Michael Collins

Junior Certificate Notes – Twentieth Century Irish History
Governing Ireland 1914-1917 * Ireland ruled directly from London – Irish Politicians sit in the Parliament at Westminster (1800 Act of Union) * Lord Lieutenant – King’s representative in Ireland * Chief Secretary – Parliament’s representative in Ireland * Nationalists & Unionists are the TWO main political groups in the country.

Political Groups in Ireland (1914)

The Nationalists – About 3 million Irish people – most of them Catholic – believed that Ireland should be independents of Britain. Two Types: 1. Moderate Nationalists – supported the Home Rule party (Irish parliamentary party) They wanted to achieve a self-governing Irish Parliament which would deal with internal Irish affairs ( education , transport etc). Westminster would continue to control foreign affairs and international trade. This partial independence would be achieved by PEACEFUL means only 2. Republicans – They believed that Home Rule did not go far enough. Ireland needed complete freedom from Britain in the form of a Republic. They believed that this could only be achieved by violent means.
What is Home Rule Party
Home Rule means that Dublin would have its own Parliament.- (at the time Irish Politicians had to travel to Westminster)
They wanted to achieve a self-governing Irish Parliament which would deal with internal Irish affairs ( education , transport etc). Westminster would continue to control foreign affairs and international trade. John Redmond was their LEADER

Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)
The IRB is a Secret Revolutionary Organisation – its members are also known as Fenians
They want complete independence & are willing to use violence.
The IRB provide the leaders for 1916
Sinn Fein 0 Sinn Féin was founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905 1 They wanted a dual-monarchy for UK & Ireland- They would achieve this by Parliamentary Abstention- wanted Irish MP’s to refuse to sit in Parliament in Westminster and instead set up their own Parliament in Dublin

The Unionists – About 1 million people were unionists. They were mainly concentrated in Ulster. They supported the Act of Union and wanted to stay I the UK. Here are REASONS WHY… * Economy. Industry in the North of the country (careful not to call it NI) was very successful – largely due to the excellent trade with Britain Unionists feared that if they left the United Kingdom – their business and Trade would be very badly affected. * Religion - Unionists feared that if Ireland had its own parliament, that Protestants would be out-voted and DISCRIMINATED against by the Catholic majority. Unionists warned that ‘Home Rule is Rome Rule’ * Identity . Many Unionists descended from Scottish and English settlers during the Plantations – they felt British rather than Irish and did not want to cut these cultural ties. *
The Home Rule Crisis 1912 -1914 1. Liberals (Prime Minister Asquith) agree to pass a Home Rule Bill 1912 2. Hse of Lords rejects Bill BUT can only delay for 2 years (the Parliament Act of 1911 meant they could no longer stop an Act being passed) 3. Home Rule is inevitable. 4. Unionists are HORRIFIED by prospect of Home Rule – they believe that if they oppose it strongly enough then Britain will drop it. 5. They organise opposition in the form of: 6. Street Demonstrations – crowds of 50,000 heard speeches from Carson and Craig 7. Ulster Solemn League & Covenant (this was when Ulster Unionists signed a document promising to defend their position within the British empire even with violence) (230,000 men/240,000 women) (oppose Home Rule) 8. The Formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)- 1913 - trained Protestant men to resist Home Rule through force. About 100,000 volunteers – guns and ammunition were imported through Larne (Antrim) ( Larne Gun Running) 9. The Larne Gun-Running - On 24 April 1914 – the UVF smuggled 24,000 guns into Larne near Belfast.Soldiers and Police did NOTHING to stop the illegal smuggling of guns because they too supported the unionists demands.

The unionists were now well-armed and prepared to FIGHT & DEFEAT Home Rule

The Nationalist Response to the formation of UVF * The actions of the Unionists was closely watched by Nationalists. * In November 1913 – Eoin Mac Neill established the Irish Volunteers – to oppose the UVF and to defend Home Rule by force. * Mac Neill hoped to use the Volunteers as a PRESSURE GROUP – but some men ( like Padraig Pearse) wanted to use their physical force The Nationalist Response 0 The Irish Volunteers had almost 180,000 men BUT had very few arms ( drills with hurleys) 1 In July 1914 – the Irish Volunteers smuggled 1,500 German guns into Howth in Dublin on board a yacht owned by Erskine Childers - called the Asgard. 2 The British soldiers tried to INTERCEPT (stop) this gun-running (3 people were killed a further 38 wounded when they jeered British soldiers , who couldn’t get the guns) The British FAILED to capture all the guns)

The Home Rule Crisis * In 1913 – The Liberal government in England held talks with John Redmond about the “UNIONIST” problems – in implementing Home Rule * In these talks – the idea of PARTITION was discussed * Partition is the DIVISION of Ireland into a Northern State (6 counties) and a Southern State * BUT no one can decide on what exactly ULSTER is? ( how many counties) * Redmond suggests – Home Rule within Home Rule ( having a Parliament in Belfast BUT still under the supervisory control of the Irish Parliament) * Unionists – reject this out of hand, they want to remain in Westminster. * In July 1914 – King George V offers the palace in Buckingham as a place or the Nationalist leaders and the Unionist to leaders to meet – * BUT STALEMATE. (they argue all the time and UNIONISTS do not want Dublin controlling them!) * Redmond realises that Partition will be inevitable (6 counties Carson wants – Redmond will only concede 4 (unionist majority-Derry, Antrim, Armagh, Down)

Ireland seems on the verge of CIVIL WAR…

The Curragh Mutiny - The sense of crisis was heightened when British Army Officers in the Curragh , Co Kildare announced that they would rather RESIGN than obey any orders by the government to move against the UNIONISTS- and force them to accept Home Rule. This was known as The Curragh Mutiny.

Home Rule is Postponed due to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914.-

The 1916 Rebellion
The IRB believe that NOW is there time to strike and so they begin to PLAN a Rebellion – ‘England’s difficulty is Ireland’s opportunity’

WILL we join the British Army? 0 Ulster Volunteers & Unionists in general joined the British army to show their LOYALTY to the King. 1 At Woodenbridge, Co Wicklow, John Redmond, Leader of the Volunteers asked them to join the British army too! 2 He argued that this would influence negotiations on Home Rule after the War – if Irishmen were seen to be loyal to Britain , they might get Home Rule quicker. 2 This Speech by John Redmond ( encouraging the volunteers to join the 3 British army ) caused a SPLIT in the Volunteers 4 Most of the Volunteers (170,000) agreed with John Redmond – they became the National Volunteers 5 However, about 11,000 Volunteers led by Eoin Mac Neill disagreed and remained at home retaining the name the Irish Volunteers

Towards Rebellion….
The IRB (having heavily infiltrated the Irish Volunteers) decided to use the volunteers as their army of Rebellion. (manipulate)
Eoin Mac Neill, began to reorganise the Irish volunteers along more military lines during the Winter 1914.
Mac Neill became the volunteers’ Chief of Staff and other staff officers included Padraig Pearse, Joseph Plunkett and Thomas Mac Donagh.
These men were also in the illegal IRB – although Eoin Mac Neill did not know this! They took their orders from the IRB Supreme Council (1915-effectively Sean Mc Dermott & Thomas J Clarke) and there was a strong “invisible”link between the leaders of the IRB and the Volunteers.
The IRB made plans for a RISING.
They sent a ‘secret agent’ Roger Casement to Germany to seek military help ( guns and ammo) British spies kept their government informed of Casement’s activities in Germany- the weapons were set to arrive of the coast of Kerry – but the ship that carried them (The AUD) arrived 3 days early (the planned rebellion date was Easter 1916)and the ship was surrounded and captured by the British navy. Rather than allow the arms fall into British hands – the ship was scuttled by the Captain- disaster for the IRB – with no German weapons the chance of success was slim!

