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Content Page
Introduction P 1
Definition: Humor P 1
Different types of humor P 3
Styles of humor P 4
Affiliativehumor P 4
Self-enhancing humor P 4
Aggressive humor P 5
Self-defeating humor P 5
Authentic humor P 5
Humor process P 6
Psychological perspective P 6
Theories of humor P 7
Biological theories: Humor P 7
Superiority theories P 7
Release theories P 7
Incongruity theories P8
Psychoanalytical theories P 8
Reversal Theories P 8
Research in humor P 9
Defining: Aging and older adults P 9
Older adults P10
Theories of aging P11
Psychosociological theories P11
Biological theories: Aging P12
The function of humor P12
Psychological functions P13
Physical functions P14
Social functions P14
Humor and the older adult P14
Conclusion P16

Introduction:
The aim of this text is to explore, analyse, explain and review the critical points of current and past knowledge including important and meaningful findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to humor with regards to aging focussing particularly on the older adults. The central question in this study is “what is the function of humor in the day to day lives of the elderly/ older adults”? The aim is to understand humor from the perspective of the elderly individual. The aim of the research therefore tends itself to qualitative research. Not many qualitative studies has been done on humor and its effect on aging /aging adults, but the few qualitative studies that have been done provides interesting findings on the effects of humor (Olsson et a 2002) on older adults, how they view humor (Herth; 1993) and the different humor styles which are more likely to use (Damianakis and Marziali; 2011).
Because only a limited amount of qualitative studies have investigated humor in older adults, this review will make use of relevant quantitative studies in order to get a broader and greater understanding of humor in the lives of older adults. The review will start with definitions of humor which will then be followed by definitions of ageing and older adults, theories of ageing/ older adults and then relevant studies. The review will also include a brief descriptive phenomological understanding and finally end with the link between humor and older adults followed by a brief conclusion.
Definition: Humor
Every day we hear about humour, or a good or bad sense of humour, but what does humor really mean and where does the term come from. According to McGhere (1979); the term humor has its origin in the Latin word, meaning fluid or moisture. According to the ancient, medieval and renaissance physiology there were four basic bodily humors or fluids, namely; yellow bile,black bile, blood and phlegm. The four humors were assumed to play a major role in determining a person’s temperament, mood or general disposition (McGhere: 1979). A person in whom the four humors were in a correct balance came to be thought of as being in “good humor” whereas a person with any kind of in-balance was said to be “out of
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humor” or not himself. It is also important to note that humor means different things to different people. The Oxford English Dictionary defines humor as the quality of action, speech or writing which excites amusement, it goes further stating that it is the “quality of being amusing”, “a state of mind” (Soanes, Hawker & Elliott; 2005, p105).
According to Damianakis and Marziali (2010) humor is a universal aspect of human nature and is largely influenced by cultural context. In the case of older adults humour is viewed as a mark of having achieved strength and maturity (Simon; 1988). Simon(1988) futhermore came to the conclusion that humor is a “coping strategy” based on an individual’s cognitive appraisal of a stimulus which results in behaviour such as smiling, laughing or feeling of amusement when lesser emotional distress (Simon; 1988: p442). This is further emphasized by Capps (2006) when he states that humor is a mental solve for soothing the discomforts of human suffering and that it is a good medicine which has a preventive and curative function. These definitions suggest that humor can be an effective means of coping with stressful experiences and lessen their impact upon moods and emotions.
Based on the results of his study Herth (1993) defined humor as a health-promoting behaviour that enables the older adult to alter the perception of situations that could otherwise be frustrating. Many theorists and philosophers have looked at humor in terms of the self (individual) and social context and have found that humor is a “distinctive type of pervasive social process of interaction” which conveys information during the on-going process of social interaction (Martineau; 1972, pp 114;Berthia,2001, and Lefcort ,2002). Martin (2007) defines it as a human activity that occurs in all types of interactions.
Humor can also occur when one is by one self, for example,watching a comedy movie, or reading a cartoon strip. Researchers has found that the ways in which people especially older adults depend on their appreciation of humor and their individual preferences for humor sources are unique individuals(Damianakis and Marziali; 2011). It is a perceptual event connected with one’s sense of self, an expression of an unequally human capacity to adopt the experiences and situations that may be possible sources of humor
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(Kruise and Prazorky; 2006). Berthea (2001) nicely summarizes the various definitions that have just been mentioned into one sweet and short definition which states that humor is a complex linguistic, multi-dimensional, effective, psychological and communicative phenomenon.
