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This essay will be critically evaluating the journal article - Exposure to music with prosocial lyrics reduces aggression: First evidence and test of the underlying mechanism by Tobias Greitemeyer.
Greitemeyer, T. (2011). Exposure to music with prosocial lyrics reduces aggression: First evidence and test of the underlying mechanism Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (47), 28-36.
In today’s society exposure to media is present in most people’s everyday life. According to Nielson Interactive Entertainment, people in Europe spend an average of 10.55 hours listening to music each week. Similarly the average young American listens to music 1.5 – 2.5 hours each day and this is not including the times they are exposed to music through the use of music videos (Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2003). Other research (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003) has also revealed that people consider music as an important aspect of their lives, in fact just as important as most of their other leisurely activities. This in turn leads to the suggestion that media exposure could indeed be an important determinant of pro and antisocial behaviour (Greitemeyer, 2008).
According to the author, in recent years previous research has primarily been focused on the negative effects of exposure to media in regards to social tendencies. For instance listening to aggressive music increases aggressive cognition, behaviour and affect, also playing anti social video games has been shown to have serious consequences such as physical violence or criminal actions (Greitemeyer, 2010). However, it has recently been argued that the effects of media exposure depend to a large extent on the content of the media. There has also been some research detailing that helping behaviour is promoted by exposure to prosocial videogames along with prosocial music.
Greitemeyer’s article is based on the positive effects of media exposure rather than the negative effects. According to the article the present research had two main aims. First of all it addressed whether exposure to prosocial music would decrease aggression and aggression related variables. Then it tried to clarify the casual mechanisms by which exposure to prosocial music decreases aggressive behaviour.
To support this idea the author presents five case studies which aid the researcher’s theory that listening to prosocial music decreases aggressive outcomes. The first three studies were relatively similar and focused on aggressive cognition and affect where as the fourth and fifth differed and focused on aggressive behaviour.
Studies 1-3 examined the effects of exposure to prosocial music on aggressive cognition and affect. Study 1 Anderson t al., (2003) examined the effects of exposure to antisocial music on the accessibility of antisocial thoughts. It was thought that the results would show that participants who had been exposed to the antisocial songs were more likely to generate aggressive word completions than those participants who were exposed to neutral songs, it was also thought that listening to prosocial music would decrease accessibility of antisocial thoughts in those who were exposed to prosocial songs, it was also thought that they were also expected to be less likely to generate aggressive word completions than those participants who were exposed to the neutral songs.
Study 2 was similar to study 1 however had the following modifications: Aggressive cognition was assessed differently this was done by assessing the participant’s attitudes toward war and violence. Generality was also tested and different songs by different artists were used. And the participants were from the UK (rather than Germany), and finally, the researcher controlled for the arousal route of the GLM. Participants arousal and positive and negative mood were measured and it was predicted that listening to prosocial music would lead to less positive attitudes toward war and violence.
Study 3 tested the effect of prosocial music exposure on aggressive cognition however, this was achieved by a different measure of aggression cognition being employed. This study also addressed the effects of exposure to prosocial music on aggressive affect. Anderson et al. (2003) cited in (Greitemeyer, 2008) have shown that participants who are exposed to antisocial songs report higher levels of state hostility than those who were exposed to neutral songs. It was expected that listening to prosocial music would reduce reported state hostility. This study also tested for potential moderating effects of trait aggression. According to the GLM, both person and situation variables can in fact influence aggressive behaviour. Previous research (Anderson et al. 2003) failed in their bid to find significant interactive effects between music exposure and trait aggression, however in comparison Bushman (1995) found that media violence was more likely to evoke aggressive affect and behaviour in high trait aggressive individuals compared to individuals with low trait aggression. There aren’t any clear expectations as to whether people high or low in trait aggression would be more susceptible to prosocial music exposure.
All 3 studies contained a small sample size (study 1-59, study 2-39, study 3-80), and excluded sex and interaction as either being non significant (study 1 & 2) or not taken into account as the sample size of men was too small (study 3). The studies all had 2 music conditions (prosocial vs. neutral), where participants were randomly assigned. Studies 1 & 2 contained filler tasks, study 1 was a word completion task and a coding scheme developed by Anderson and his colleagues was used to assess if a word is anti social or not. Study 2 employed the perceived arousal scale (Anderson, Deuser, & DeNeve, 1995), to assess arousal and mood. Emotion was also assessed by employing PANAS (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988). Participants then completed the revised attitudes toward violence scale (Anderson, Benjamin, Wood & Bonacci, 2006), which was assessed on a 5-point likert type scale.