The Easter Rising 3 The Rising was set for Easter Sunday 23 April 1916- meanwhile Mac Neill and the other Irish Volunteers had no idea about the plans for a Rising! 4 The IRB knew that they needed the Irish Volunteers to fight in the rebellion. BUT Mac Neill was not willing to support a Rebellion - SO – Joseph Plunkett forged a document known as the Castle Document – which stated that the British authorities were about to arrest the leaders of the volunteers and have the movement declared illegal. 5 MacNeill became ANGRY and told the Volunteers to get ready to resist – the IRB hoped that would force MacNeill into Rebellion with them.

On Thursday 20th April – Pearse told Mac Neill about the plans for the Rebellion. Mac Neill found out that the Castle Document was a forgery–he was shocked that Pearse and the other men had LIED to him - he decided to take IMMEDIATE ACTION against this planned rebellion

Cancelling the Rising ??? 6 Eoin Mac Neill placed an advertisement in the Sunday Independent – recalling the Irish Volunteers and effectively cancelling the 1916 Rising…

‘All orders given to the Irish Volunteers for today (Easter Sunday) are hereby rescinded (cancelled), and no parades, marches or other movements of the Irish Volunteers will take place. Each individual Volunteer will obey this order strictly in every particular’ The Easter Rising
Initially, Pearse, Connolly and other members of the IRB Supreme Council had HOPED that a Rising would succeed.
The combined numbers of British army and police in Ireland amounted to approximately 16,000 men.
The IRB council believed that it could raise 20,000 men ( German guns)
However after all their weapons are captured and the cancellation of ‘volunteer movements’ – there was no way that a rebellion/rising would be successful
Volunteers outside Dublin could NOT be contacted quick enough to re-organise the Rising.
On the afternoon of Easter Sunday – the IRB held a meeting decided to go ahead with the Rising – after all, having captured the guns (Pearse argued) the British would never expect a Rising – added to this most British army personnel in the city would have the day off & be attending the Fairy House races. 7 So the element of surprise was still with the rebels.

The Easter Rising begins 8 Pearse and the others resigned themselves to the idea that the Rising would be a ‘Blood Sacrifice’ – a rebellion for the good of Ireland but would ultimately end in their death!

At NOON on Easter Monday 24 April 1916 – the Irish Volunteers and mmbers of the Irish Citizen Army (1,500) marched from the headquarters of the ITGWU headquarters at Liberty Hall.

1. They took over several important buildings in Dublin including Boland’s Mills, and the Jacob’s Biscuit factory. The GPO (on O’Connell street) was taken by Connolly and Pearse and became the HEADQUARTERS for the rebels. 2. From the steps of the GPO – Pearse read the loud the Proclamation of the Irish Republic – which announced that the rebels were setting up their own PROVISIONAL government in place of British rule.

The Easter Rising 9 Only 400 British soldiers were on duty at the start of the Rising BUT it wasn’t long before reinforcements came flooding in from outside Dublin and from Britain. 10 By Tuesday there was 6,500 troops facing less than 1,500 rebels. More troops arrived on the Wednesday – along with the HELGA – a British gun-ship that heavily pounded rebel positions from the River Liffey – especially O Connell Street 11 The Rebels were hemmed in within buildings & were unable to move or communicate with each other – they were grossly outnumbered BUT they held out for 6 days 12 By Friday the GPO was in flames and Connolly had been badly wounded in the ankle. Pearse was horrified by the number of civilian casualties – who were being killed in the crossfire. 13 On Saturday April 29th 1916, using a nurse named Elizabeth Farrell as a messenger, Pearse and the GPO surrendered to the British Commander General Lowe.

Timeline of the 1916 Rising 6 Easter Monday 1916 - The rebels have based their headquarters at the General Post Office in Sackville Street. Pearse has just announced the creation of the Republic of Ireland from the Post Office. Also based at the Post Office is Michael Collins. The rebels have carefully chosen the buildings and areas to capture - The South Dublin Union, The Four Courts, St. Stephen’s Green, Boland’s Flour Mill 7 Tuesday April 25th - The rebels are busying themselves with reinforcing their bases. The British army have surrounded the affected area of Dublin. They have brought in artillery based in Trinity College. It would seem that the plan is to split the rebels in two by driving a wedge between them (North and South of the Liffey) Martial law has been declared by the British.There is looting in the streets of the city and innocent people have been shot by the British army. The rebels based at Boland’s Flour Mill, led by Eamon de Valera, cannot stop British reinforcements landing at Dublin’s docks. 8 Wednesday 26th April - British army start their attack on the rebels. A gunboat, the ‘Helga’ has been brought in to assist this action. Civilian casualties are high. The British flatten any building in their attempt to destroy the rebels. It is clear that they will stop at nothing to deal with the rebellion. 14 Thursday 27th April – continued sporadic fighting.

15 Friday 28th April - The General Post Office is in a state of collapse and the rebels based there have escaped to a nearby building. A last stand is being made in King’s Street but up against 5,000 troops, the remaining rebels seem to have little chance. It is reported that it is near King’s Street that attacks against civilians hiding for their own safety are being carried out by members of the army 16 Saturday 29th April - The rebels have surrendered. Connolly had been seriously wounded and it was Patrick Pearse that formally surrendered to the British The 1916 Rising is over

SEE SEPARATE NOTES for the WAR of INDEPENDENCE in IRELAND 1919-1921

END of Anglo-Irish War (1921) – The Treaty, the Irish Civil War & the Formation of Free State
The Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921 * After two years of fighting, the Anglo-Irish War (war of Indep) came to an end on 11 July 1921 with a truce between the IRA and the British government. Eamon De Valera, President of the provisional Irish Republic, traveled to London to meet David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister * Under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, a new state comprising the six counties of Northern Ireland had already been created. * BUT De Valera still demanded a 32-county independent Republic. * This was unacceptable to David Lloyd George but – the British government was willing to offer something different to Ireland - Dominion Status for the 26 counties. * Dominion Status meant that Ireland would be an independent State, but continue to be part of the British Empire and owing allegiance to the crown.
Treaty Negotiations 1921
On 11 October 1921 – an Irish delegation was formally invited to a conference in London.
The delegates were: Arthur Griffith (vice-President of the Dáil and very experienced politically representing the ‘moderates’), Michael Collins (Director of Intelligence (IRA/IRB) and Minister for Finance), Eamonn Duggan and George Gavan Duffy ( legal advisors) Robert Barton (Minister for Agriculture) and Erskine Childers acting as Secretary to the group. (Childers were distrusted by Collins who saw him as little more than a spy for De Valera).
De Valera himself did not go because – 1) He was the Head of State and needed to convince people at home about the settlement 2) He felt he could control the extermists/republicans better from home
Lloyd George – headed the British Delegation. Other members of the British delegation included Winston Churchill, Secretary of State for War, Sir Gordon Hewart, the Attorney General, Austin Chamberlain and Lord Birkenhead ( an accomplished lawyer)- both of whom represented the Conservative party.
The Irish Delegation was given full-power to negotiate on behalf of the Dáil (Plenipotentaries), BUT they also had to keep Dublin fully informed of the progress of negotiations.
This instruction really annoyed Michael Collins – because it hindered the work of the delegates and they felt they were always updating Dublin and answering to De Valera.

