the host country’s language, need to ensure that they at least have a few basic phrases. This can have two positive impacts, firstly it shows the host company employees that the manager is at least wiling to embrace the new culture that they have arrived in. Secondly ‘…efforts to speak the local language can have more symbolic than practical value, but the impact is highly significant.’ (Mullins, 2008 pg.192)
In relation to the training of prospective managers in terms of language, there is a need to have two separate training programmes for the two different forms of managers. ‘While programmes preparing expatriates for international assignments sometimes including language training, international managers cannot hope to master all the languages they need.’ (Schneider, 2003 pg.198) For managers of international workforces it is unrealistic to expect them to master every language of every member of their team. However, for an expatriate manager it is not completely impossible to have mastered at least a few key phrases, even some conversational skills in the foreign language.
Language training, though essential is often a neglected area, when it comes to the training of expatriate managers. (Hurn, 2007) This is clearly an issue that needs to be addressed. When ‘our language is part of the culture we experience and learn…’ (Mullins, 2008 pg.136) why would it be an aspect of training that is not covered sufficiently? As a tool for assisting in the training of managers the idea of language days could be explored. A language day is where the entire training facility encompasses the local language of the country that the manager will be assigned to. So, for example, if the manager was being transferred to Spain, the entire facility was operate in Spanish, everything from speaking, writing, signs, time keeping, etc. This would enable the potential expatriates begin to understand what their new posting will be. Similarly ‘a reasonable working knowledge of the foreign language helps managers avoid feeling isolated…’ (Hurn, 2007 pg.14)
The differences that language can create, between the expatriate manager and the host country, leads effectively onto another challenge faced by expatriate managers; homesickness.
‘The process of adapting to a foreign culture is said to follow a U-curve comprising of three main phases: an initial stage of elation and optimism (the honeymoon), soon followed by a period of irritability, frustration and confusion (the morning after) and then a gradual adjustment to the new environment (happily ever after). (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.188)
The U-curve creates a metaphor for the emotions that an expatriate manager is likely to feel during the first stages of a new post to a foreign culture. These phases can occur for many reasons. However in reference to the morning after phase, the two main reasons for this can be attributed to family and personal issues and often more importantly the cultural differences have become more and more challenging. ‘In essence, everything you do requires much more effort than previously imagined and there seems to be no escape.’ (Scott, 2005 pg.125) The feeling of isolation for an expatriate manager while on an overseas assignment is to be expected, this feeling is often related to the culture shock. Culture shock, though difficult to define can be seen as ‘how cultural differences in learning practices and procedures leads to mismatching, misunderstanding and misery…’ (Furnham, 2010 pg.88) It is through this culture shock that managers can begin to feel the intensified reactions to the U-curve effect. It is through the training of potential expatriate managers that they can be given implements to help them to be as prepared as possible for these emotions.
The first tool that, not even training, can give to a prospective manager is not whether they have the acquired abilities to be an international manager, but simply do they want to? (Schneider et al, 2003) If a manager wants to become an international manager, the first hurdle is already overcome, they are instantly more likely to make the effort to do the work; in terms of researching extensively into the foreign culture. ‘If international managers do not know something about the cultures of the countries they deal with, the results can be quite disastrous.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg.96) It would be impossible for the manager to know everything about the culture of the country they are headed, as is mentioned earlier cultures change from person to person, however having an in-depth knowledge can at least give them a head start.
Another factor of the advantages of having a manager who is genuinely interested in becoming an international manager is they are much more likely to adopt the cultural adjustment. ‘He neither rejects himself nor others, but tries to adapt through constant openness to learning and behavioural growth.’ (Stone, 2001 pg.56) If a manager can open themselves up to another culture whilst keeping hold of their own culture then they will have a recipe for success. The want to be an international manager also applies to managers of international workforces, managers of international workforces need to have a global mind-set; the ability to use skills and knowledge to maximise the benefits to all. (Schneider et al, 2003)
The feelings of isolation can be heightened by the implementation of managing skills, expatriate managers and managers of international workforces can being to feel dispirited when they cannot seem to achieve the same results they would at home or with a home nation workforce. This is due to the fact the both managers and employees bring their, collective and individual, cultures into the workplace. Alder, 2008) If a manager only works in the norms of their own culture and tries to impose this way of working onto their employees, the consequences can be paramount. ‘A basic dilemma for expatriates is how much of their own way of doing things are they prepared to relinquish, and how much of the new ways they are willing to embrace.’ (Schneider et al, 2003 pg.189) This decision can be, partially, made before the assignment has begun. If after careful research the manager has discovered that the employees of the organisation are from, say, a diffuse culture then the manager can begin to adopt the ways of working alongside of their own ways. For example if employees from a diffuse culture expect their managers to show their respect by showing concern for their entire personal lives, a manager from a specific culture can enquire after the employees personal lives to the extent that they feel comfortable with, resulting in both parties combining both cultures in an effective and agreeable way. (Alder, 2008)
If a manger of an international workforce or an expatriate manager does not embrace the differences and simply applies the norm of one group or society onto another, feelings of mistrust and misunderstanding can begin to grow between both managers and employees. (Hickson, 1997) All should be endeavoured to avoid these feelings manifesting in any work place, and especially work places where more than one culture is expected to co-exist.