Study 3 consisted of Buss and Perry (1992) questionnaire which was assessed on 5-point likert scale. Aggressive affect was tested through the use of the state hostility scale (Anderson et al., 1995),this was also assessed on a 5-point likert type scale. Aggressive cognition was then tested and this was achieved through the use of a word pair task. The task included 20 words, ten of which aggressive and ten ambiguous words. Bushman (1996) found that using these words found those who score high on trait hostility perceived greater similarity of meaning between pairs of words than those who scored lowly on trait hostility. Anderson et al. found that participants who listened to violent songs gave larger similarity ratings of aggressive-ambiguous pairs similar to their ratings of ambiguous-ambiguous and aggressive-aggressive word pairs. It was thought that listening to prosocial music would lead to smaller ratings of similarity of aggressive-ambiguous word pairs relative to ratings of ambiguous-ambiguous and aggressive-aggressive word pairs.
The hypothesis for studies 1-3 was supported by the results yielded. Study 1 showed exposure to prosocial music reduced the accessibility of aggressive thoughts. Study 2 extended this by using a different measure for aggressive cognition and by also controlling for both arousal and mood. Study 3 showed prosocial music exposure didn’t only decrease aggressive cognition but also aggressive affect.
However, although the results supported the hypothesis these 3 studies were done in a laboratory settings rather than a neutral setting such as a shop or restaurant (journal 3). This should be noted for future research. Also if a bigger sample size was used participants sex would perhaps prove significant. It was also good to see the writer to include a study with European participants instead of just the UK.
Study 4 differs slightly from the above and examines whether listening to prosocial music will effect anti social action. It was assessed whether listening to prosocial music would reduce rational aggressive behaviour.
The study included 90 students only 12 were male. To measure aggression the participants were asked to assess a student who had applied to be a researcher at the University of Sussex. They learned it was very competitive and employer wanted numerous evaluations of each of the people who had applied, and that their judgement would assist in determining if the student gets the job or not. This was assessed through questions based on the results of a 7-point likert type scale.
As in studies 1-3 sex was eliminated from the main analysis due to a lack of male participants. However as predicted participants in the prosocial condition judged the student in a more positive light than participants in the neutral condition. The author then goes on to state clearly that “one can have confidence that indeed the extent to which the songs are prosocial in content accounts for the effect of music exposure on aggression”(Greitemeyer, 2010: 33) He also states though it should be noted that the manipulation check could have affected the dependant variable. The manipulation check could have primed the concept of helping and this could lead to reduced aggressive responses. Study 5, however excludes the manipulation check to avoid the same thing happening.
Study 5 assesses aggressive behaviour, affect and cognition. Study 5 differs from study 4, this is because study 5 examines the effects of prosocial music exposure on direct, physical aggression toward a target person (provoke).
Study 5 consisted of 48 adults (24 women, 24 male), and led participants to believe they would be interacting with another individual. Both participants had to write an essay, the essay was exchanged with the other individual for comments. Once the essay was returned the other individual (the researcher) had written negative comments about their essay. Participants then listened to prosocial songs or neutral songs that they thought they would later evaluate. Measures of aggressive cognition, arousal and aggressive affect were taken. Participants responded to the state hostility scale, the perceived arousal scale and the RATVS. They were later asked to administer chilli sauce to the other participant, who they had already been made aware that they didn’t like spices at all but was willing to participate due to good payment. They could administer as much chilli sauce as they wanted. The other participant wouldn’t find out who administered the sauce. The participant tasted the sauce and poured the sauce in a cup. The administered amount was tested in grams and utilized as a behavioural measure of aggression (Fischer, Kastenmuller, & Mcgregor, 1999).
Study 5 gave some evidence in regards to the casual mechanism, and it seems that exposure to prosocial music decreases state hostility, which in turn reduces aggressive behaviour.
All in all the writer clearly stated his aim and supported this through the use of relevant case studies, although there are some critiques the studies combined together support the author and have generated supportive evidence for the predictive validity of the GLM for effects of listening to prosocial music on social outcomes. Also by listing media effects on aggressive behaviour and the mediating path, this offers the first test of the effects of prosocial media exposure on aggression and aggression related variables.

REFRENCES
Anderson, A.C. Nicholas, L.C. (2003). Exposure to violent media: The effect of song with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings Journal of Personality and social Psychology (5), 960-971.
Boulbry, G. Jacob, C. Gueguen, N. (2010). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on tipping behaviour in a restaurant Journal of Hospitality Management (29), 761-763.
Greitemeyer, T. (2008). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on prosocial thoughts, affect, and behaviour Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (45), 186-190.
Greitemeyer, T. (2011). Exposure to music with prosocial lyrics reduces aggression: First evidence and test of the underlying mechanism Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (47), 28-36.