The Irish Delegation had TWO main aims – * A Republic for Ireland * No Partition between North & South Ireland. (United)
WHAT BRITAIN REALLY WANTS?
Britain was unwilling to accept a Republic because: * It would threaten their Empire (all member nations would want greater independence) * AND Ulster Unionists would not agree to it – their loyalty was to them.
From October to December 1921, the two teams negotiated in London.
Finally, on 6 December 1921, after Lloyd George had threatened that they had to accept the terms or ‘face an immediate and terrible war’ – the Irish delegates signed “The Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Ireland and Great Britain” – or the Anglo Irish Treaty -1921 (Lloyd George refused them leave to refer the terms of the agreement back to Dublin. Arthur Griffith was the first to accept the terms of the Treaty, followed by Collins and Duggan. After much persuasion Barton and Duffy agreed to sign. At 2.10 am on the morning of 6 December the Irish delegates returned to Downing Street to sign the Treaty)
The Terms of the Treaty 1. Ireland would be known as the Irish Free State 2. Ireland would be a Dominion (part of) the British Common Wealth. 3. The King of England, would be represented in Ireland by a Governor-General 4. Members of the Dáil & Seanad would take an Oath of Allegiance to the Irish government and the King of England 5. 5. Britain would have the use of 3 Treaty Ports- Berehaven, Cobh and Lough Swilly 6. A Boundary Commission would be set up to decide on the border between the North & South of Ireland.(areas with nationalist majorities will join the Free State – guaranteed by Lloyd George)
The Split on the Treaty
When Dáil Eirinn debated the Treaty – it was bitterly divided on whether or not to accept it. The split over the treaty was deeply personal. Many of the leaders on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the treaty all the more bitter. The TWO CAMPS were… * Eamon De Valera & Cathal Brugha led those who argued against the Treaty. * Michael Collins & Arthur Griffith – led those who were in favour of the Treaty
The Dáil debated the Treaty from December 1921 to January 1922. Michael Collins was angry that Éamon de Valera had sent him to negotiate the Treaty, because he knew that the British would not concede (give) an independent Irish Republic and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement.
Collins said that he was deeply betrayed when de Valera refused to stand by the Treaty agreement. De Valera, for his part, was furious that Collins and Arthur Griffith had signed the treaty without consulting him or the Irish cabinet as instructed.
RESULTS ARE IN….
The debate concluded on 7th January 1922, when the Treaty was accepted by 64 votes to 57 votes.
De Valera and his supporters left the Dáil and he resigned as President of the Executive Council. The Pro-Treaty side now took over the government, with Arthur Griffith replacing him as President
The Irish Civil War 1922-23
As British forces withdrew from barracks throughout the country, pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty IRA members scrambled to take over these barracks. * The Pro-Treaty forces (IRA) were called the FREE STATE ARMY or REGULARS * The Anti-Treaty forces (IRA) were called REPUBLICANS or IRREGULARS
The Irregulars led by Rory O Connor took over the Four Courts – Collins left them alone (for now) because he wanted to avoid civil war.
HOWEVER - A General Election in June 1922 gave a huge majority in FAVOUR of the Treaty. This gave Collins the SUPPORT and the CONFIDENCE to drive the Irregulars from the Four Courts. * When the anti-Treaty forces kidnapped General O’ Connell of the Free State Army – Michael Collins borrowed artillery from the British army to shell the Four Courts. * Within two days, the 200 Republicans inside surrendered. Street-fighting continued around the city for a number of days (Cathal Brugha is killed), but the Free Staters defeated the Republicans easily. * The Irregulars (anti-Treaty IRA) retreated to Munster (south of a line from Limerick to Waterford) where their support was strongest. This would later become known as “The Munster Republic”. * Liam Lynch was their Chief-of-Staff. He was a hard-line Republican who would not surrender. The Irregulars used guerilla tactics against the Free Staters
End to Civil War?? * By August 1922, the Free Staters had over 60,000 soldiers. They gradually took control of Munster. * The Free State side lost its two greatest leaders in August 1922 – Arthur Griffith died of a Brain Haemorrhage (stroke) on 12 August 1922. * Ten days later – 22 August 1922, Michael Collins was shot & killed in an ambush at Beal na mBláth, Co. Cork. * William T Cosgrave became the new head of Free State government. * Kevin O Higgins – was now in charge of Law and Order. (Special Powers Act – allowed execution of irregulars for offences like ‘having a gun’ – Erskine Childers is executed for this) * By now, the Irregulars were losing (most people supported the Treaty and the Free State army was too powerful & knew the countryside as well as they did) When Liam Lynch, leader of the Anti-Treaty IRA was killed in April 1923 – Frank Aiken replaced him as leader.
Aiken & De Valera knew they could NOT WIN and called a ceasefire in May 1923.
Results of the Civil War 1. Death & Destruction – Over 900 people were killed. Many of Ireland’s promising and gifted leaders are lost. (Brugha, Collins, Griffith) and €38 million woth of damage is done to property 2. Bitterness – The civil war created great hatred and distrust between many Irish people. 3. Origins of Political Parties – Ireland’s two largest political parties grew out of the Civil War – Cumann na nGaedheal (later Fine Gael) came from the pro-Treaty side. Fianna Fáil was from the anti-Treaty side.

