Marcus Brutus And Cassius Conspiring Against Julius Caesar Political Rather Than Personal
To what extent were the motives of Marcus Brutus and Cassius Longius conspiring against Julius Caesar political rather than personal? | | |
2011-2013 Candidate number: 001386- 041 Gabvin Raphaël Branglidor Word count: 1997
Part A:
The aim of this essay is to discuss whether the death of Julius Caesar by acquaintances Marcus Brutus and Cassius Longius was due to political or personal motives. The focus will lay in understanding Rome’s political situation at the time, evaluating Caesar’s policies and the possible explanations resulting in Caesar’s assassination. The essay will begin by explaining the political situation in Rome at the time in order to understand the tensions between Caesar and the Senate. The concluding part of the investigation …show more content…
will discuss Caesar’s policies and relationship with his assassinators in order to evaluate their motives. The time period looked at will range from Rome in 49 BC to the death of Caesar in 44BC. Suetonius’s “The Twelve Caesar’s” and Adrian Goldsworthy’s “Life of a Colossus” will be used as main references to answering the question with additional primary and secondary accounts and sources from the internet.
Part B:
Emerging victorious in Spain, Caesar began being heaped with numerous honours from the Senate. Instantaneously, Caesar was honoured with the right to wear clothing similar to the kings. Dressed with the title of Imperator for his life, Caesar acquired comparable powers to that of the magistracy and consuls though Caesar could still be vetoed.
Shortly afterwards, a first of three ivory statues in Caesar’s honour were sought to be carried during all public religious processions. A second statue was placed in the sacrosanct temple of Quirinus ; inscribed on it, ‘To the Invincible God.’ According to Suetonius, “Cassius grew to loathe Caesar” after the emergence of his third statue alongside the former seven Roman Kings and Lucius Junius Brutus. Brutus due to his families’ history with tyranny grew wary of Caesar believing that according to Goldsworthy “was trying to learn to fly too quickly.”
More outrageous, Caesar printed his image on coins “marking the first time that an incarnate Roman was featured on a coin” according to Goldsworthy. Undoubtedly, this placed Caesar above both the Roman “state and tradition.”
In 45 BC, the Senate began sharing Cassius’s and Brutus’s irritation as Caesar gave up his 4th Consulship promoting Quintus Fabius Maximus and Gaius Trebonius as suffect consuls in his stead.
Giving up the title was not a problem, however disregarding the Republican system of election was. In spite of their annoyance, the Senate continued appointing Caesar with more titles.
Next Caesar was appointed Consul for the next ten consecutive years and was permitted to hold onto any office he desired inclusive of the Tribune. Subsequent, Caesar made changes to the title of ‘Imperium.’ Whereas Caesar could be vetoed before, the modifications Caesar made made him ‘immune from legal prosecution’.
The honours continued as Caesar gained the right to appoint half the Senatorial magistrates which previously were elected positions. With this, Caesar increased the Senate number to 900 filling half of it with loyal partisans to further consolidate his supremacy. Plutarch states that Cassius at this stage in time began plotting Caesar’s murder with two accomplices. Suetonius discredits Plutarch’s claims testifying that such events never took
place.
At the commencement of 44BC, the consequential rift between Caesar and his fellow aristocrats deepened after having been titled ‘Father of the Country’ and ‘Dictator for Life.’ A Senatorial delegation at Venus was scheduled to consult with Caesar where he refused to ‘stand to honour upon their arrival.’ In Roman tradition, this was seen as an insult. According to Plutarch, Caesar tried to remedy the situation by uncovering his neck to Cassius and Brutus stating that he was prepared to offer it to anyone who was willing to ‘deliver a stroke of the sword.’ This appeared to simmer down the situation. However, the damage was done; ‘the seeds of conspiracy were beginning to mature.’
At this stage both Goldsworthy and Suetonius state that the panic sparked by the thought of Caesar becoming King amplified when a diadem was found on Caesar’s statue in Rostra. During a parade, tribunes Gaius Epidius Marcellus and Lucius Caesetius Flavius detained a man after having called Caesar ‘Rex.’ Seeing his followers threatened, Caesar demanded the freedom of the man and had Gaius and Lucius stripped of their titles.
These tensions peaked until the Ides of March in 44BC where sixty conspirators labelling themselves ‘The Liberators of Rome’ took part in a bloody conspiracy against Caesar outside of Pompey’s theatre.