It is evident from these definitions that humor is a broad term that is perceived as funny and tends to make others laugh, “as well as the mental processes that go into both creating and perceiving such an amusing stimulus and also the effective response in the enjoyment of it” (Martin;2007, p5). McGhere (1979) explains that humor can be related to various terms. Some of the most important related terms include “absurd, incongruous, ridiculous, ludicrous, funny, amusing and mirthful”. Humor can come in many shapes and forms, the different types of humor will be discussed next.
Different types of humor:
There are various, different types of humor according to Martin (2007). The humor that occurs in everyday life can be divided into three broad categories which include: (1) Jokes which are phrases or a paragraphs with a humorous twist which people memorize and pass on to one another. (2) Spontaneous, conversational humor which is “created intentionally by individuals during a conversation which can be either verbal or non-verbal”(Martin; 2007, p12).Most theorists and philosophers believe that this type of humor is the best way to connect with an audience. (3) Un-intentional or accidental humor, which are acts of making other people laugh without meaning to. These are “utterances or actions that are not meant to be funny” (Martin,2007; p14) a good example of this is slipping on a banana peel. Martin (2007) futhermore notes that is important to understand that there is not only verbal humor but non-verbal humor as well, this includes funny facial expressions, bodily gestures and mannerisms. Not many studies have been done on these types of humor with regard to the elderly/ older adults. In earlier years Freud identified fourteen different types of humor (Machovec; 1988). This included puns, displacements, nonsense, false logic, automatic errors of taught, unification contrast, out doing with, indirect allusion, omission, comparison, peculiar attributes, reproduction of old liberties and smutty (dirty) jokes. Different people are also perceived to manifest with different types of humor, this will consequently be looked at.

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Styles of humor
Many studies have been done on the different styles of humor that people are most likely to use. (Damianakis and Marziali; 2011, Nicholas and Leite (2010), Martin, Puhlik, Gray & Weir, 2003; Kruise and Barbara; 2006 and Kuiper et al; 2010). According to Martin (2003) humor styles can be divided into adoptive and maladaptive humor styles. Adoptive (also known as self-deprecating) styles include self-enhancing and affiliative styles that protect the self, whereas maladaptive (known as hostile humor) styles include self- defeating and aggressive styles which is used to hide negative feelings and to avoid dealing constructively with problems. Authentic humor is also to be considered.
According to Lefcourt (2002) self-deprecating (adaptive) humor is when a person laugh at him/herself while undergoing stress which can lessen the emotional impact of those stressful events and hostile humor (maladaptive) is an aggressive means of controlling others and therefore less likely to lessen or to relieve the emotional impact when on the receiving end of a stressful experience.
Kruiper et al (2010) found that using adaptive humor makes people feel significantly more positive and less negative about themselves and therefore adaptive humor styles with specific reference to affiliative humor is the most frequently used regardless of the group being rated. Self-enhancing humor is the second most frequently used and the two maladaptive styles are used less often. The different styles of humor will consequently be discussed in more detail.
Affiliative humor
This is the use of humor to amuse others and facilitate relationships. This humor is beneficial and it makes it easier to develop and gain a positive interpersonal relationship. It is used to win the friendship or support of others through telling jokes, sharing humor and laughing with others (Martin et al, 2003).
Self-enhancing humor
This is the use of humor to cope with stress and maintain a humorous outlook during times

of difficulty. Martin et al (2003) views this as a beneficial humor styles that corresponds with the ability to form a positive optimistic relationships despite the presence of stressful and difficult life situations/ problems.
Aggressive humor
This is the use of sarcastic, manipulative, put down or disparaging humor intended to harm others. This humor style might alienate or hurt others (Kuiper et al ,2010). It is usually used to feel superior to others. In this regard Damianakis and Marziali (2011) refer to a sick humor because it be-littles others and it uses socially unacceptable or inappropriate jokes, for example on jokes about death, deformity, race, ethnicity and social class.
Self-defeating humor
This is when people make fun of themselves for the enjoyment of others. Kuiper et al. (2010) refer to this type of humor as self-deprecation. Martin (2003) states that this type of humor is essentially harmful to one’s self esteem. It is mainly used to gain acceptance from others.