Feelings of mistrust and misunderstanding leads eloquently onto another challenge that is met by expatriate mangers and managers of international workforces, corruption. ‘Corruption is best understood as behaviour that corrupts: it undermines the cultural system in which it occurs.’ (Hooker, 2009 pg.251) The challenges that are faced in terms of corruption are not necessarily that the manager is going to fall into corruption, or that members of the team will act in a corrupt manner, it is more the idea that different cultures use different methods of achieving goals. What would be seen as a corruptive act in one culture could be seen as a perfectly normal act in another, for example in one culture it may be perfectly acceptable to employ a family member over another person, however in another this could be seen as abusing your position of authority to help family member progress.
When contemplating suggestions for training for managers in respect to corruption it can be very complex to invent a solution for the differences from culture to culture. One aspect of all expatriate and international managing which cannot be highlighted enough is the need to research into the cultural influences, differences and dimensions to gain an in depth perspective of one particular, or many, cultures you will be in contact with. ‘Developing multicultural awareness, knowledge and skills should be seen as a professional obligation as well as an opportunity for a leader.’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.41) A clear understanding of the countries individual laws in relation to corruption would also be a good starting point to gain an understanding of what is and what is not accepted. For a manager of an international work force ensuring that all employees have a clear understanding of the laws of the host country is also needed. The idea of what is and what is not accepted in different cultures has been a subject of study for numerous years, researchers, and researching bodies, such as Hofstede and GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness) have pioneered the study of the differences between cultures. (Connerley et al, 2005) Through their research dimension between different cultures can be seen, and used to evaluate how to assess the differences between cultures and then by using these to begin to understand the differences to begin to co-exist with other cultures. ‘…Hofstede cultural dimensions and country clusters are widely recognized and accepted in the study of international management.’ (Luthans et al, 2009 pg.110) It seems as though an investigation of cultural management cannot take place without a reference to Hofstede, his four, then five, dimensions have revolutionised the exploration of cultural management, in the West. What about the rest of the world? As we have explored culture is imbedded into our mental programming: ‘Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime.’ (Hickson, 1997 pg.3) Can one assume that whilst carry out his research Hofstede was unconsciously impacted by his own culture, if so does this have any effect on his findings?
Whilst researching into the four, then five, dimensions of culture did Hofstede work within his native cultural ways of approaching work, people and situations or did he adopt the culture of which he was researching? For example whilst working on collecting data about a collectivist culture, did he adopt the collectivist culture or did he look at it from an individualist culture? If he looked at one dimension of culture from another does this have any effect on the results?
‘As soon as certain patterns of thinking, feeling and acting have established themselves within a person’s mind, (S)he must unlearn these before being able to learn something different, and un learning is more difficult than learning in the first place.’ (Hickson, 1997 pg.3)
As cultures develop and time moves on there have been criticisms about the validity of Hofstede’s work and its relevance to today’s global business world, one could say that the critics do have some justification to their arguments, however the question of whether Hofstede collected his data without any subconscious input from his own culture is a much more interesting question to pose, rather than the fact that Hofstede research was collected over thirty years ago and on one single company. (Schneider et al, 2003)
Another, if slightly less, influential researcher of cultural difference is the Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE). GLOBE created a different list of dimensions from Hofstede; however ‘research cannot pinpoint which cultural dimensions are most important for leadership behaviour.’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.46) It would however be interesting topics to compare and contrast the two different lists of dimensions too determine which list could be seen as the most effective, however that is a vast topic within itself and would need an essay of its own to develop. For the purpose of this essay we can say that ‘research results from Hofstede and GLOBE can be very helpful to leaders in multicultural interactions.’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.46)
As research into how culture effects organisations one can see that ‘cultural differences can manifest themselves in several ways.’ Hickson, 1997 pg.7) The challenges that have been discussed throughout this essay are by no means the only challenges that are faced by expatriate managers and managers of an international workforce, in fact it would be near impossible to list all of the challenges faced let alone in any depth. Consequently this essay has chosen some of the key problems faced and discussed possible training solutions for future managers. A running theme throughout the training suggestions has been to complete in depth research into the host culture that one would soon be immersed within. It sounds as though it is the easy option however the task of defining the culture of the host community in itself is a difficult task. ‘…The broad and inclusive definition of culture is particularly important in preparing leaders to deal with the complex differences among and between people they interact…’ (Connerley et al, 2005 pg.5) A thought that comes to mind is what do you do after you have defined the culture, and who has defined it?