Cumann na nGaedhael in power – 1923 -1932
In January 1923 – the pro-Treaty TD’s of Sinn Féin changed their name to Cumann na nGaedhael. They set about establishing a new FREE STATE under the leadership of William T Cosgrave. The anti-treaty TD’s kept the name of Sinn Féin. The government had to… 1 Establish Law & Order – a large minority did not RECOGNISE the Free STATE and threatened its very existence (anti-Treaty IRA) 2 Rebuild the Economy – millions of euro in damages was done to Irish property during the Civil war & this had to be re-constructed. Economy in ruins after 5 years o fighting 4. Manage Relations with Britain – in particular the government had to allow or the setting up of the Boundary Commission ( & all the problems that would entail) and develop diplomatic relations with Britain & N Ireland.
Law & Order
According to the constitution of the Irish Free State – the President of the Executive Council was the leader (now Taoiseach) * The Executive Council was the term used for the CABINET of the government * There were TWO houses of Parliament – the Dáil and the Seanad ( senate) * The King was HEAD of the STATE and all Bills passed by the Oireachtas (both houses) had to be SIGNED by him * A new CIVIL SERVICE was created with the 1924 – Ministeries and Secretaries Act which created 11 Departments, each responsible for an area of government – e.g Finance, Education, External Affairs, Justice etc
Kevin O Higgins – Minister or Home Affairs (Justice) was responsible for restoring law and order to Ireland – he was a figure hated by most REPUBLICANS because it was his job to sign the death warrants during the CIvil War
O Higgins established the Garda Síochána (September 1922) – he had to try restore RESPECT for the Rule of Law ( which had gone out the window during the Civil War). They were well-trained and widely accepted as they were un-armed, wore a distinctive BLUE uniform and followed a strict code of discipline.
The FIRST COMMISSIONER was Michael Staines. BUT Eoin O Duffy took over soon after remaining in the post till 1933.
Richard Mulcahy – as Minister or Defence was responsible for the Free State Army.
The Court System was set up – District Courts, Circuit Courts (or every 400,000 population) Court of Criminal Appeal, the High Court and the Supreme Court ( which also ruled on constitutional matters)
The Public Safety Act – gave the government widespread powers of arrest (robbery/armed attacks) remember Erskine Childers and the gun! 77 People were executed under this Act and along with censorship of the media, the imposition of curfews etc – it caused great bitterness.
Problem 1: The Army Mutiny * The Free State announced that they could not afford a big army – they planned to cut it down. There were 55,000 men with 3,300 Officers. * The army was made up of ex-IRA men who worked with Collins and also ex-British servicemen in the army. These were the REAL professional soldiers * Kevin O Higgins feared that the Free State army was growing too quickly and would become too powerful and possibly attempt to seize power. * The JOB cuts caused DISAFFECTION in the army - and also caused resentment – the former IRA men felt that the ex-British soldiers were being KEPT ON while they were being let go. * There was some truth in that –Mulcahy was trying to build a PROFESSIONAL army and it needed well-disciplined men – not the old IRA which had worked as Collins’ assassins and guerrilla fighters. * The army sent an ULTIMATUM to the government- either stop the demobilisation or they would MUTINY * Kevin O Higgins took action against the army – some of the leaders were ARRESTED and Richard Mulcahy, the Minister for Defence, was forced to resign.
By doing this – the government was taking control over the army - From now on, the army MUST OBEY the orders of their elected masters (the government)
Never again would the Free State Army be a threat to the State, as O Higgins himself said “ those who take the pay and wear the uniform of the state, be they soldiers or police, must be non-political servants of that State”
Problem 2: The Boundary Commission
A Bigger Crisis came in 1925 * Under article 12 of the Treaty- a Boundary Commission would decide the border between the North & the Irish Free State * The Commission would have 3 men: One Unionist appointed by the NI government, One Nationalist appointed by the Free State government and a neutral Chairman appointed by Britain * Nationalists hoped that the Commission would make Northern Ireland so small that it would not be ale to exist on its own – and be forced to join the South. * Lloyd George had promised Collins that this would be the case … BUT, Lloyd George was no longer in his job – the Conservatives were in power and they would not support the Free State government against their unionist friends * The Dublin government appointed the Catholic, Minister for Education Eoin Mc Neill - as its representative. * James Craig – refused to appoint anyone, so the British appointed– a Belfast Unionist lawyer – J.R Fisher * They also appointed Justice Richard Feetham of the South African supreme court to be the neutral chairman. (His opinion carried the greatest weight and he wanted minimal change) * They began work in November 1924 – They heard legal submissions and visited border areas to hear the views of local inhabitants. They promised not to let any government know of their decision. * HOWEVER, the Commission only decided to make MINOR CHANGES to the Border
The Free State was to get small parts of South Armagh and some minor areas in Fermanagh – moving about 25,000 Catholics from North to South.
BUT - Part of east Donegal where about 2,000 Protestants lived , was to go from the Free State to Northern Ireland.
This was totally unexpected – no one thought that Free State would actually lose territory – Cosgrave complained to the British government and they AGRRED to “bury” the report – drop the proposed changes!
To avoid CIVIL WAR - the border between the 6 counties and the 26 counties would remain as it had been in the 1920 Government of Ireland Act.
The Economy & Cumann na nGaedhael * The government believed that AGRICULTURE was more important than industry – most of Ireland’s exports were agricultural products. * They increase food exports and set STRICT QUALITY STANDARDS for eggs, meat and butter. * They set up the ACC ( Agricultural Credit Corporation) to provide LOANS to farmers to help them modernize their farms and farm machinery. Very few farmers availed of these though because they were often run by older more conservative men!
They kept LOW TAXES on farming goods – so they could make a profit and sell more to the British market.
By 1930, agricultural exports were at the highest in years – BUT because farmers were paying little taxes – the government had NO MONEY to help the poor. One of the big problems facing Irish industry was the lack of a cheap energy source.
The government built a HYDRO-ELECTRIC power station at Ardnacrusha on the River Shannon. It was built by Siemens, a German firm, and cost £5 million (6.3 million euro)
This would produce cheap electricity for farms, industry and homes across Ireland.
The ESB was set up to build a national grid to distribute the electricity around the country.
A national Sugar Company was set up in Carlow and by 1930, there were 13,000 more people employed in industry than in 1922.
Ireland in the Commonwealth –Britain
The main aim of CnaG was to get greater independence from Britain.
It joined the League of Nations in 1923 and appointed its own ambassadors to the Vatican and the USA. This greatly upset Britain ( who was meant to represent every Dominion abroad)
With the help of other commonwealth countries ( Canada, S Africa etc) the government pressurized Britain to increase the independence of the Dominions. The British gave in – in 1931 – they passed the Statute of Westminster .
Now Ireland can: 1. Pass any law without interference from Britain ( right is gone) 2. All Dominions could CHANGE the laws that had been passed by the British government for them. (retrospective)This meant that the CnaG government could GET RID of the Treaty – as it had been passed into Law at Westminster.
Cosgrave did not want to go too quickly though – and stated that they would NOT alter the Treaty for the time being. This was a major achievement or the CnaG government
Decline of Cumann na nGaedhael. 1. The Great Depression (Wall Street Crash 1929) also affected the Irish economy and unemployment began to RISE. 2. They CUT the wages of Teachers and Gardai and this was extremley unpopular 3. Decreased the Old-Age Pension (1 shilling) 4. The Success of de Valera & the new Fianna Fáil party (1926-32) 5. In attempting to suppress continuing civilian disorder, the Public Safety acts were nevertheless HUGELY UNPOPULAR – particularly the intoxicating Liquor Act that reduced pub opening hours from sixteen to eleven a day proved unpopular.