Authentic humor
McFadden (1990) emphasizes that authentic humor is expressed in the context of stressful life events where the experience of pain and loss is suspended temporarily. In order to involve trust and hope for the future and affirm personal meaning in the present. Damianakis and Marziali (2011) found that authentic humor is involved in life contexts that are either unpredictable or inevitable such as physical decline associated with normal aging. This type of humor helps people to accept lifes challenges and difficulties and attempts to adapt to what cannot be changed. The qualitative study by Damianakis and Marziali (2011) show that older people /adults use authentic humor to cope with an increased loss of function as they age. They found that authentic humor appeared to portray the individual’s identity with being an older person and his or her adaptation to what cannot be changed in the aging process and that it might have a powerful effect on maintaining well-being while aging in one’s community. A qualitative study by Damianakis and Marziali (2011) found that
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the most frequently occurring styles of humor in the older adults narrative was affiliative humor. Martin et al (2003) found that older adults had lower scores on both affiliative and aggressive forms of humour and were less likely to use humor to disparage or control others. McFadden (1990) found that older people are also likely to use a combination of self-defeating and self-enhancing humor. This combination might be that older adults have experienced life and may represent the growing wisdom as reflected in the older adults’ ability to laugh at themselves and not take themselfs too seriously. Humor processes will be discussed.
Humor process
Berk (2001) emphasized that the humor process can be divided into three elements which includes the, (1) stimulus which is the humor, (2) the emotional response (mirth) and the, (3) physical response or behaviour (laughter). The emotional response results in psychological effects whereas the physical response results in physiological effects. Various studies has been done on the physiological and psychological benefits of humor in the lives of older adults, (Bethea, 2001; Berk 2001; Capps 2006;; Olsson et al,2002,Tse et al(2010); Simon, 1988 and Wanzer et al ,2009. These studies support the premise that humor can assist in the aging process in a number of positive ways. They found that for example, older adults who use humor to cope often report less distress in their lives. McGhere (1979) also states that the humor process starts with a stimulus then the recipient and finally the reaction which is usually laughter and smiling, verbal statements or physiological arousal. Martin (2007) states that the humor process can be viewed from three different perspectives: (1) the psychological perspective, (2) the cognitive perspective and (3) the emotional perspective.
Psychological perspectives
This perspective divides the humor process into four important components, (1) social context which implies that humor takes place in a social environment with others. (2) A cognitive perceptual process which states that humor is an intellectual activity, for example we first have to understand a joke in order to experience the humorous effect. (3) The emotional response which is the physiological arousal and finally (4) the vocal behavioural expression of laughter.
Cognitive perspective
This perspective views humor as a perceptual processes, which is characterised by a particular sort of cognitions and intellectual abilities. It is when the individual mentally process information coming from the environment or from memory. When the individual is able to play with ideas words or actions in a creative way and thereby generating a witty verbal utterance or a comical non-verbal action that is perceived by others as being funny (Martin, 2007).
Emotional perspective
This perspective emphasizes the fact that humor increases well-being and is closely related to feelings of joy, and happiness. It allows the individual to forget about life’s adversities and for a moment allows the individual to life in a more positive and less serious way. According to Martin (2007) this is known as mirth.

Theories of humor
There are many different theories on humour but most research on older adults focussed on three major types of humor theories which include the superiority theory, the incongruity theory and the release theory (Kruse and Prazak; 2006 and Olsson et al, 2002).
Superiority theories
This theory claims that people laugh at the misfortune of others. Keith Spiegel; (1972) states that it is the roots of laughter in triumph over other people or circumstances, it is based on the premise that as people we laugh down at others. “It’s basic drive is to humiliate, to subjugate to disparage” (Machovec 1988; 30).According to Martin (2007) the superiority theory holds the idea that humor has an aggressive and hostile motive.
Release theories
This theory claims that the purpose of humor is to provide relief from tension and social conflict. According to Keith Spiegel et al (1972) which is also known as relief theories because the function of humor is to relief from strain or constraint or release excess tension and relief of tension occurs through the physical act of laughing.