Part C:
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was a roman historian given birth to in Hippo Regius located in modern day Annaba, Algeria in 69 AD.
Published in 121 AD, Suetonius’s renown biography ‘The Twelve Caesar’s’ resolves in confabulating the momentous period of the Participate from the end of the Republic to the reign of Domitian.
As Emperor Hadrian’s secretary, Suetonius had access to imperial archives when writing about Caesar in which he used to research eyewitness accounts and other primary information as evidence. “The Twelve Caesar’s” remains an antiquity and primary source on Caesar’s reign not only describing Caesar as a politician but in addition, Caesar’s heritage, habits and daily dilemma’s allowing his audience to grasp a wider depiction of Caesar’s personality.
Despite the values Suetonius’s has, “it must be remembered that Suetonius belonged to a family of moderate social position: the equestrian order as his father was part of the Senate” according to Goldsworthy. Due to the political conventions that engulfed Rome during this period, Suetonius was often accused by Plutarch of siding with the views of the senators and the emperor noticeable in his occasional bias overtones.
Adrian Goldsworthy author of “Caesar: Life of a Colossus” was born in Britain, 1969. In 1994, Goldsworthy graduated from Oxford University with a Doctors degree in Roman History.
Published in 2006, his book traces the life of Caesar from his youthful years through his political/ military career to his death in 44BC.
As most historians studying classical history, Goldsworthy’s “Life of a Colossus” relies on primary sources such as the ‘The Twelve Caesars.’ Goldsworthy’s facts prove to be highly accurate when compared to other sources on this topic. Additionally, free from any political constraints as Plutarch and Suetonius were, Goldsworthy’s book remains a significant piece in antiquity accomplished as a result of how Goldsworthy rarely states his own opinions yet rather allows his audience to construct their own judgements about Caesar.
However, Goldsworthy like other historians based his writings on primary accounts to provide facts. These facts are written by individuals such as Suetonius who were restricted in their writings as a result of Rome’s social conventions and therefore may not always prove to be reliable. This is a possibility and must be taken into consideration when paralleling facts between Goldsworthy and primary accounts.
Part D:
On the 15th of March 44 BC, Cassius Longius and Marcus Brutus led a conspiracy against Julius Caesar outside of Pompey’s theatre. Their true motifs…nobody knows though one may say that they lay between political and personal boundaries.
When evaluating the reasons, it is possible that Caesar‘s assassination from Cassius’s motives were mostly personal as a result of Caesar’s growing honours. When taken into perspective, Cassius incited by his greed for power could be accused guilty of this. Believing that the honours bestowed upon Caesar were unjustifiable, Cassius though a ‘friend’ of Caesar saw him as an inferior figure. When Caesar was appointed ‘Dictator for Life,’ Cassius as Plutarch writes it “feared being reduced to another mediocre citizen of the populace” as tribunes, Gaius Epidius Marcellus and Lucius Caesetius Flavius had. Through the writings of Suetonius, it is additionally evident that Cassius involved himself in the assassination of Caesar due to reasons of reputation. In the naked eyes of the Roman populace, Caesar was glorified much like a God, especially after his triumph in Spain. According to Suetonius, Cassius grew “amazed how a man of such feeble temper could get the start of the majestic world and bear the palm alone.” Before Caesar was granted any special honours, Cassius was seen as a central figure in Roman society by the people of Rome. The rapid shift of the spotlight as stated by Adrian Goldsworthy is what led Cassius in “seeking murder.”
Analysing the motives of Marcus Brutus is difficult due to the close relationship the two figures shared. The fact that their friendship resulted in the murder of one of the figures is probably what makes analysing Brutus’s character so interesting. In simplest terms, Brutus most likely joined the conspiracy due to his genuine love for Rome. Brutus knew very well that the people of Rome confided the well-being of the state with him and thus felt obliged to always act out of the best interest of the country. Brutus suspicions of Caesar’s tyranny grew when Caesar erected a third statue of himself besides his great ancestor, the man that led the expulsion of the last Roman king and the former seven kings of Rome.