In Understanding the Role of Culture (2010) Deresky describes the research process for managers developing into the creation of a cultural profile.
‘As an international manager, once you have researched the culture of a country in which you may be going to work or with which to do business, after you have developed a cultural profile, it is useful to apply that information to develop an understanding of the expected management styles and ways of doing business…’(pg.129)
Once a potential manager gains an understanding of the culture and has developed a cultural profile they can begin to gain an understanding of the cultural context that they will be immersed in, as a result they can begin to construct management techniques that can be specific for that particular international setting.
Whilst investigating techniques for the training and development of prospective expatriate manager’s one aspect is repeated throughout, the training is left too late, if there is any training at all.
‘Despite all the warning signals about the frequent failure to adapt to a new culture, not all organisations send their business managers on any form of training to prepare them to operate effectively in the new environment.’ (Hurn, 2007pg. 9) The idea that international organisations failing to send their managers on any formal training to prepare them seems unbelievable, why when sending an expatriate manager overseas can often cost so much would an organisation fail to give the manager the tools to be as successful as they possibly can be? It seems as though the organisation are leaving the manager out on their own; often in a completely different culture. As we have explored culture is a vast and intricate subject, this being so it questions can we even define it? ‘Trying to tie down culture to some broadly acceptable definition is thus likely to lead to a level of generality which makes the definition theoretically useless.’ (Tomlinson, 1991 pg.5) This argument is extreme but it poses the question can culture truly be defined?
Throughout the research for this discussion one thought that constantly came to mind is who is defining culture and what culture do they belong to? If one reads a book, journal or article, from a Western perspective will they only have a Western definition, or has the book, journal or article, defined culture in a universal manner, is that even possible? This is a topic that could be extremely interesting to take further and develop in much more depth.

References
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Pillay, S, and, Dorasamy, N., 2010, Linking Cultural Dimensions with the Nature of Corruption: An Institutional Theory, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Volume 10 (363), 363-378.

Schneider, S.C, and Barsoux, J., 2003, Managing Across Cultures, 2ND Ed, Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

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Trompenaars, F, and Hampden-Turner, C.,1998, Riding the Waves of Culture, 2nd Ed, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited.
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References: Adler, N J, (2008) "How cultural differences affect organizations" from Adler, N J, International dimensions of organisational behaviour, US: Thomson/South-Western Browaeys & Price, 2008, Barriers to intercultural communication" from Browaeys & Price, Understanding cross-cultural management, UK: Financial Times Prentice Hall Connerley, M.L, and Pedersen, P.B., 2005, Leadership in a Diverse and Multicultural Environment, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Deresky, H, (2010) "Understanding the role of culture" from Deresky, H, International management: French, R, 2010, The Meaning(s) of Culture, from French, R, Cross-cultural management in work organisations, UK: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development Hooker, J., 2009, Corruption from a Cross-cultural Perspective, Cross Cultural Management, Volume 3, 251-267. Hurn, B.J., 2007, Pre-departure Training for International Business Managers, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 39 (1), 9-17. Luthans & Doh, (2009) "The meanings and dimensions of culture" from Luthans & Doh, International Management: culture, strategy, and behaviour, UK: McGraw-Hill/Irwin McEwan, T., 2001, Managing Values and Beliefs in Organisations, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Mullins, J, 2008, Essentials of organisational behaviour, 2nd Ed Pillay, S, and, Dorasamy, N., 2010, Linking Cultural Dimensions with the Nature of Corruption: An Institutional Theory, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Volume 10 (363), 363-378. Schneider, S.C, and Barsoux, J., 2003, Managing Across Cultures, 2ND Ed, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Scott, J.T, 2005, Managing in Different Cultures, Concise Handbook of Management: A Practitioner’s Approach, Binghamton: Haworth Press, Inc Tomlinson, J., 1991, Cultural Imperialism, London: Continuum. Trompenaars, F, and Hampden-Turner, C.,1998, Riding the Waves of Culture, 2nd Ed, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited Treven, S., 2003, International Training: The Training of Managers for Assignment Abroad, Education and Training, Volume 45 (8 and9), 550-557.