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Incongruity theories
This theory states that a sudden shock of conflict is necessary to produce laughter (Kruze&Prozak; 2006). According to martin (2007) this theory focuses more specifically on cognition and give less attention to social and emotional aspects of humor, he states that emotional aspects of humor, he states that these theories suggest that the perception of incongruity is the crucial determinant of whether or not something is humorous or not. The theory suggest that humor occurs when there is a “mismatch or clash between our sensory perception of something and our abstract knowledge or concepts about that thing” (Martin; 2007, 63).
Research in humor
The studies that have been done on humor deals with a wide variety of issues. Most of the studies that were done on humor have entered the domains of psychology, philosophy, history, sociology, literature and linguistics. The aim of this study is the functional aspect of humor, trying to explain the purpose or function of humor, specifically the impact of humor in dealing with aging .
Defining: Aging and older adults
According to Atchley and Barusch (2004), aging is a broad concept that includes the physical changes in individuals’ bodies over adult life, psychological changes in the individuals’ minds and mental capacities, social psychological changes in what individuals think and believe and social changes in how the individual is viewed, what individuals can expect and what is expected of individuals. Aging is defined here as “the transformation of the human organism after the age of physical maturity so that the probability of survival decreases and it is accompanied by regular transformations in appearance, behaviour, experience and social roles” (Erber, 2005; p329). Erber (2005, p9), states that aging begins at birth and continues throughout life. However the present research emphasis is on the aging that takes place from the point of maturity (once adulthood is attained) and continues into the later years. The main focus will thus be on older adulthood. Cavanaugh and Blanchard – fields (2011) highlights three distinct processes of aging which includes primary aging which is the normal, disease free development during adulthood, secondary aging which is the developmental changes that are related to disease, lifestyle and other environmental induced changes that are not inevitable. Finally: Tertiary Aging is the rapid losses that occur shortly before death. Aging therefore can be viewed as the process of getting old.

Older adults
There are various alternative terms that can be used to refer to older adults; these terms include elderly, senior citizens, older people and old age (Belsky, 1999). According Erber (2005); there is no set rule about when an individual is considered to be an older adult. But age 65 has come to signify the official age of entry into older adulthood. The notes that there is a tremendous amount of variability amongst people aged 65 and older (65+). This might be because people are different. One person might have health problems and others not because of genetic or different lifestyles, for example some 65 year olds are fully retired from their paid labour force, whereas others work full time, some 75 year olds may suffer from severe health problems while others are healthy and active or some 80year olds might have hearing or memory problems whereas others can hear and remember perfectly fine.
Because of the variability in individuals who are 65 and older categories based on chronological age has been introduced. Erber (2005) identifies these categories as young old (ages 65-74), old – old (ages 75-85) and oldest (old age 85+). Herth (1993) defines old age as a time when adaptation and coping becomes more important because of potential failing body functions, increased physical loss as well as emotional and social loss.
Old age is a period in which people are more prone to sickness, death and anxiety (they might fear that they will be dying soon)’ they might be more prone to loneliness because their spouse passed away (widower or widow). These are just a few of the challenges that the elderly might have to face, there are many more. It is important to note that old age should not only be seen as a negative time in one’s life but it can also be positive. Cavanaugh and Blanchard- Fields (2010) and many other theorists refer to this as successful aging, for example (Erber, 2005 and Gubrium& Holstein, 2000).
Successful aging according to Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2010, p546) is “the avoidance of disease and disability, maintenance of cognitive and physical function and sustained engagement with life”. Research has shown that the use of humor in older adults might contribute to successful aging (Houston, Mckee Carroll and Marsh, 1998; Westburg, 2003; Sparks Bethea, 2001). These studies show that as people age they have the tendency to use humor to deal with the negative side of aging, e.g. making fun of memory lapses.
Theories of Aging
There are several different theories on aging according to Belsky (1999) this can be divided into the physical dimension, the cognitive dimension, the emotional dimension and the social dimension. Erber (2005) divides the theories into psych-sociological theories and biological theories. These theories are central for understanding the older adult and relevant to the research question or topic at hand.
Psychosociological theories
The basic premise of this theory is that as people grow older, their behaviour changes, their social interactions change and the activities in which they engage change. (Cavanaugh and Blanchard-fields, 2010 and Erber, 2005). There are four psychosocial theories namely: Disengagement theory, this theory originated from early findings from the Kansas city study on adult on adult life that indicated that in later middle age people begin to show signs of withdrawal from social and emotional relationships (Erber, 2005) implies that older adults are less involved with life than they were as younger adults and that social and psychological withdrawal is a necessary component of successful aging.