The Rise of Fianna Fáil 1932--1948-
After the Civil War – Dev refused to enter the Dáil because of the Oath of Allegiance.de Valera soon realised that this could not continue because Sinn Féin would lose support in elections and would have no say in the running of the country!
In 1926, de Valera proposed to Sinn Féin that they should enter the Dáil if the Oath was removed – they REFUSED and Dev left the party and founded Fianna Fáil (soldiers of Destiny) in 1926.
Among those who joined him were Frank Aiken and Sean Lemass.
When Kevin O Higgins was murdered by IRA men on the way home from mass – Cosgrave wanted to clamp down even further on the IRA and un-democratic activities. After the death of Kevin O Higgins…Cosgrave introduced the Electoral Amendment Act – which stated that all TD’s must take the Oath or give up their seats as politicians. They had to SWEAR even before they were elected that they WOULD take the OATH when/if they were elected.
After this ACT, Fianna Fáil were forced to take the oath and enter the Dáil (dev argued that it was only an empty promise anyway)
This eventually led to the inclusion of Fianna Fáil in mainstream politics, securing the democratic political institutions that were the object of O’Higgin’s political life, and ultimately leading to the stability of the fledgling state.
Fianna Fáil won the General Election in 1932
Many in the country and abroad wondered if the true test of democracy would be passed, whether it would be possible for the men who won a civil war only ten years before to hand over power to their opponents.
Likewise, the army, Garda Síochána and the civil service all accepted the change of government, despite the fact that they would now be taking orders from men who had been their enemies less than ten years previously
Fianna Fáil set about …. 1. Dismantling the Treaty 2. Creating a NEW CONSTITUTION 3. Fighting the ‘economic war’ with Britain 4. Defeating the IRA and later, the Blueshirts 5. Developing the Irish economy.
Dismantling the Treaty
De Valera was able to use the terms of the Statute of Westminster to DISMANTLE (take-part) the Treaty. Between 1932 –1937 he passed a number of laws that gave greater independence to Ireland. 1. He abolished the Oath of Allegiance – loyalty to the King 2. He boycotted the office of the Governor –General. James Mac Neill (GG) was so undermined by the actions of the Fianna Fáil government that he resigned. Dev encourages the King not to replace him and LATER the office was abolished altogether. (1937) 3. He REMOVED the King as Head of the Irish Free State – the Dáil agreed to it in 1936 ( Ireland was a Republic in everything but name) External Relations Act- removes all mention of the Kings name from the Irish Free State’s constitution 4. He also introduced a new constitution
Bunreacht na hEirinn 1. The Free State was renamed Ireland (or Eire) 2. The HEAD of State was a President to be elected every 7 years – (mainly ceremonial but can refer Bills to Supreme Court) 3. Article 2 & 3 of the Constitution “claimed” the right to rule over Northern Ireland – “The national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland, its islands and the territorial seas” 4. The head of government was to be called a Taoiseach (rather than President of the Executive Council) 5. The State recognised the ‘special position’ of the Catholic Church 6. The people passed the new Constitution in a referendum in 1937.
Economic Policy & Fianna Fáil ECONOMIC WAR 1. The Irish government had to pay back land annuities – to Britain. 2. These were payments for loans that farmers got from the British government from 1870’s onwards to buy land from their landlords. 3. De Valera refused to pay these land annuities. In response to the British put tariffs (taxes of 20%) on Irish Cattle being exported to Britain. The Irish government retaliated by imposing a 5% tariff on British imports (coal). 4. This had a disastrous effect on Irish agriculture, unemployment rose in Ireland and live cattle exports fell, 5. It was known as ‘the economic war”
Anglo-Irish Agreement 1938 1. This agreement led to the end of the ECONOMIC WAR between Ireland & Britain 2. De Valera agreed to pay a lump sum of £10 million to cover the cost of land annuities. 3. The taxes (tariffs) were dropped by both countries. 4. The Treaty Ports – Berehaven, Cobh and Lough Swilly were returned to the Free State (Ireland) – this was important since allowed Ireland to stay NEUTRAL during WWII. 5. UNLIKE CnaG (who liked FREE TRADE) – Fianna Fáil believed in using Protectionism to build up the Irish economy – This means that they put TARIFFS (or TAXES) on all foreign imports into Ireland – to protect the HOME INDUSTRY from competition- (it would make these imports more expensive than Irish goods)
Political Problems - The IRA and the Blueshirts
When de Valera took over the government in 1932 – he RELEASED all IRA prisoners.
The IRA began to attack Cumann na nGaedhael meetings in REVENGE for imprisoning them (and because they were still anti-Treaty)
The ACA- Army Comrades Association – was set up by ex-members of the Free State Army, to protect Cumann na nGaedhael at their meetings. ACA members wore blue shirts and because of this they became popularly known as the BLUESHIRTS.
In 1933 they elected Eoin O Duffy as their leader – he had been sacked from his post as Garda Commissiner by de Valera when he came to power.
They changed their name to “the National Guard - they were organised along Fascist lines – even adopting the Fascist salute. (remember the SS!)
In August 1933, the Blueshirts organised a march in Dublin – to commemorate the death of Collins and Griffiths.
De Valera was afraid that this march would be an attempt to overthrow his government – in the same way that Mussolini had marched on Rome)
He BANNED the march, even though O Duffy had no plans to start a rebellion! He OUTLAWED the Blueshirts ( fearing their fascist views) this marked the start of a DECLINE in support for the Blueshirts. De Valera – HOWEVER was not doing anything about the INCREASING power of the IRA
Fine Gael is formed 1933
Afraid, that Dev and the IRA would gain too much power – William Cosgrave’s CUMANN na nGAEDHAEL decided to JOIN with the BLUESHIRTS (1933) to form a new political party that would oppose Fianna Fáil – This party was FINE GAEL * Formed in 1933 – Eoin O Duffy was given the job of running the party – LEADER (He was totally unsuited to the leadership of the party and he allowed the blueshirts to attack the Gardai and even threatened to invade the North!) * This alarmed people – so Fine Gael got rid of O Duffy and appointed COSGRAVE their leader. * BY THIS STAGE – DEV was also having problems with the IRA – who believed he wasn’t moving fast enough towards a 32 county Republic. He was forced to OUTLAW the IRA when they committed several murders and shootings – including the shooting of a retired British admiral. * When the IRA started a bombing campaign in Britain in 1939 – he INTERNED over 500 IRA members. He was afraid that, with the beginning of WWII, the IRA would threaten Irish neutrality ( bombing campaign & possibly hooking up with the Germans against UK) & it would give UK and excuse to invade Ireland!

The Emergency in Ireland 1939-45
WWII began in September 1939, when Britain declared war in on Germany. The ‘EMERGENCY” was the word used to describe the situation in Ireland during WWII . The Dáil passed the Emergency Powers Act to ensure that Ireland preserved its neutrality. All political parties supported that neutrality.
De Valera favoured neutrality because: 1. It showed Ireland’s independence from Britain 2. Northern Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom 3. Ireland was too weak to fight stronger countries- it would lead to destruction & loss of life.
The Emergency Powers Act gave the government far-reaching powers – newspapers were censored, so that there was no news about the war that might favour one side or another. Weather forecasts were not allowed as they might help either side in military operations such as bombing.
Even though Ireland was NEUTRAL, in reality she favoured the Allies (Britain, France and USA) * Allied planes were allowed to fly out over Donegal from Northern Ireland. * German airmen that landed in Ireland were IMPRISONED but British and US airmen were released over the border. * Fire Brigades from the South were sent to Belfast after it was destroyed in bombing raids in 1941. * Weather reports were sent secretly to the British * 50,000 Irishmen joined the British Army ( mainly for economic reasons
The IRA and the Emergency.
In 1939, the IRA started a bombing campaign in Britain. They saw the war as their chance to UNIFY the country.
The IRA made contact with Germany ( to try and get them to invade) but Germany felt the IRA was too weak. Several German spies were sent to Ireland and all of them were arrested. The German plan to invade Ireland was known as Operation Green – never occurred because sea journey to Ireland was too DANGEROUS for Germans
Fearful that the IRA were giving the British an excuse to invade Ireland – he imprisoned over 500 IRA men in the Curragh
Ireland built up its defence force from 20,000 – to 250,000 part-time & full-time soldiers. (full time 37,000)
The LOCAL DEFENCE FORCES were also set up -which aimed to train young people how to fight in case Ireland was invaded – they were only a part-time force and not fully equipped ( FCA nowadays

Rationing in the Emergency * The Irish Free State depended heavily on imported fuel, raw materials and foodstuffs – during the war these were all in short supply. * Britain REFUSED to exports some goods such as TEA because they were angry at Ireland staying neutral. * Sean Lemass was appointed as Minister for Supplies * He set up Irish Shipping Ltd to bring essential supplies from abroad – it bought eight vessels and leased five more. * HOWEVER - German submarines and aircraft tended to regard any vessel in British waters as a target and because of this - Irish losses in ships and men were high.
However, there was still severe FOOD shortages. * Although supplies of basic foodstuffs (potatoes, eggs, sugar and meat) were adequate, butter and flour were scarce due to reduced production and imported foods like tea, coffee, and tinned or dried fruit were almost unobtainable. * The government introduced RATION BOOKS - they were coupon in each book that only allowed you to buy a certain amount of a product – to ensure everyone got their fair share! * To overcome these shortages - tea leaves were used over and over again, bread was baked using Irish wheat – which was darker in colour – so it became known as “BLACK BREAD” * PETROL was also scarce and available to only doctors and priests and the army. * GAS – was used for cooking but even this was rationed. Men called GLIMMER MEN were appointed to ensure that people used only the amount of gas ( or electricity) that was allowed. * COAL was scarce because Britain needed all her own coal during the war. INSTEAD, trains in Ireland were powered by TURF from the Irish bogs – BUT journeys were much longer – it now took 14 hours to get from Cork to Dublin! People went to the bogs to cut their own turf for home use. * Factories had to lay off workers. ( many emigrating to Britain for work) * Agriculture suffered too, there wasn’t enough fertilisers to use on the land – productivity declined. * Cross-border SMUGGLING was inevitable in this situation, with tea and sugar regularly smuggled down from the north in return for butter, eggs and bacon.