Historians studying Caesar likewise rumour that Brutus was torn in between two allegiances. Marcus’s family had a long history of ridding Rome of authoritarian figures. Classics professor Josiah Osgood from Georgetown University explains that “ancestor Junius Brutus was credited with throwing out the last king Tarquin Superbus out of Rome in 509 B.C. Ahala, ancestor of Brutus's mother, had killed another tyrant, Spurius Maelius.” His ancestry combined with a resilient interest in the idea of tyranicide inclined Brutus to have little tolerance with people seeking pure power. In support Plutarch quotes Brutus saying “Oh, you and I have heard our fathers say there was a Brutus once that would have brooked the eternal devil to keep his state in Rome as easily as a king.” Osgood speculates that the ultimate blow came “when Brutus’s Uncle Cato, committed suicide in 46 BC as a result of having lost a battle against Caesar. Brutus could have felt some humiliation over accepting Caesar's leniency and responsibility to Cato by continuing his pursuit to "save" the republic from Caesar.”When he publicly confronted the crowd about Caesar’s death, Suetonius states he claimed that “it was not a question of having loved Caesar less, but rather loving Rome more.”
Part E:
To conclude, the motives of Caesar’s assassination are unclear. After evaluation, one can deduce that both Cassius’s and Brutus’s intentions were chiefly personal yet can be placed on two different levels. Brutus murdered Caesar believing that he was benefiting Rome by doing so. Cassius on the other hand assassinated Caesar due to the personal hatred he felt towards Caesar as a result of the large power he had gained in such a short period of time.
Part F:
Books : * Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press. * Lintott, A. "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) * Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition. * Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
Internet Sources: * http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/caesar-the-god.php * http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=546&chapter=83299&layout=html&Itemid=27 * http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch.html * http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch_2.html
--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 2 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 3 ]. ibid
[ 4 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 5 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 6 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 7 ]. ibid
[ 8 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 9 ]. ibid
[ 10 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 11 ]. ibid
[ 12 ]. ibid
[ 13 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 14 ]. ibid
[ 15 ]. ibid
[ 16 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 17 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 18 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 19 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 20 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 21 ]. ibid
[ 22 ]. ibid
[ 23 ]. ibid
[ 24 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 25 ]. Suetonius, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012
[ 26 ]. ibid
[ 27 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 28 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 29 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 30 ]. ibid
[ 31 ]. ibid
[ 32 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic. Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 33 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 34 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 35 ]. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch.html
[ 36 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 37 ]. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch_2.html
[ 38 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
2011-2013 Candidate number: 001386- 041 Gabvin Raphaël Branglidor Word count: 1997
Part A:
The aim of this essay is to discuss whether the death of Julius Caesar by acquaintances Marcus Brutus and Cassius Longius was due to political or personal motives. The focus will lay in understanding Rome’s political situation at the time, evaluating Caesar’s policies and the possible explanations resulting in Caesar’s assassination. The essay will begin by explaining the political situation in Rome at the time in order to understand the tensions between Caesar and the Senate. The concluding part of the investigation …show more content…
will discuss Caesar’s policies and relationship with his assassinators in order to evaluate their motives. The time period looked at will range from Rome in 49 BC to the death of Caesar in 44BC. Suetonius’s “The Twelve Caesar’s” and Adrian Goldsworthy’s “Life of a Colossus” will be used as main references to answering the question with additional primary and secondary accounts and sources from the internet.
Part B:
Emerging victorious in Spain, Caesar began being heaped with numerous honours from the Senate. Instantaneously, Caesar was honoured with the right to wear clothing similar to the kings. Dressed with the title of Imperator for his life, Caesar acquired comparable powers to that of the magistracy and consuls though Caesar could still be vetoed.
Shortly afterwards, a first of three ivory statues in Caesar’s honour were sought to be carried during all public religious processions. A second statue was placed in the sacrosanct temple of Quirinus ; inscribed on it, ‘To the Invincible God.’ According to Suetonius, “Cassius grew to loathe Caesar” after the emergence of his third statue alongside the former seven Roman Kings and Lucius Junius Brutus. Brutus due to his families’ history with tyranny grew wary of Caesar believing that according to Goldsworthy “was trying to learn to fly too quickly.”
More outrageous, Caesar printed his image on coins “marking the first time that an incarnate Roman was featured on a coin” according to Goldsworthy. Undoubtedly, this placed Caesar above both the Roman “state and tradition.”
In 45 BC, the Senate began sharing Cassius’s and Brutus’s irritation as Caesar gave up his 4th Consulship promoting Quintus Fabius Maximus and Gaius Trebonius as suffect consuls in his stead.
Giving up the title was not a problem, however disregarding the Republican system of election was. In spite of their annoyance, the Senate continued appointing Caesar with more titles.