The activity theory suggests that older adults have the same social wants and needs as young and middle aged adults (Erber, 2005). He states that according to the activity theory older adults strive to maintain their level of interaction by substituting new roles when old roles are no longer available for example a man who retires from paid employment might become involved in volunteer work or a woman who loses her husband might join a new social group. This theory basically emphasizes the importance of on-going social activity. Erber (2005) emphasizes five important assumptions that this theory makes. (1) There is an abrupt beginning of old age. (2) The process of aging leaves people alone and cut-off.
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(3) People should be encouraged to remain active and develop own aged friends. (4) Standards and expectations of middle age should be projected to older age. (5) Aging persons should be encouraged to expand and be involved. The life course theories emphasize that experiences cannot be understood without appreciating what came before childhood and adolescence (Cavanaugh and Blanchard –fields, 2010) Experiences during aging are shaped by historical factors.
The last theory that describes psychosocial aging is the continuity theory. Erber (2005), Cavanaugh and Blanchard-fields (2010) highlight the important assumption of this theory stating that older people / adults try to preserve and maintain internal and external structures by using strategies that maintain continuity. This means that older people may seek to use familiar strategies in familiar areas of life. In later life, adults tend to use continuity as an adaptive strategy to deal with changes that occur during normal aging. They state that changes come about as a result of the aging person’s reflecting a past experience and setting goals for the future.
Biological theories: Aging
These theories attempt to explain why people age. Cavanaugh and Blanchard-fields (2010 and Erber (2005), state that the biological theories can be divided into two groups. The first group states that aging is natural and programmed into the body and the second group says that aging is a result of damage which is accumulated over time. Cavanaugh and Blanchard-fields (2005) identify three theories which includes (1) the rate of living theories which states that organisms have only so much energy to expend in a life time, (2) cellular theories focuses on the number of times cells can divide which may limit the life-spans of older adults and finally (3) the programmed cell death theories which emphasizes the effects of genetics on the aging process. It is the “innate ability of cells to self-destruct and the ability of dying cells to trigger key processes in other cells” (Cavanaugh and Blanchard-fields, 2010; p22)
The function of humor
There has been many studies done on the effects or functions of humor, (Berk, 2001; Bethea, 2001; Capps, 2006; Herth, 1993; Kruse and Prazak, 2006; Richman, 2007; Simon, 1988; Sparks and Frymrer ,2009 ; Tse et al, 2010: and Wanzer, 2009).

Most of these studies have shown that humor and laughter have many therapeutic effects on the body. It does not only improve a persons’ mood and emotional state, but it also has many social and physical health benefits. Olsson (2002) states that it creates a warm climate, promotes good interpersonal relationships and relief’s feelings of frustration, anxiety or hostility. He emphasizes that the purpose of humor and laughter depends on a multitude of aspects such as the communicators and receives different perspectives on humor and their cultural heritage. Olsson (2002) found that humor can serve as a means to bridge the metal and intellectual distance between people of deferent backgrounds and cultures. He also found that laughter as the result of humor can create both closeness and distance between individuals.
Richman (2006) found that humor can be used as a therapeutic procedure to overcome death anxiety. He found that laughter can help people confront negative emotions and deal more fruitfully with problems in life. According to Richman (2006) using humor as a therapeutic procedure will result in decreased anxiety and the pleasure of being able to laugh at what is found.
Humor also serves as a viable means of helping individuals, organisations or both to cope with stress, improve relationships and even improve job satisfaction (Maran and Massam, 2009, Wanzer, Sparks and Frymrer, 2009). A study by Tse et al (2010) shows that humor has the ability to decrease chronic pain and enhance happiness
The functions of benefits of humor can be divided into the following:
Psychological functions
According to Martin (2007) psychological functions can be grouped into three broad categories which include (1) cognitive and social benefits of the positive emotion of mirth, (2) uses humor for social communication and influences, (3) tension relief and coping with adversity. This is evident in the study done by Bethea (2001) when she found that humor helped the older adults to maintain a more positive attitude while bringing about better
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understanding and awareness to their lives. Humor was also found to have a positive effect on a persons’ life by easing problems and pain, makes life less stressful and more balanced and it helped older adults to accommodate others more easily.