RELATIONS with BRITAIN during WWII * Britain was unhappy with Ireland’s decision to stay neutral. * Churchill (PM in 1940) wanted the Treaty ports to be used as naval bases to protect convoys (warships that protect cargo ships from German u-boats) bringing vital supplies to Britain . De Valera refused, as it would endanger Irish neutrality. * Churchill offered de Valera reunification for Ireland if it entered the war on Britain’s side. * De Valera REFUSED, partly because he knew that Churchill would not be able to get the UNIOINSTS to agree to that. * For their part, the USA also disagreed with Irish neutrality – because they feared that the South of Ireland was full of German spies that were observing the movements of US troops in Northern Ireland.
THE BOMBINGS of the FREE STATE
Ireland did not escape the worst effects of the war.
On 26 August 1940, bombs killed three women working in a creamery in Campile, Co. Wexford, and another three died in the German bombing of Carlow in January 1941.
Four months later (May 1941) thirty-four people lost their lives when parts of Amiens Street and North Strand in Dublin were flattened during air raids. (NORTH STRAND BOMBINGS)
The War ends in May 1945 * After Roosevelt (the US President) dies, de Valera went to the US embassy to express his condolences. UNFORTUNATELY, he also made the professional mistake of also going to the GERMAN EMBASSY to express the country’s condolences on the death of Hitler (doh!) and naturally the Allies were furious. * Churchill vehemently attacked de Valera for his policy of neutrality * De Valera – in one of his most memorable speeches responded that Ireland had once too been fighting an enemy on their own ( for over 700 years) guess who?? * Ireland had escaped the death and destruction that occurred in Europe BUT the Irish economy had suffered greatly and more importantly, the GAP between the NORTH and SOUTH had widened because of Ireland’s policy of neutrality– making unification even more unlikely. * We will now look at what the experience of war was like for the PEOPLE OF NORTHERN IRELAND.

NORTHERN IRELAND - 1920-1945 (during WWII)
A BRIEF BACKGROUND
James Craig is first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland- LORD CRAIGAVON * He saw Stormont ( their Parliament) as “a Protestant Parliament for a Protestant people”. Unionists saw Catholics as a threat to the NI State. This is why Catholics in the North were treated BADLY. * The RIC was the Police Force, which was backed up by the B-Specials ( reserve police force) * The Special Powers Act (1922) gave them powers to arrest people without trial (INTERNMENT)
There was OBVIOUS DISCRIMINATION against Catholics: 1. Some Catholics were sacked from Civil Service Jobs. 2. Gerrymandering occurred – this meant the rigging, or FIXING, of constituencies (electoral boundaries) to ensure that Unionists always won the most seats - even in areas where Catholics were the majority. Put, simply this is re-arranging voting districts for the benefit of a political party 3. Catholics lost their jobs (Harland & Wolff shipyards) and were forced out off their homes and businesses – given no help by government – no grants for housing , schooling etc

During the WAR…..
Northern Ireland took an active part in WWII. * The British government moved many aircraft and munitions works to the region – because their defence planners believed it was safer from German attack. * Unlike the South – there was virtually NO unemployment during the war * By 1940 Belfast was benefiting from war-time industry - shipbuilding, engineering and textile industries were all prospering as they tried to fill British army orders * Factories manufactured parachutes at Carrickfergus, torpedoes at Antrim, ball bearings at Portadown, landing craft at Warrenpoint and clothing, tents and military equipment of all kinds throughout the province. * Young women (who never worked before) in particular received permits to take up employment as teachers, nurses, midwives, domestics in Planes and Boats based in Northern Ireland were used to patrol the North Atlantic and look for German U-Boats * When the US joined the war in December 1941 – Northern Ireland became an important base for American troops. About 39,000 (120,000 at its peak) American sailors and airmen were based in the country – usually on ships protecting Atlantic Trade, training OR preparing for D-Day. * Britain invested large amounts of MONEY improving the Northern ports and roadways. These were needed to cater for the huge movements of troops & munitions in the country. * In Northern Ireland, they too had to ration petrol, food, clothes and shoes. * Dancehalls, cinemas and hotels competed for the business of these well-off, dancing, smoking, poker-playing American men – & for many local women romance blossomed with the ‘Yanks’. * Indeed, in 1946, after the war, the U.S government sent a converted troop ship to bring 664 brides (who had married the US servicemen) to a new life in the U.S.
The North is BOMBED ….
Historians have confirmed that NI (Belfast) was completely unprepared for the German air raids, which eventually began in April 1941 – there were very few air raid shelter, no searchlights were set up and there were very few anti-aircraft guns
The first raid, on the night of 7-8 April, killed 13 and injured 81.
On the night of 15-16 April - many overcrowded residential areas received direct hits and at least 900 people died in what became known as the Belfast Blitz
Derry, Newtownards and Bangor also experienced devastating attacks, more than 56,000 homes were badly damaged and over 3,000 destroyed in total.
De Valera sent 70 fire-fighters from Dublin, Drogheda & Dundalk, but German bombs had destroyed the water pipe-lines shutting them off – in most cases all they could do was let the fires burn themselves out!

Results of War & Northern Ireland? 1. The contribution of Northern Ireland to WWI helped to strengthen the link with Britain – who afterwards invested heavily in re-building the state and in economic investment. 2. On the other hand - WWII WIDENED the gap between the North & the South – Ireland remained economically STAGNANT, still had no contact with the wider world, but, at least had been spared the devastation of bombing ( unifying effect in NI)
The North BENEFITS from War – “the Welfare State”
The Labour Party came to power in UK after WWII & began to introduce LAWS that would improve the quality of life in NI
Sir Basil Brooke was PM in Northern Ireland from 1943-63. LORD BROOKEBOROUGH
Northern Ireland – became known as the Welfare State. * The Education Act (1947) gave FREE secondary education to all children (regardless of religion) * The Health Services Act (1948) set up FREE National Health Service (healthcare) and built new hospitals * Other laws improved unemployment benefits and also built new housing projects. * Now – Unionists are determined to stay within the British Empire.