Next Caesar was appointed Consul for the next ten consecutive years and was permitted to hold onto any office he desired inclusive of the Tribune. Subsequent, Caesar made changes to the title of ‘Imperium.’ Whereas Caesar could be vetoed before, the modifications Caesar made made him ‘immune from legal prosecution’.
The honours continued as Caesar gained the right to appoint half the Senatorial magistrates which previously were elected positions. With this, Caesar increased the Senate number to 900 filling half of it with loyal partisans to further consolidate his supremacy. Plutarch states that Cassius at this stage in time began plotting Caesar’s murder with two accomplices. Suetonius discredits Plutarch’s claims testifying that such events never took
place.
At the commencement of 44BC, the consequential rift between Caesar and his fellow aristocrats deepened after having been titled ‘Father of the Country’ and ‘Dictator for Life.’ A Senatorial delegation at Venus was scheduled to consult with Caesar where he refused to ‘stand to honour upon their arrival.’ In Roman tradition, this was seen as an insult. According to Plutarch, Caesar tried to remedy the situation by uncovering his neck to Cassius and Brutus stating that he was prepared to offer it to anyone who was willing to ‘deliver a stroke of the sword.’ This appeared to simmer down the situation. However, the damage was done; ‘the seeds of conspiracy were beginning to mature.’
At this stage both Goldsworthy and Suetonius state that the panic sparked by the thought of Caesar becoming King amplified when a diadem was found on Caesar’s statue in Rostra. During a parade, tribunes Gaius Epidius Marcellus and Lucius Caesetius Flavius detained a man after having called Caesar ‘Rex.’ Seeing his followers threatened, Caesar demanded the freedom of the man and had Gaius and Lucius stripped of their titles.
These tensions peaked until the Ides of March in 44BC where sixty conspirators labelling themselves ‘The Liberators of Rome’ took part in a bloody conspiracy against Caesar outside of Pompey’s theatre.
Part C:
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was a roman historian given birth to in Hippo Regius located in modern day Annaba, Algeria in 69 AD.
Published in 121 AD, Suetonius’s renown biography ‘The Twelve Caesar’s’ resolves in confabulating the momentous period of the Participate from the end of the Republic to the reign of Domitian.
As Emperor Hadrian’s secretary, Suetonius had access to imperial archives when writing about Caesar in which he used to research eyewitness accounts and other primary information as evidence. “The Twelve Caesar’s” remains an antiquity and primary source on Caesar’s reign not only describing Caesar as a politician but in addition, Caesar’s heritage, habits and daily dilemma’s allowing his audience to grasp a wider depiction of Caesar’s personality.
Despite the values Suetonius’s has, “it must be remembered that Suetonius belonged to a family of moderate social position: the equestrian order as his father was part of the Senate” according to Goldsworthy. Due to the political conventions that engulfed Rome during this period, Suetonius was often accused by Plutarch of siding with the views of the senators and the emperor noticeable in his occasional bias overtones.
Adrian Goldsworthy author of “Caesar: Life of a Colossus” was born in Britain, 1969. In 1994, Goldsworthy graduated from Oxford University with a Doctors degree in Roman History.
Published in 2006, his book traces the life of Caesar from his youthful years through his political/ military career to his death in 44BC.
As most historians studying classical history, Goldsworthy’s “Life of a Colossus” relies on primary sources such as the ‘The Twelve Caesars.’ Goldsworthy’s facts prove to be highly accurate when compared to other sources on this topic. Additionally, free from any political constraints as Plutarch and Suetonius were, Goldsworthy’s book remains a significant piece in antiquity accomplished as a result of how Goldsworthy rarely states his own opinions yet rather allows his audience to construct their own judgements about Caesar.
However, Goldsworthy like other historians based his writings on primary accounts to provide facts. These facts are written by individuals such as Suetonius who were restricted in their writings as a result of Rome’s social conventions and therefore may not always prove to be reliable. This is a possibility and must be taken into consideration when paralleling facts between Goldsworthy and primary accounts.
Part D:
On the 15th of March 44 BC, Cassius Longius and Marcus Brutus led a conspiracy against Julius Caesar outside of Pompey’s theatre. Their true motifs…nobody knows though one may say that they lay between political and personal boundaries.