Physical functions
Herth (1993) found that humor initiates stimulation, relaxation response on the various body systems, similar to the response found to exercise. Berk (2001) explains that there are seven specific physiological benefits that involve the central nervous, muscular, respiratory, circulatory endocrine, immune and cardio-vascular systems. He states that older adults who make use of humor in their daily lives have been found to improve their mental functioning, exercise and relaxe muscles, improve respiration, stimulate circulation, decrease stress hormones, increase the immune system’s defences and increase the production of endorphins.
Social functions
Studies have shown that people using humor effectively and making it part of their lives will help avoid loneliness, make them feel good, change their behaviour and enhances their ability to affiliate or connect to others (Herth, 1993: Robinson, 1991 and Metts and Bowers, 1994). The study by Berthea (2001) indicates and shows that a laugh serves as a confirmation of understood meaning, an invitation for continued communication, and means for prolonging affiliation. According to Damianakis and Marzial (2011) having a sense of humor can contribute to sustaining on optimal quality of life in a variety of interpersonal contexts, such as relationships with family members, friends, health care providers and spiritual leaders.
Humor and the older adult
The effects of humor on the lives of the elderly are subjectively experienced, people are not the same, everyone is unique and the ways in which each individual develops differs from another. This means that humor has different functions for different people and what one person views as humorous may not be humorous for another.

A sense of humor in the lives of older adults is extremely important. A qualitative study done by Bethea (2001) indicated that humor is an important behavioural skill from which older adults benefit in their everyday lives, he found that humor functions cognitively, affectively and behaviourally in the life’s of older adults. Silva and Boemer (2009) asked a group of older adults (60 years of age and older) what it is like to reach this age? Their results showed that the older adults’ main concerns are to show that they do not lose their identity because they age and that, sometimes, in spite of their chronological age, they do not feel aged.
It is important to understand that society has created certain stereotypes about the older adults, they portray the older adults as senile, unhappy and they use aging as a synonym of disease and death.(Silver and Boemer 2009) As shown by the various studies mentioned above. Having a sense of humor can contribute to sustaining an optimal quality of life in a variety of ways. Older adults can use humor and laughter as expressions of hopefulness about dealing with inevitable realities of physical decline and death. It helps them to escape the many challenges accompanied by the aging process and gives them a sense of freedom (Wenzer and Frymer, 2009). Herth (1993) found that the key elements in older adults’ description of humor included the perception that humor is a form of constructive (healthy) verbal/ non-verbal communication that invites a range of positive uplifting feelings/ responses. They sorted the function of humor into six categories which included connectedness, relaxation, restoration, freedom, joy and perspective. An important statement that is important to consider is made by Capps (2006), 393 when he states that “men have three religions – honour, hope and humor – the greatest of this is humor” This is true for most importantly for older adults because it is to shield against the negative stereotypes and it will give them a sense of identity and to not take life seriously.
When looking at humor in relation to older adults it is important to understand that humor does not only have benefits but risks as well, The sources of humor that older adults are likely to prefer need to also be considered and much humor is considered too much. Berk (2001) explains that despite the benefits of humor, physiological effects of laughter on the body can also be risky for older adults with serious medical conditions. For example, a small number of people have experienced narcoleptic reactions to laughter including seizures and catalectic, horcoleptic attacks (Berk, 2001).
It is important to understand that different people find different things funny. Olsson et al found that senior adults tend to laugh at other people and themselves in shared common predicaments and embarrassments. Their sense of humor is usually characterised as more subtle, more tolerant and less judgemental about the differences in people.
Conclusion
Humor plays an important role in the lives of the elderly people, helping them to cope with stressful life events as well as the physical, cognitive and social deterioration accompanied by the aging process. It provides both pleasure and relief for the elderly. To date research on the benefits and functions for aging adults seem to support the premise that humor can assist in the aging process in a number of positive ways, helping them deal with negative stress. Studies have shown that humor can assist in soothing the discomforts of human suffering therefor humor serves as a good medicine of preventive and curative sort from life’s challenges especially in older adults and when it cannot prevent, it serves as a tactic to distract from stressful realities.

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