Free State A new INTER-PARTY government 1948-51.
For most people in the Free State, life did NOT improve after the war. * Rationing continued due to food shortages. * Unemployment & emigration were high * De Valera & his government were blamed for all these problems and now people wanted CHANGE.
In 1948, a General Election did NOT result in a CLEAR VICTORY for any one party.
Instead, a number of parties JOINED TOGETHER to form a government. It was known as a COALITION government and included the following parties: 1. Fine Gael – led by John .A. Costello 2. Labour - led by William Norton 3. Clann na Poblachta – a new party set up by Sean Mac Bride in 1946 – strong Republican Policies. 4. The Taoiseach was John A Costello, the Tanaiste was William Norton.
Work of the First inter-party government
The First Inter-party government declared Ireland a REPUBLIC
Under the Republic of Ireland Act 1948: 1. .The Irish State ceased to be a Dominion of the Crown. (even though Ireland had not participated actively in the Commonwealth for some years prior to this Act, it was still regarded, by the other Commonwealth governments, as not having left the Commonwealth) 2. The Irish President, with support of the government, would now have absolute executive power in the stat 3. The government encouraged the growth of INDUSTRY – it set up the IDA (Industrial Development Authority) to attract foreign companies to Ireland. 4. It introduced Rural electrification which helped modernise agriculture (the programme ran from 1946 through the 1950’s) 5. It accepted Marshall Aid money from America, which was used to build houses and hospitals 6. Dr Noel Browne helped to IMPROVE PUBLIC HEALTH. He organised a campaign against TB (tuberculosis) to bring it under control – it killed 3,000 people a year. He built special hospitals, organised mass x-ray screenings and brought in the new BCG vaccine to get rid of the disease. This campaign was very successful.
The “Mother & Child Scheme” * Dr Noel Browne also wanted to introduce FREE MEDICAL CARE for all mothers (including maternity care) and children up to 16 years of age. * This was known as the MOTHER & CHILD SCHEME * The scheme faced intense OPPOSITION from the Church and from Doctors. * The Church believed that the State should not be interfering in PRIVATE FAMILY matters. In particular the Archbishop of Dublin, John Charles McQuaid believed that it was the exclusive right of all parents to provide healthcare for their child. (also it might pave the way for birth-control or abortion) * Many doctors disapproved of the scheme because they feared a loss of income & it saw the end of privacy in doctor-patient relationship)
Browne refused to back down on the issue, but he received little support from his Cabinet colleagues (who were under pressure from the church) or from his party leader Sean MacBride, with whom Browne had also fallen out with. In April 1951, MacBride demanded Browne's resignation as a Clann na Poblachta minister. He handed in his resignation to the Taoiseach John A. Costello taking effect from 11 April 1951.
The First Coalition government FELL from Power
Economic Policy in the 1950’s 1. Fianna Fáil went back into power again after the coalition government. 2. BUT NONE of these governments could deal with the problem of high unemployment and high emigration 3. The Fianna Fáil policy of PROTECTIONISM of Irish Trade was NOT WORKING. 4. Irish industry was inefficient and confined to the small, home market. (Ireland was still only exporting butter & beef to Britain and most exports was confined to this country) 5. 50,000 people a year emigrated abroad because there was NO WORK here.
The Second Inter-Party Government 1954-57 * In 1954, (1954-57) the second inter-party government came to power BUT it did not prove any more successful than the last. ( you do not need any more information than this at Junior cert) * By 1957 – when Fianna Fáil were back in Power – things were getting worse – Irish society was marked by high unemployment, mass emigration and was deeply conservative –the Catholic Church had a major influence over politicians and citizens.
The Sean Lemass Years …. 1959-1966 * In 1959, de Valera RESIGNED as leader of Fianna Fáil and as Taoiseach. (He became President of Ireland serving 14 years) * Sean Lemass became Leader of FF and the new Taoiseach. * He was a former Minister for Industry & Commerce and a Minister for Supplies during WWII * He helped establish the Industrial Credit Corporation (ICC) in 1933 to facilitate investment for industrial development. He also helped to set up the Irish Sugar Company (1933), Bord na Mona (1934-turf development Board) and the development of an Irish air-line, Aer Lingus (1936). * Sean Lemass appointed YOUNGER MINISTERS to the government – like Jack Lynch, Charles Haughey, (son-in-law) and Donogh O Malley. * Years later Lemass described AER LINGUS as his "proudest achievement".
The First Programme for Economic Expansion
Lemass introduced a new economic policy to deal with the terrible economic crisis in Ireland.
It was called the FIRST PROGRAMME for ECONOMIC EXPANSION.
A Civil Servant in the Department of Finance, T.K Whitaker, drew up a plan to: 1. Attract Foreign Industry into Ireland by offering them GRANTS to set up here and NOT taxing them on their profits (tax concessions). They also built industrial estates – so that they could house their industries. 2. Encouraged Irish Companies to EXPORT GOODS – the government gave them grants to make them more efficient and so enable them to export their goods!
American, Japanese & British companies built factories in Ireland. Employment rose and emigration stopped (600 in all). Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement in 1965This Treaty between Ireland & Britain removed all tariffs on Irish industrial EXPORTS.
The Irish government also promised to slowly remove tariffs on British IMPORTS.
Between 1960-1968 – 600 firms set up in Ireland.
In 1964, a Second Programme for Economic Expansion was introduced, but it was not as successful as the 1st programme.
Free Education …Only 30% of children went to secondary school in 1960. Donogh O Malley, Minister for Education announced that secondary school fees would be abolished from 1967 onwards.
All school children would now have FREE secondary education – this led to a massive increase n the number of children that attended second level schools.
New schools were built & old schools were improved.
A scheme was also set up to provide FREE bus transport for all second level school children.
North-South Relations under LEMASS * Lemass believed that the best chance of Ireland’s re-unification (one-Ireland) lay in the South becoming so wealthy that that Unionists in the North would want to join. * He helped to improve Diplomatic relations between the two states and stopped attacking partition. * He accepted the invitation of the new Prime Minister for Northern Ireland, Terence O Neill, to visit Belfast. * This was the FIRST official meeting between the leaders of the two states since Partition. * O Neill came to Dublin to meet Lemass in 1965. * HOWEVER – Unionists like Ian Paisley were horrified at this. The Start of ‘the TROUBLES” in 1968 brought an end to this co-operation.
Church & Society * People were much better off in society * Shopping centres were built. * Tourism improved – and there were more diverse religions and cultures living in Ireland. * RTE was established as the national television service. Its first broadcast was on 31 December 1961. Ireland became exposed to new cultures. * People began to CHALLENGE the views of political leaders and church leaders – having debates on shows like “The Late Late Show” on topics like contraception and divorce. * Traditional Irish Culture slowly disappeared- by 1970, 50% of Irish homes had televisions. * The CHURCH was also changing – The SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL(1962-65) was reforming & modernising the church – and the debate made Irish Catholics question their own strict beliefs – the church’s power over people was lessened
Meanwhile…In the North of Ireland (1956-70) * In “Operation Harvest” the IRA launched a series of violent attacks (guerrilla warfare) along the border. (1956-1962) * Border counties were the worst hit – with bombs in Enniskillen, Lisnaskea, Derrylin, Rosslea etc. * Lord Brookeborough (PM) (Basil Brooke) ordered the cratering and spiking of many border roads & he made full call-out of the Ulster Specials Constabulary (‘B-Specials’- largely Protestant denominated police force). Large numbers of suspected IRA men were interned without trial. * The most serious IRA attack of Operation Harvest was that on Brookeborough RUC barracks on New Year’s Eve 1956. After a furious gun battle, the IRA were forced to withdraw, leaving Fergal O’Hanlon and Sean South dying of their wounds * In July 1957 – de Valera – furious at the IRA activities – also introduced internment – which severely weakened the IRA’s campaign (needed to run operations from here). The plan steadily ran down – until it was officially called off on 26 February, 1962.
Jack Lynch & the NORTH
In 1966, Jack Lynch took over from Sean Lemass when he retired. Lynch soon faced terrible problems in relation to increasing VIOLENCE in Northern Ireland.
The NORTHERN IRELAND CIVIL RIGHTS ASSOCIATION (nicra)
In 1967 – the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was formed. Its aim was to end discrimination against Catholics.
They demanded an end to discrimination in jobs and housing. It staged peaceful marches to highlight their aims. John Hume, Austin Currie, Paddy O Hanlon & Bernadette Devlin were major figures in the campaign.
HOWEVER – often when there was a NICRA march – Ian Paisley organised a counter-demonstration. This usually led to violent riots and clashes. The RUC and the B-Specials attacked the Civil Rights Marchers.
Pictures of the RUC attacking peaceful protests were shown on TV across the world – and the British government were embarrassed by the situation.
Eventually, the British government forced Unionists to agree to CIVIL RIGHTS for Catholics. Gerrymandering came to an end – and Catholics got a fairer say in JOBS and in HOUSING.