When evaluating the reasons, it is possible that Caesar‘s assassination from Cassius’s motives were mostly personal as a result of Caesar’s growing honours. When taken into perspective, Cassius incited by his greed for power could be accused guilty of this. Believing that the honours bestowed upon Caesar were unjustifiable, Cassius though a ‘friend’ of Caesar saw him as an inferior figure. When Caesar was appointed ‘Dictator for Life,’ Cassius as Plutarch writes it “feared being reduced to another mediocre citizen of the populace” as tribunes, Gaius Epidius Marcellus and Lucius Caesetius Flavius had. Through the writings of Suetonius, it is additionally evident that Cassius involved himself in the assassination of Caesar due to reasons of reputation. In the naked eyes of the Roman populace, Caesar was glorified much like a God, especially after his triumph in Spain. According to Suetonius, Cassius grew “amazed how a man of such feeble temper could get the start of the majestic world and bear the palm alone.” Before Caesar was granted any special honours, Cassius was seen as a central figure in Roman society by the people of Rome. The rapid shift of the spotlight as stated by Adrian Goldsworthy is what led Cassius in “seeking murder.”
Analysing the motives of Marcus Brutus is difficult due to the close relationship the two figures shared. The fact that their friendship resulted in the murder of one of the figures is probably what makes analysing Brutus’s character so interesting. In simplest terms, Brutus most likely joined the conspiracy due to his genuine love for Rome. Brutus knew very well that the people of Rome confided the well-being of the state with him and thus felt obliged to always act out of the best interest of the country. Brutus suspicions of Caesar’s tyranny grew when Caesar erected a third statue of himself besides his great ancestor, the man that led the expulsion of the last Roman king and the former seven kings of Rome.
Historians studying Caesar likewise rumour that Brutus was torn in between two allegiances. Marcus’s family had a long history of ridding Rome of authoritarian figures. Classics professor Josiah Osgood from Georgetown University explains that “ancestor Junius Brutus was credited with throwing out the last king Tarquin Superbus out of Rome in 509 B.C. Ahala, ancestor of Brutus's mother, had killed another tyrant, Spurius Maelius.” His ancestry combined with a resilient interest in the idea of tyranicide inclined Brutus to have little tolerance with people seeking pure power. In support Plutarch quotes Brutus saying “Oh, you and I have heard our fathers say there was a Brutus once that would have brooked the eternal devil to keep his state in Rome as easily as a king.” Osgood speculates that the ultimate blow came “when Brutus’s Uncle Cato, committed suicide in 46 BC as a result of having lost a battle against Caesar. Brutus could have felt some humiliation over accepting Caesar's leniency and responsibility to Cato by continuing his pursuit to "save" the republic from Caesar.”When he publicly confronted the crowd about Caesar’s death, Suetonius states he claimed that “it was not a question of having loved Caesar less, but rather loving Rome more.”
Part E:
To conclude, the motives of Caesar’s assassination are unclear. After evaluation, one can deduce that both Cassius’s and Brutus’s intentions were chiefly personal yet can be placed on two different levels. Brutus murdered Caesar believing that he was benefiting Rome by doing so. Cassius on the other hand assassinated Caesar due to the personal hatred he felt towards Caesar as a result of the large power he had gained in such a short period of time.
Part F:
Books : * Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press. * Lintott, A. "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999) * Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition. * Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
Internet Sources: * http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/caesar-the-god.php * http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=546&chapter=83299&layout=html&Itemid=27 * http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch.html * http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch_2.html
--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 2 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 3 ]. ibid
[ 4 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 5 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 6 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 7 ]. ibid
[ 8 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 9 ]. ibid
[ 10 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 11 ]. ibid
[ 12 ]. ibid
[ 13 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 14 ]. ibid
[ 15 ]. ibid
[ 16 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 17 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 18 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 19 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 20 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 21 ]. ibid
[ 22 ]. ibid
[ 23 ]. ibid
[ 24 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 25 ]. Suetonius, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012
[ 26 ]. ibid
[ 27 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 28 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 29 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 30 ]. ibid
[ 31 ]. ibid
[ 32 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic. Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 33 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.
[ 34 ]. Goldsworthy. A, (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.
[ 35 ]. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch.html
[ 36 ]. Plutarch. (2006). Fall of the Roman Republic . Penguin Classics: Revised Edition.
[ 37 ]. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0311_040311_idesmarch_2.html
[ 38 ]. Suetonious. (2007). The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics) [Paperback]. Dans R. Graves. Penguin Classics; Rev. Ed.