The Troubles (1968-80)
HOWEVER – “The Troubles” were only beginning
Battle of the Bogside * In August 1969 – rioting broke out in the Catholic Bogside area of Derry. This was caused by a March by the Unionist – Apprentice Boys in Derry. (at the same time as NICRA were!) * The Catholics blocked off the Bogside area using barricades. The Battle of the Bogside took place between Catholics and RUC Police. * The RUC baton-charged the civil rights marchers- injuring many young people including women and children. * Northern Ireland was on the brink of Civil war. * The British Army was sent in to NI to protect Catholics from Protestant attacks. (later) * Taoiseach, Jack Lynch, addressed the people of Ireland. He announced the setting up of field hospitals on the Donegal border and declared that the Irish government will 'no longer stand by and see innocent people injured or even worse'. * Bogside residents believed that Lynch would send the Irish Army in to their defence. (In reality, Irish Military planners admitted that an attack on the North would leave the south exposed to the threat of “retaliatory military action” by the UK forces) * STILL …Some Nationalists in the South believed that the Irish Army should be sent to Derry OR that GUNS be given to the Nationalists in the North to defend themselves.
The Arms Trial. * In the South - In 1970, Lynch even had to DISMISS two of his Ministers – Charles Haughey & Neil Blaney – because they did not support the government’s non-intervention policy on Northern Ireland * In fact, they were charged with the ILLEGAL importation of ARMS from Abroad – to be used by the Northern Nationalists to protect themselves. * The ARMS TRIAL – refers to the trial of these two men, for using Public Relief Fund monies for importing Arms. * This money was meant to help those Nationalists forced out of their homes. * They were subsequently ACQUITTED of all charges.
British Troops in NI… * The arrival of British troops in August 1969 – was welcomed by SOME of the Catholic population especially in Belfast. * They were successful for a while in reducing violence on the streets * HOWEVER – when Sinn Féin split in 1969 – so too did the IRA. * The OFFICIAL IRA moved away from violence but the PROVISIONAL IRA which were established began a more intense campaign of violence against the British forces in the North. * The “Provos” (whose political wing was provisional Sinn Féin) were prepared to attack Protestants , the RUC & the British Army in an attempt to FORCE them to accept a United Ireland.
Protestant Paramilitary Groups.
Protestant Groups were already using violence against Catholics – in the form of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA). (Ulster freedom fighters later)
INTERNMENT once again!
Brian Faulkner became the Northern PM in March 1971. * He decided DRASTIC MEASURES were needed to stop the growing violence. So he introduced INTERNMENT…. again * He ordered the wide-spread ARREST & DETENTION of anyone believed to be a Member of the IRA – without Trial & for as long as the RUC wanted to detain them! * On the 1st day of INTERNMENT – 342 suspected IRA men were arrested. Over the next 6 months – 2,357 people were arrested (1,600 released without questioning) * Most of those interned were Catholics – and they believed that Faulkner was “soft” on Protestant Paramilitary groups! Catholics were furious at Internment – especially as many suspects were very badly treated in police custody.
Sunday – Bloody Sunday! * Catholic OUTRAGE at internment reached fever-pitch on 30th January 1972, when a PEACEFUL demonstration against internment took place in Derry. * The British Army SHOT & KILLED 13 demonstrators, in what became known as BLOODY SUNDAY. * Many witnesses, including bystanders and journalists, testify that all those shot were unarmed. Five of those wounded were shot in the back. * This event increased support for the IRA, particularly after Lord Widgery’s official enquiry - exonerated the British troops- saying they had only been doing their job * In Dublin - The British embassy in Dublin was destroyed by a furious mob of demonstrators protesting over the Bloody Sunday Massacres. (the crowd of Protestors was estimated at between 20,000 and 30,000 strong) * The Irish government held a day of national mourning for those who died in the shootings. Schools, factories and offices closed, and bus and taxi services stopped running. Even the air network closed down for four hours.
DIRECT RULE comes in… 1972 * In March 1972 – in response to the rising violence – British Prime Minister Edward Heath SUSPENDED the Northern Ireland Parliament at Stormont and the Unionist government of Brian Faulkner. * Instead, DIRECT RULE was introduced whereby Northern Ireland was directly ruled by Westminster – and power was concentrated in the hands of a single representative of the British government – known as the SECRETARY of STATE for NORTHERN IRELAND. * Fifty years of devolution came to an end as direct rule was imposed. William Whitelaw was the First Secretary of State for Northern Ireland * DIRECT RULE did NOT stop the violence – in fact the Provisionals intensified their campaign and on Friday 21 July, 1972. They detonated 20 bombs in Belfast in the space of an hour! Nine people were killed and at least 130 maimed.

IRELAND in the 1970’s – 1. Ireland joins the EEC 2. During Jack Lynch’s time as Taoiseach – he negotiated Ireland’s entry into the EEC in 1973. 3. There were many benefits for Ireland: * The Common Agricultural Policy – helped farmers to almost DOUBLE their incomes – by encouraging trade and access to European Markets -& giving them grants to improve the efficiencey of their farm. * The European Structural Fund – gave money to poorer areas in Europe – to help them develop their infrastructure. ( road/rail networks in West improve) * Ireland became a FREE TRADE AREA * Irish citizens can now travel and work freely across Europe.
BUT...There were DRAWBACKS to membership of the EEC: * European Fishermen can fish in Irish waters – and they have better boats & equipment – so caching more fish – and reducing Irish fish stocks. * Cheap Foreign Imports – means Irish industry suffers!
1973- Fine Gael in Power
Liam Cosgrave (Fine Gael) became Taoiseach in 1973. * Ireland’s booming economy came to an end in the 1970’s because the oil producing nations (Arab nations) put an EMBARGO on oil to USA & European Countries ( they were mad that USA was supporting Israel in an Arab-Israeli war). This was known as the 1973 OIL CRISIS * The shortage of OIL caused Petrol/OIL prices to rocket! * This led to inflation and many Irish businesses had to close. Unemployment & emigration began to grow again. * In 1973 – unemployment was at 5.7% by 1985 – it was 17% * To finance the running of the country – the government began to borrow money from international banks. The budget deficit began to grow out of control!
In the North again… the 1970’s
Sunningdale Agreement- William Whitelaw (Secretary of State of NI) believed that the best long-term solution for Northern Ireland lay in persuading politicians from all sides to WORK together! This was called Power-Sharing.
In December 1973 the Sunningdale Agreement was signed. This meant that … 1. A new coalition government of Catholics & Protestatnts would be created. 2. This power-sharing government would have Brian Faulkner as its Prime Minister – the leader of the SDLP (1970) Gerry Fitt would be second in command. 3. A Council of Ireland would be established to co-operate with the Southern Government (mainly symbolic) first time that they are involving the Southern government in the running of Northern Ireland! 4. Most LOYALISTS opposed the agreement (they didn’t like the Council of Ireland idea). In an attempt to destroy it, the Ulster Worker’s Council organised a series of strikes. (cut off electricity & water supplies across Northern Ireland) 5. The UVF & the IRA continued their attacks and eventually Faulkner was forced to resign and the power-sharing executive COLLAPSED.
Northern Ireland… 1975 onwards * From 1975 – onwards – little co-operation was made towards political co-operation in Northern Ireland. * Internment was abandoned in 1975 (eases tensions) * A new crisis rose in 1980 when a number of IRA prisoners in the so-called H Blocks at the Maze prison went on Hunger-Strike * They went on strike, in protest at being forced to wear prison uniforms – they wanted “Special Status” because they were political prisoners and not ordinary criminals. * BLANKET Protests began - when prisoners only wore BLANKETS instead of their prison uniforms. * This was followed by DIRTY PROTESTS – whereby they smeared their prison cell walls with their own excrement * Bobby Sands - the leading IRA prisoner at the Maze began a hunger strike on 1 March 1981 and died just over 9 weeks later.(66 days) * Over the next 4 months - TEN more IRA political prisoners DIED on Hunger-Strike. * During his Hunger-Strike, Bobby Sands was elected MP to Westminster (abstention) and sympathy grew for Sinn Féin, which became more popular North & South of the Border. * Margaret Thatcher – the British PM refused to negotiate with the strikers. * She said- "We are not prepared to consider special category status for certain groups of people serving sentences for crime. Crime is crime is crime, it is not political". * Margaret Thatcher showed no regret for the eventual death of Bobby Sands, telling the House of Commons that, "Mr. Sands was a convicted criminal. He chose to take his own life. It was a choice that his organisation did not allow to many of its victims" * Under pressure from the SDLP, the Catholic Church and others – the strikes were called off in October 1981. * Shortly afterwards, most of the demands of the prisoners were granted – they were NOT, however, given “Political Prisoner Status”.

Over 3,200 people lost their lives in the Troubles 1969-1998 The END